WRITTEN BY A VICTORIAN

2012

Geography Elective

(Combined) The Republished 2012 Edition

Lim Ting Jie - VS Class of 2011

T H E A U T H O R W A S T A U G H T B Y M I S S R A K S H A

CHAPTER 1: NATURAL VEGETATION

Biome profile (Rainforest, Monsoon and Coniferous) Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon forest Temperature coniferous forest

Dense and abundant vegetation growth,

very luxuriant V

Less dense than rainforest, more

open, less luxuriant V Dense and abundant in coniferous trees V

30 m - 50 m

E

25 m - 30 m

C

20 m - 30 m

E

Made up of

tallest trees

To reach out for

sunlight

Fewer non-parastic plants

Evergeen and

found close

together

To withstand strong winds 15 m - 30 m

C Continuous

and inter-

locking

Prevents sunlight from

reaching forest floor

6 m - 15 m

U.

S

6 m - 15 m

U.S

Uniform height

and conical

shaped

Sways instead of toppling Smaller trees with narrow crowns -

Few non-parastic plants

5 m - 6 m S

0 m - 6 m

U.G Little under-

growth

0 m - 5 m

U.G

Tree saplings and woody plants Dense vegetation,

more under-

growth, shed

leaves

Sunlight able

to reach the

ground when

trees

Poorly leeched soils

0 m - 5 m

U.

G

Little sunlight reaches floor

Sparse

vegeta-

tion

Little sunlight reaches the

floor as emergent and canopy

areas spread out like umbrellas

Thin layer of leaf litter

Needle-shaped leaves do not

favour fast decomposition

Examples Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon forest Temperature coniferous forest

Canopy

Lianas (thick woody vines, up to 90m), Epiphytes (grows on trees

for support, rainwater and decaying leaves land on for supply of

water and nutrients), Raflessia (parasitic, competes with host

tree, causing the death of the tree)

Teak, sandalwood and sal -

Understorey Shrubs, ferns and small young trees - -

Undergrowth Small plants, ferns, fungi, saprophytes, decaying leaves Thick shrubs, bamboo

(thickets), grasses and herbs Mosses and lichens

Tropical equatorial rainforest

Tropical monsoon Tropical mangrove Temperate coniferous

Diversity

of plant

species

Largest diversity of plant species in

all biomes Mostly hardwoods Made up of halophytes (salt-tolerant plants)

Softwood found in the trees, which grow in pure stands

Useful

species

Keruing, Kapur,

Chengal, Meranti Sal Sandalwood

Avi-

cenn

ia

Son-

nera-

tia

Rhizo-

phora

Bru-

geria

Sea

hibis-

cus

Nipah

palm Fir Spruce Pine

Making furniture For fuelwood For making

incense

Cons-

truction

materials

Me-

dicine

Fire-

wood Charcoal Food

Pa-

per Pulp

Mat-

ches

Fur-

ni-

ture

Chem

. pro-

ducts

Summary

Large variety of

plants due to high

year round

temperatures and

rainfall, 750 species of trees

and 1500 of plants/ha

Fewer species due to

inconsistent rainfall, 200 species/ha

Plants have to be adapted to growing in salt

water

Plants have to be adapted to low

temperatures and precipitation,

1-3 species/area

Density Extremely dense

and abundant

Abundant but less

dense than tropical

rainforest during dry

season

Mostly similar to tropical

rainforest during wet

season

Sparse d

uring dry

season

Dense and luxuriant Not dense

Reasons High temperatures

and rainfall

Crowns do

not interlock

to form a

continuous

canopy,

denser

undergrowth

More

abundant

leaves

Plants lose/sh

ed

their leave

s High temperatures

and rainfall

Canopy competes

continuously for sunlight

resulting in sparse

undergrowth

Low temperatures and

precipitation

Tropical mangrove Tropical equatorial rainforest Tropical monsoon Temperate coniferous

Leaves S

ecre

te

exce

ss s

alt

Abso

rb

salt

and

st

ore

them

in

old

le

aves

Char

acte

rist

ics

sim

ilar

to e

quat

oria

l cl

imat

e

Ever-green

No shedding of leaves

Large and

broad

Waxy with drip tips

Deciduous (shed leaves during dry

season)

Bamboo plant have narrow leaves during dry season

Mostly

evergreen

Needle-like

Store water during winter

Reasons

Avi

cenn

ia

Son

nera

tia

Rhiz

ophor

a

Bru

guie

ra

High

cons-

tant

rainfall

through

-out the

year

Constant

rainfall,

loss of

water

need not

be highly

reduced

To

maximise

surface

area for

photo-

synthe-

sis

To allow

rainwater to drain

off easily to

prevent bacteria

from growing on

them (as high

temperatures

promote growth

of bacteria)

To minimise

loss of

water

through

trans-

piration

To minimise

of loss water

through

transpiration

due to lack of

water during

dry season

So th

at photosynth

esis

can occur all the tim

e

To

reduce

loss due

to

trans-

piration

The

ground

will be

frozen

and

little

water

available

To regulate the

amount of salt in the

tree as they grow in

salt water

Flowers

and

fruits

Avi. Brugeria Rhizo- Colourful and sweet smelling, present all

year round Usually only present during dry season

Bear cones

Colourful

bright red

lantern

shape -

Attract

insects: for

pollination

phora

Fruits Waves/ Male Female

Traits

and Pros

currents carry

buoyant fruits to

new

places to

take root

elongated,

sharp tips

- Anchor

firmly in

muddy soil

Still air at canopy area do not allow

pollination to be carried out by wind and

can only rely on insects for pollination

and animals for dispersal

They are leafless during this period

Produce

pollen

Produce seeds

(dispersed by

wind or animals)

Protect the seeds from

the cold

Bark and

branches

Thin and smooth

barks

Branches found

only on the top

one-third of the

trunks

Thick and coarse

Located

around the

middle of

trunks

Thick

barks

Flexible

branches

Conical

shape

(some)

Pros

No need for

protection against

cold or dry

conditions

Emergent and

canopy layers

branches spread

out like umbrellas

to get maximum

sunlight

Protects

trunk from

heat and

dryness

during dry

season

Withstand

extreme

heat from

natural

forest

fires

Sunlight

better able

to reach the

lower parts

of the

forest

Protect from

long cold w

inters

Snow can

slide off

easily

prevent-

ing

breakage

With

stand

strong wind

s by

swaying

Tropical equatorial

rainforest Tropical monsoon

Tropical mangrove Temperature coniferous

Roots

Shallow and spread widely

Buttress roots

present Deep roots

Aerial roots / Pnuematophores (exposed during low tide)

Prop / Stilt roots Kneed roots

Shallow and spreading roots

Pros

Roots do

not need to

reach deep

into soil for

water and

nutrients

To

support

the great

weight of

the trees

To tap

water

sources

deep under

the ground

Avicennia Sonneratia Rhizophora Brugeria

To absorb water easily

from soil surface when

snow melts, as during

winter, snow falls instead

of rain

Peg-like,

thick base

Pencil-like, able

to grow 30m high

To anchor trees

firmly in muddy soil,

protecting coastal

areas from strong

waves

To provide

firm

support on

soft soil

Exposed during low tide and able

take in oxygen from the air

during this period

Roots are specially adapted to oxygen-deprived soil

Reasons

Leaf litter decomposes

and humus form to

supply nutrients to the

topsoil

Rainfall is

not regular

throughout

the year

The trees grow on soft and waterlogged soil that lacks oxygen

Precipitation is low

throughout the year,

resulting in little water in

the ground

Biome profile (Mangrove)

Zone Coastal zone Middle zone Inland zone

Species of trees Avicennia and Sonneratia Rhizophora Bruguiera

Types of roots Aerial roots / Pnuematophores Prop / stilt roots Knee-like roots

Tolerance in salt water

Shor

e

Sanility

Inundation (water

cover)

Soil stability

Density of leaves

Distance from sea

Increases

Increases

Functions of forests

Habitat

for flora

and

fauna

Habitat for

people Water treatment

Green lungs of

the Earth Medical uses Water catchment

Protecting

coasts

Preventing

floods

Home to

more than

half the

species in

the world

About 60

million people

live in tropical

rainforests of

SA, SEA &

Africa

Mangrove forests

process waste

materials like dead

animals and human

waste carried by

water

Forests

prevent global

temperatures

from rising

Some plants in

forests have

medicinal value,

which some has

yet to be fully

explored

Enable water to be

collected, stored and

maintained

Mangroves

are able to

protect

coastal

areas

Roots

reduce

chance of

the river

overflo-

wing banks

Quantity

maintenance

Quality

main-

tenance

Tigers

and rare

animals

Tropical

rain-

forest

in Penin-

sular

Malay-

sia

Grizzly

bears

Coni-

ferous

forests

of

North

America

Hunter

gatherers

Korubu tribe

in Amazon

hunts wild

animals

Gathers

leaves for

subsis-tence

Shifting

cultivators

Grow crops

on forest

land cleared

by burning

Roots of mangrove

trees help trap

waste materials

and filter water

before it flows

into sea

Soil contains

bacteria that can

break down

biodegradable

waste, converting

into nutrients for

themselves

Some countries

channel sewage

portions to

mangrove forests

to treat waste

During

photosyn-

thesis

Forests take

in carbon

dioxide, a

greenhouse

gas produced

by humans

Release

oxygen,

replenishing

oxygen supply

This helps

regulate

temperature

on Earth

Sarawak

Calophyllum has a

compound that

may be able to

prevent full-

blown AIDS

Brazillian

rainforest

Quinine from

Cinchona in can

be used to treat

malaria

Coniferous forests

Cough syrup

from barks of

Eastern white

Pine trees

Leaves and branches

intercept rain falling on

ground surface

Acts as a

barrier

from

strong

waves

and

storms

In 2004

Indian

Tsunami ,

it pro-

tected

coasts of

Southern

India

from

destruc-

tion

Soil

erosion

is slower

Soil

makes

the river

bed

shallower

Ability

of the

river to

contain

the

water is

in-

creased

with

roots

Less surface

runoff More

groundwater

Rivers and

reservoirs

Vegetation

transpires to

release water

vapour into

the

atmosphere,

encouraging

cloud

formation and

rain

Less

soil

par-

ticles

are

wash

ed

into

near-

by

rivers

and

reser

-viors

Rnfst

Mnsn

Mngr

Cnfs

Functions of forests

Research and

education Chemicals Food Recreation Timber

Fuelwood and

charcoal

New medicines and

varieties of crops

developed

Some useful

chemicals are

extracted from

forests

Forests also

provide people

with food (e.g.

Borneo:)

Provides ecotourism to

many city-dwellers

Timber can be used to

make furniture and paper

and construct buildings

Wood and charcoal is

used for cooking and

heating for 2 billion

people in the world

New medicine and crops

Banana, coffee and

cocoa are cultivated

for food, new ones are

constantly discovered

Effect on ecosystems

on life

Scientists study

interactions between

forest, animals and

plants like the effect

of weather

Mangrove trees

in East Africa

Tannin from

Rhizophora

treat leather

Tree sap

Black dyes

Pine and fir

trees

Resin Wood

varnish and

ointments

Sago from sago

palm

High in starch

concentration

Edible ferns

Midin

Forests provide

the perfect

location for

animal hunting

Wild deer for

meat

Rafting, hiking and bird-

watching is engaged so

that the environment is

not harmed

Otherwise, tourists

entering the forests

have to follow rules and

regulations

Tamam Negara in

Malaysia is promoted as

ecotourism to gain

income while protecting

the forest

Tropical forests

Chengal and meranti

trees

Rattan for furniture

and baskets

Coniferous forests

Pine trees

Mangrove forests

Leaves of Nipah palm

can be made into

thatched roofs

Monsoon forests

Bamboo for buildings

Less developed

countries like Asia

and Africa gather

wood from forests

as fuel

Rhizophora is being

cut down to make

charcoal in the

Matang Forest

Reserve in

Peninsular Malaysia

Rnfst

Mnsn

Mngr

Cnfs

Causes of deforestation

Forest fires

( Forest fire control)

Most of the forest fires are deliberately set up by people

Plantation companies start forest fires to clear large areas of rainforest for growing oil palm

Some of the fires are also due to dry weather

Vegetation debris that are left on the forest floor like branches and twigs catch fire easily

Caused deforestation of more

than 23750 km2 of Kalimantan

between 1997 and 1998

Demand for

agricultural

landuse

Causes increase in demand for land which result in population pressure in area near forests

New settlers near forests permanently clear forests to grow crops in small holdings

Small farms such as rice and cocoa are grown for own use, for sale and profit

Indonesian government population

programme eases overcrowding in

islands like Java and Sumatra

Causes of deforestation

Growth of

settlements

As population increases and settlements become crowded, more land is cleared for

housing

People start moving from rural settlements to urban settlements to live and

work due to more opportunities for employment

Rainforests are cleared

Balkapapan in East Kalimantan is a business

centre for many national companies dealing with

mining and oil extraction and this reduced the

are from 98.7 km2 to 35 km2 in one year

Improved

transport

networks

Roads and railway tracks are constructed to link settlements in Kalimantan

Allow access to previously remote forested areas in Kalimantan

Lengths of forest trees had to be cut down to clear the path

Trans-Kalimantan Highway between Balikpapan

and Banjarmasin is 230 kilometres long and cuts

through rainforests. This has made it easier for

people to destroy more forest areas.

Growth of

industries

( Logging control)

Logging (timber being cut down and sold)

Pace of logging is increased by timber companies to ensure that the processing

facilities are fully utlitised

Mining (extraction of gold, silver and copper underneath the forests)

Vegetation has to be cleared to expose the ground underneath

A large hole has to be created, exposing loose soil

1656 km2 of forest is removed West

Kalimantan annually

A mining company was awarded a contract to

mine 1290 km of the rainforest since 1980.

Large expanse has been cleared.

Problems caused by deforestation

Loss in

biomass

/diversity ( Af/refo- restation)

Stored energy of the organisms represents the total amount of food available on Earth

Ability of the rainforests to support various plant and animal life is reduced as the food chain is

adversely affected.

Survival of herbivores and carnivores will be threatened due to the loss of plant food sources.

Biodiversity of plants and animals in the Kalimantan forests are reduced

Extinction of species in

the Kalimantan may result.

The Proboscis monkey in

the Kalimantan rainforest

is being endangered.

Changes in

the

nutrient

cycle

Less leaf litter

Less decomposed

material

Slower fertility rate

Lack of vegetation cover

No protective cover for soil

Soil exposed to rain and erosion

Loss of soil nutrient

Roots are absent

Absorption of rain reduced

Soils are leached topsoil becomes

infertile cannot support growth

Little of original

vegetation can be replaced

back and cleared land is

unsuitable for cultivation

Vast

changes in

water

Droughts - Less transpiration Cloud formation is reduced Rainfall is lowered

Floods - Roots are not present Soil is loose Eroded and goes into rivers Decrease river

capacity

Muddy waters - Increased amounts of soil Increased sediment level of rivers Unclean waters

Acidity of rivers - Increased amounts of soil Increased sediment level of rivers Water

becomes more acidic Inversely affects aquatic life in the rivers Less fish catch by fishermen

Droughts have been

caused during 1997-98

Severe floods in 2001 in

Samarinda and

Balikpapaen

Problems caused by deforestation

Air

pollution

Dust and smoke released during clearance of trees by burning, causing air pollution If more severe, the

particles were be suspended in air and be blown by strong winds Haze found in other areas like

Southeast Asia from Central Kalimantan, many suffered from eye, nose and throat irritations

Flights had to cancelled to

the Southeast Asian region

due to poor visibility in 1997

Summary of the adaptations of forests

Tropical Rainforests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests Coniferous Forests

Large and broad

To maximise surface area for

photosynthesis

Waxy with drip tips

To allow rainwater to drain off easily

to prevent bacteria from growing on

them

Branches found only on the top one-

third of the trunks

Emergent and canopy layers branches

spread to get maximum sunlight

Colourful and sweet smelling fruits

To use insects for pollination and

animals for dispersal

Roots shallow and spread widely,

buttress roots present

To support the great weight of the

trees

Deep roots

To tap water sources deep under the

ground as rainfall is not regular throughout

the year

Thick and coarse

Protects trunk from heat and dryness

during dry season and withstand extreme

heat from natural forest fires

Waxy with drip tips

To allow rainwater to drain off easily to

prevent bacteria from growing on them

Deciduous (shed leaves during dry season)

To minimise loss of water through

transpiration

Bamboo plant have narrow leaves

To minimise of loss water through

transpiration due to lack of water during

dry season

Leaves able

secrete or store

excess salt

Regulate the amount

of salt in the tree

as they grow in salt

water

Flowers are

generally colourful

To attract insects

to pollinate flowers

Specially adapted

roots

Like aerial, prop and

kneed roots to grow

on soft and

waterlogged soil

that lacks oxygen

Needle-like

To reduce loss due to transpiration

Leaves able to store water

The ground will be frozen and little

water available during winter

Flowers bear cones

Protect the seeds from cold

Thick barks

Protect from long cold winters

Flexible branches

Snow can slide off easily preventing

breakage

Mostly conical shaped

Withstand strong winds by swaying

Shallow, spreading roots

To absorb water easily from soil

surface when snow melts, as during

winter, snow falls instead of rain

Nutrient cycle

dissolved in rainfall from atmosphere

LITTER decomposes tissue fallout BIOMASS

surface runoff

leaching nutrient transfer to SOIL plant uptake

weathered from rocks

Nutrient cycle characteristics in forests

Equatorial rainforest Temperate Coniferous forest

Biomass Largest store of mineral nutrients Relatively low (unsorted)

Total mass of living

organisms, mainly

plant tissues

Tall, dense and rapid vegetation growth Composed of

several layers

of plant species

Needle-like leaves Littler undergrowth

High annual temperature,

with high and even rainfall

Year long

growing season Limited variety of species

One layer of coniferous

trees only

Litter Limited despite continuous fall of leaves

Largest store of mineral nutrients Total amount of

organic matter (e.g.

humus and leaf litter

in soil)

Hence rapid decomposition of dead vegetation

Hot and wet climate provides ideal environment for bacterial

action

Soil Rich in nutrients but easily leeched and washed by runoff Contains few nutrients (unsorted)

Naturally occurring

unconsolidated or

loose covering Earth’s

surface

Soil has to rely on replacement of nutrients from chemical and

biological weathering of the bedrock

Lost through leeching

and surface runoff

Low temp restrict the rate of

chemical weathering of parent

rock, slow replacement rate

Litter content is rapidly reduced

Low fertility

potential of podsol

soil of tiaga

Needle-like cuticles discourage

decomposers and breakdown of leaf

litter to humus

Summary of the functions of forests

Tropical Rainforests Tropical Monsoon Forests Mangrove Forests Coniferous Forests

1. Habitat for flora and fauna

2. Habitat for people

3. Green lungs of the Earth

4. Medical uses

5. Water catchment

6. Preventing floods

7. Research and education

8. Food

9. Re-creation

10. Timber

11. Fuelwood & charcoal

1. Research and education

2. Chemicals

3. Food

4. Recreation

5.Timber

6.Fuelwood and charcoal

7. Habitat for flora and fauna

8. Habitat for people

9. Green lungs of the Earth

10. Water catchment

11. Preventing floods

1. Water treatment

2. Green lungs of the Earth

3. Water catchment

4. Protecting coasts

5. Preventing floods

6. Research and education

7. Timber

1. Habitat for flora and fauna

2. Green lungs of Earth

3. Medical uses

4. Research and education

5. Chemicals

6. Recreation

7. Timber

Measures to reduce deforestation

Forest fire

control

Implement policies to make it

illegal to clear forests by

burning

Conduct annual forest fire

awareness campaigns

Indonesian government introduced measures to

to monitor forest fires through forest fire

campaigns in 1996 and National Fire management

plan in 1999

However, some plantation companies

continue to burn for profit as it is

the cheapest way to clear land

Some local people are also too used

to their traditional farming methods

inherited from the past

Affores-

tation and

reforestation

Plant trees on area not

originally covered with

forests

Plant trees in formerly

forested area cleared by

logging

Afforestation is carried out on agricultural lands

located on fringes of villages and existing forests

MOF set out to restore 900 000 hectares of

forests annually in Kalimantan through the

Forests and Land Restoration Initiative with local

people involved in the replanting of trees

However, rates of the forests being

replanted are slower than the forest

being cleared as the incentives may not

be attractive enough for the people to

participate in the projects

Logging

control

Careful management of

forests with the use of law

enforcement, education and

research programmes

Severe penalties such as

fines and imprisonment are

enforced for irresponsible

timber companies for illegal

logging

Ministry of Forestry (MOF) has arranged for

education and research programmes for timber

companies

Selective cutting is encouraged so that much of

the forest is undisturbed

However, it is difficult to monitor

logging and detect illegal logging

activities due to the lack of

manpower and remoteness of the

forest

Some places has allowed illegal

logging to go undetected

Also, trees selectively removed may

also affect un-removed trees

Conservation

Careful use of resources like

forests to protect them from

destruction

MOF sets aside nature reserves like the Betung

Kerihum Nature Reserve (Heart of Borneo)

WWF works closely with Kalimantan, Brunei and

Malaysia to protect the reserve

However, it is difficult to monitor

logging and detect illegal logging

activities due to the lack of

manpower and remoteness of the

forest

Treasure Island at Risk reported the

presence of illegal logging in 2005

TOPIC 2: RIVERS

1. River terminology

Drainage basin the land area drained by the main river and its tributaries

Watershed the imaginary line acting as a boundary separating one drainage basin from the

next one.

Channelisation the process of changing the natural course of a river to make it flow in a

specific path so as to reduce possibility of flooding.

Wetted perimeter the perimeter of river channel in contact with water

2. The hydrologic cycle map

Refer to Annex A

3. Factors affecting river energy

River velocity

Channel

shape

Rivers with the same cross-sectional area but with different shapes have different velocities

The larger the wetted perimeter, the greater the friction, the lower the erosion, the

slower the speed

Channel

slope

Channel slope refers to the steepness or gradient of the the channel

The steeper the slope (the higher the course), the greater the velocity of the river

Channel

pattern

Three common types of patterns are the straight pattern, the meandering pattern

and the braided pattern

The lower the amount of friction, the faster the flow of water in the river

Channel

roughness

Channel is uneven with items like boulders and vegetation

These items increase the amount of friction, thus decreases the velocity of the

water in the river

River volume

Size of

drainage

basin

Larger drainage basins have generally more tributaries that increase the volume of

water in the main river

The larger the drainage basin, the greater the discharge

Climate

Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration rates and result in a lower

discharge in the river

Higher precipitation result in more volume of water in the river to cause a higher

discharge in the river

Permeability

of rocks

More permeability of rocks increases the infiltration of water into the ground and

reduces surface runoff

Places with low permeability include concrete pavements in urban areas and places

with asphalt roots

When discharge exceeds river capacity, flooding occurs

Presence of

vegetation

Vegetation intercepts and absorbs rainwater when it rains, increasing the

infiltration of water and reducing surface runoff

Elements of a hydrograph

Hydrograph The graph of the amount of river discharge against time during a specific

stormy period

Rising and falling limb The gradient of the discharge increase from start of storm to peak of storm

Lag time The time taken for the storm to reach the peak of the storm from the start

Peak discharge The greatest discharge during any period of the storm

4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods

a. Transport (TS3)

Traction involves rolling and sliding of large particles like boulders along river bed

Saltation moves bedload and small materials like pebbles downstream by bouncing

Suspension transport of silt, clay, sand and other particles without the touching the river bed

Solution chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3)

b. Erosion (CASH by vertical or lateral erosion)

Corrasion wearing down of a river bed and banks by grinding action of rock fragments carried by

the river

Attrition load carried by river is being broken as rocks collide with each other, becoming

smoother and rounder in the process

Solution chemical action of river water in dissolving soluble rocks (limestone/CaCO3)

Hydraulic

action

loosening, breaking, dragging, tearing away and removing of rock particles from the river

bed and banks by the sheer force of running water

c. Deposition

Why

At the lower course, river velocity is low and energy level falls.

The river is unable to transport its load and it will be dropped and deposited.

Larger particles are dropped first as they require more energy to be transported

When

When there is a decrease in river velocity, when floodwaters recede, or when a river

enters a sea or reservoir or lake, there will be a significant drop in river energy,

causing the river to lose its ability to transport its load.

Where

At the inner bend (convex bank) of a meander (slip-off slope)

Floodplain when floodwaters recede

At the river mouth where a delta is located

5. Landforms on rivers

a. Erosional

Waterfall

rocks of different resistance

erode less resistant rocks faster

change in gradient

sudden fall in height

great force

hydraulic action (impact of water)

abrasion (rocks swirling at the base)

deepening the depth of the waterfall

Plunge pool

further hydraulic action

and abrasion results in a

deep depression known

as a plunge pool

excavated, enlarged and deepened by hydraulic action

turbulent water at base of water

rock particles swirl about

further erodes the depression

Gorge (it is

a deep,

narrow and

valley with

steep,

almost

vertical

sides)

river flows

through less

resistant rocks

vertical erosion

is faster than

the wearing

away of the

sides of the

valley

flows to the edge of the cap rock of limestone

water increases velocity a excavates a plunge pool at the bottom

armed with rock debris

backsplash at base of waterfall

undercuts cliff face of less resistant sand and shale

erosion of the cliff face

overhanging cap rock loses support and collapses

continuation of the process cause the waterfall to retreat

and form a deep, narrow and long valley known as a gorge

b. Erosional and depositional

Meanders (loops in the

course of a

river)

Areas of regular-spaced deeper water

pools and shallower water riffles

Less friction in pools

Greater velocity and erosive power

More friction in riffles

Lower velocity and more deposition

Continuous erosion and deposition

accentuate

Slight bends of a river

Further erosion and deposition

Bends are more pronounced

Loops known as meanders form

River cliffs

and slip off

slopes

Difference in velocities across channel

Unequal pressure and energy distribution

Currents in a river bank moves in a corkscrew

manner, repeating a series of rotations

Current from outer concave bank descends

downwards

Undercuts and erodes materials

Continuous erosion causes some eroded

materials are slumped down a river, forming a

river cliff on the concave bank.

Some eroded materials are

also carried along the bed up

to inner convex bank

Deposited there

Continuous deposition makes

the convex bank shallow

Resultant slack water

encourages further deposition

A gently-sloping slip-off slope

is built up

c. Depositional

Floodplains (a

wide low-lying

plain found on

both sides of a

river) and

levees (natural

embankments

found along river

banks)

Heavy rain

Amount of water will be

more than the river

capacity

Water overflows its banks

Floods surrounding areas

Once out of the channel,

there will be more friction

Velocity is reduced and energy decreases

Deposition

Larger, coarser and heavier materials are

deposited at river banks and accumulate to

form raised embankments (levees)

Smaller, finer and lighter materials are

deposited further away from the river banks

and accumulate to form the floodplain

Ox-bow lakes (horse-shoe

shaped lake)

Continuous erosion of concave bank

and deposition of the convex bank

Pronounced meander formed

Two neighbouring banks get closer

Narrow neck of land formed

Continued lateral erosion eventually

erodes the narrow neck of land

Outer banks merge

Water now flows straight through the

straighter river channel

Instead of the cut-off abandoned

meander loop

Deposits start to build up at both ends

of cut-off

Seals it off from the main channel

Cut-off becomes an ox-bow lake

Stabilised by vegetation or dried up

Delta (a flat

alluvial platform

found a a river

mouth nearing a

sea)

River mixes with water upon entering sea

River velocity decreases and river loses

energy

Deposits alluvium load of gravel, sand,

silt and clay

The clay consolidates with salt water and

sinks to the bottom

When tidal currents are not strong

enough

And when coastal waters are shallow

enough

Mass of alluvium built up from sea

bed and rises above the water

forming extensive deposits deltas

A flat alluvium platform is

formed and obstructs the flow of

water

Water is forced to find another

way around and hence overflows

banks into distributaries

Levees built up

Stabilised by vegetation

6. Channel management strategies (pros, examples, cons)

Strategy Description Example

Realignment (straightening

of the river

channel)

i. Removes meanders

ii. Reduces length

iii. Increase river velocity

iv. Flow away from an area more quickly

v. Wash away sediments which have accumulated on the river

bed

vi. Deepens the channel

vii. Channel capacity is increased to hold more water

viii. Localised flooding is minimised

For example, the

Mississippi River in

the USA has been

shortened to up to

240km to reduce the

threat of flooding.

Re-

sectioning (widening and

deepening of

the river

channel)

i. Widening and deepening of river channel ii. Increases channel’s ability to hold water

iii. Increases amount of surface runoff as more surface

runoff can enter without flooding

iv. Soil of river banks can be replaced with cement and granite

v. Less friction between water, river bed and banks

vi. Increase rate of water flow away from a section of the

river

Singapore River has

been extensively

altered by widening

and deepening the

channels through

dredging. This is an

effective long-term

measure.

Gabions and

revetments

i. Built along river channel

ii. Divert flow of water to centre

iii. Protects banks from being eroded by force of running water

iv. Reduces amount of sediment flow into the river

Revetments built in

Jamuna and Megna

Rivers in Bangladesh.

Vegetation

planting and

clearance

i. Planting vegetation along river

ii. More roots of trees present

iii. Hold soil together firmly

iv. Improves stability of channel

v. Minimal destruction to natural habitats

Embankments of the

Mekong River

stabilised with

mangroves planted

along river by a joint

initiative by Laos,

Cambodia, Vietnam

and Thailand.

Strategy

Disadvantage

Realign-

ment

Re-

sectioning

Gabions and

revetments

Vegetation planting

and clearance

Building of

dykes

Costly and labour intensive Requires technological

know-how Deters the growth of

marine life like corals Aesthetically unpleasant

and affect tourism Sediments may accumulate

behind these structures and

may lead to flooding, have

to be maintained regularly

May add stress to the banks

and causes the banks to

collapse

Strategy

Disadvantage

Realign-

ment

Re-

sectioning

Gabions and

revetments

Vegetation planting

and clearance

Building of

dykes

Woody debris can become

erosion agents and

encourage flooding

Continual build-up of

sediments on river bed

makes channel shallower and

water levels to raise higher

over the years

Sediments have to be

regularly dug up from the

bed

7. Summarised pros and cons of dams (refer to Geography file)

Pros Cons

Hydroelectric Power Generation Silting

Domestic Water Supply Salanisation

Flood Control Destruction of habitats

Transport and economic value Resettlement of people

Recreation Spread of diseases

Destruction of delta downstream

Water pollution

Annex A

Inputs

Precipitation

Stores and flows

1. Return flow

2. Interception

3. Surface water

storage

4. Infiltration

5. Soil water storage

6. Percolation

7. Groundwater storage

8. Groundwater flow

Interception

Transpiration

by plants

1

2

3

1

4

Water is taken through

the roots to reduce volume

of river as less water

enters the river

Reduces the

amount of

water that

reaches the

river

Outputs

1. River runoff

2. Evaporation

3. Transpiration

TOPIC 5: COASTS

1. Wave terminology

Crest The highest part of a wave formed between two troughs

Trough The lowest part of a wave formed between two crests

Wave height The vertical distance between the wave crest and wave trough

Wave length Horizontal distance between two wave crests or troughs

2. Coast profiles terms

offshore (not visible

even during low tides) foreshore (zone of contact

between sea and land) backshore (exposed all

the time) shoreline

cliff

high tide level

low tide level sand

coastline

rocks

sea

3. Factors affecting wave energy

Wind effects

Duration of wind The longer the wind blows, the larger the waves will be.

Speed of wind

Since waves are formed as a result of high wind velocities across the

surface of the water they are proportionate.

The higher the wind speed, the bigger the waves.

Sea effects

Fetch

It refers to the expanse of sea that a wave travels through before reaching

land. A larger fetch will allow the wave to gain more energy.

Depth of sea

Water particles in a wave are in a circular motion.

A deeper sea would mean that the particles are able to move more freely as

compared to shallow sea, where a lot of friction is encountered.

Hence the deeper the sea, the less friction, the greater the size of the waves,

and the greater the wave energy.

4. Erosion, depositional and transport methods

a. Transport

Longshore drift (refers to the

movement of

sediments parallel

to the coast by the

action of waves

reaching the coast

at an angle)

Winds usually travel towards the coast at an angle.

Prevailing winds cause the waves to hit the coast at an oblique angle.

When the waves reach the beach, the waves break and topple over, causing

surf containing sediments to run up the beach as swash.

The surf then runs back down the beach as backwash perpendicular to the

coast due to the influence of gravity.

The sediments in the backwash are later being carried by a second swash.

This continuous motion of swash and backwash result in transport of sediments

in a zig-zag fashion by longshore currents.

b. Erosion (W.CASH)

Wave

refraction

Wave refraction occurs when waves approach an irregular coastline in a parallel

fashion.

Wave energy is concentrated on promontories such as headlands, erosion

occurs.

Corrasion Waves and rock debris lash against the base of cliffs, scouring and

undercutting the rocks.

Attrition

Rock particles carried in the water knock against one another, reducing one

another in size.

The load is hence more rounded, evident from beach deposits.

Solution

Rain water is a weak acid, and may be further acidified with acid rain.

When it reacts with limestone containing calcium carbonate, it gradually

weakens the whole rock structure, causing it to disintegrate.

Hydraulic action

When waves surge into cracks and joints in rocks, air is trapped in the rocks

and would be temporarily compressed.

When the waves leaves the rocks, there would be a sudden expansion of the

trapped air, exerting a force on the rocks.

Alternate contraction and expansion weakens the structure of the rock overall,

resulting in the disintegration of the rock.

c. Deposition

Where

Gentle waves

Heavy load

Erosion opposing

factors

*Indented

coastline

Presence of vegetation

Sheltered, less windy coast

*Gently sloping shorelines

*Source of beach sediments (e.g. headlands)

Why

Indented coastline

Wave refraction occurs

Waves travel a larger distance to the bay compared to the

headlands

Dissipated wave energy encounters more friction and diverges

at the beach as they spread

Gently sloping

shorelines

Swash is stronger than backwash

More deposition than erosion

Source of beach

sediments More active erosion occurs at the headlands

5. Landforms at coasts

Landform Method of production

Sea cliff

When waves repeatedly pound

against a rocky coast, rocks are

weakened to form lines of

weaknesses in the rock face

A notch forms

Further eroded to form a sea cave

The overhanging part of the cave

eventually collapses with repeated

pounding

A cliff is formed

Wave cut

platform

As a cliff continues to be eroded

by waves, it retreats inland

Over time, a flat or gently sloping surface

known as a wave cut platform is formed

Landform Method of production

Headland

When waves approach coasts of

differing alternating

resistance, the less resistant

rocks are eroded at a faster

rate than the more resistant

rocks

Differing rates of erosion of rocks produce

an uneven coastline

Less resistant areas of rocks curve inwards to

form bays

More resistant areas of rocks protrude out

from the coastline to form headlands Bay

Beach

Rocks of different resistance builds

up at headlands and bays

Wave refraction at the headlands

cause wave energy to be dissipated at the bay

Materials eroded form headlands

together with materials carried by the

waves get deposited and accumulate at the bay

Over time, a beach forms

Berm

As constructive waves run up the

beach slope, it loses energy

Load is deposited

Swash is stronger than backwash

More materials deposited then

removed

During a storm, waves are stronger

and beach sorting occurs

Coarser heaver materials are hurled

further up the beach slope and deposited

there as the weaker backwash does not

have the energy to remove them, forming

the berm

Finer lighter materials are carried

seawards by the backwash and deposited

near the water’s edge

Spit

Longshore drift

Prevailing winds

Waves to hit the coast

at an oblique angle

Waves breaking

obliquely at the shore

move materials

Along the shore in a zig-

zag manner known as

longshore drift...

Due to backwash and

swash (more on 4a)

Spit formation

Abrupt change in the

coastline causes the

longshore drift to lose

energy due to shallower

waters

Sediments are deposited on the sea floor developing

an under water ridge

Over time, they extend further

Currents are not strong enough to wash the deposits

away

Lie undisturbed

Hooking

The second most dominant pushes the tip landwards

to give it its hooked appearance

When the wind slackens, the spit continues to extend.

The strong current carries the sediments out to sea

and prevents the spit from extending further.

Strong winds again pushes the end of the spit

inwards to give its second hook

Tombolo formation

When an extension of a spit joins an offshore island

to the mainland, and tombolo is formed

Tombolo

Notch

When waves have short wavelength and large

wave height, they form destructive waves

Waves attack rocks of varying resistance by C,

A, S and H along an exposed or uneven coast.

Bays and headlands form

Waves concentrate their energy on headlands

Increased wave erosion form a cliffed headland

The waves attack lines of

weaknesses by CSH (no A)

[elaborate each].

Waves continually attack

these weak rock joints

A notch is formed at the

base of the headland cliff

Cave Prolonged wave action The notch is gradually enlarged, forming a sea cave

Wave cut

platform

Over time further wave erosion

along the cave may cause its roof

to collapse forming a steep cliff

face

As the steep cliff retreats due to continued

erosion, undercutting the base of the cliff

A gently-sloping land strewn with eroded

rocks called a wave cut platform develops.

Landform Method of production

Arch

The cave and wave up

platform is slowly enlarged

and lengthened

When the cave undercuts the base fully to the

other side of the headland, it cuts through the

headland, forming an arch

Stack

As the sides of the arch are being eroded by

wind and wave forces, the arch loses its

support and collapses to the wave cut platform

An isolated pillar of rock called

a stack is left behind and

separated from the headland

Stump Continual erosion by strong winds and

destructive waves reduces the stack to a stump

This stump is only revealed at

low tide and covered at high tide

6. Waves

What happens as waves hit the

shore?

1) Waves approach the shore

2) Water depth generally

decreases

3) Friction with seabed increases

4) Circular motion of waves is

retarded

5) Waves slowed down

6) Length decreases

7) Crests bunch up

8) Wave height and steepness

increases

9) Top of wave topples over

10) Surf runs up the beach as

swash

11) Percolates into the beach

12) Runs back down as less strong

backwash

Waves

hitting a

straight

shore

No indentation

Waves hit the shore at an oblique angle in

direction of the wind

Friction near the coast

Waves get shallower

Retards the speed of waves

Waves break almost parallel to shore (longshore

current)

Transport of sediments increase

Waves

hitting an

irregular

shore

Headland

Waves reach headland first before entering

bay

Wave refracted at headland concentrates

energy there

More intensive erosive power of C, A, S and H

Bay

When waves move towards the bay, it tends to

curve away across the bay area

Energy is dispersed

Eroded material at the headland is deposited at

the boy area

Constructive waves Destructive waves

Energy Low, resulting in low flat waves High

Coastal

waves Swash more powerful than backwash

Backwash more powerful than swash, surf

pounds on sand but does not run far up the beach

Coastal

process Deposition Erosion

Ability Able to push material up the beach

to form a berm at the top of the beach

Able to dig out material and carry it out

offshore

Offshore Low wave length and height High wave length and height

Frequency Low (6-8 per minute) High (>10 per minute)

Coast

approach Gentle surging waves Steep plunging waves

Association Gently sloping coasts Steep sloping coasts

7. Coastal protection strategies

Type Strategy Description Example Disadvantage

Hard

Seawalls

i. Wall made of concrete built

in front of a coast

ii. Absorbs energy of the

waves

iii. Protects the coast against

strong waves, especially

during storms

Build at long

stretches of

coasts in

England to

reduce rate

of erosion of

land

Waves are redirected

downwards to the base of

the seawall as waves break

Strong backwash wears

away the base, weakening

and collapsing it.

Expensive, S$3 million per

kilometre

Break-

waters

i. Granite materials acting as

breakwaters are placed off

and parallel to the coast

ii. Creates a zone of shallow

water between the coast

and itself

iii. Breaks the waves before it

reaches the coast

iv. Reduces wave energy

Singapore

beaches like

the East

Coast Park

and Siloso

beach at

Sentosa

Unable to provide

complete protection as

some areas are still left

unprotected

Expensive, each

breakwater is S$1 million

Groynes

i. Low wall built perpendicular

to the coast

ii. Prevents materials from

being transported away by

longshore drift

iii. As sediments accumulate at

the side of the groyne

Groynes built

at Sussex in

the United

Kingdom

The beach will not be

replenished by materials

carried by longshore

drift

Beach further down the

coast may be eroded

away

Spoils the natural beauty

of a coastal environment

Gabions

i. Wire cages containing small

rocks to form a wall

ii. Protects the coast against

erosion

Chichester

Harbour in

the United

Kingdom

Can be easily destroyed

by powerful waves during

storms

Wires rust easily

Soft

Stabilising

coastal

dunes (Ridge of sand

piled up by

wind usually

extending

many

kilometers

and heights to

100 metres)

i. Ridge of sand piled up by

wind

ii. Provides protection to

human property

iii. Provides a habitat for many

animals

iv. Plantation of vegetation

along coasts

v. Roots trap and bind sand

together, preventing sand

from being blown inland

Omaha Beach

in New

Zealand

Marram grass

Property development

and recreational

activities can damage the

coasts

Causes the sand to be

easily blown inland

Can easily cover nearby

roads, farms and

buildings

Planting

mangroves

on the

shore

i. They have prop roots that

anchor trees firmly in the

muddy soil

ii. Bind loose soil and protect it

from erosion

iii. 2004 Tsunami showed that it helps

2005 Malaysian

government

launched project

to protect

4800 km of

its coastline

Require cooperation of

the people in the local

area

Have to be mindful not

to let animals like goats

enter the plantations

Type Strategy Description Example Disadvantage

Soft

Beach

nourish-

ment

i. Large amounts of sand are

added to a beach that is being

eroded

ii. When longshore drift removes

sand from the coast, people

bring in sand from other areas

and deposit it onto the beach

24 kilometres

of the Miami

Beach of the

United States

was renewed

This method usually lasts

for only about 10 years.

Beach quality sand is

expensive

Miami Beach project

costed S$105 million

Encou-

raging

growth of

coral

reefs

i. Masses of rock like

substances calcium carbonate

from living organisms

ii. Speed of waves approaching

the coast is reduced

iii. Most of original energy of

waves is lost

iv. Protect beaches against

coastal erosion

Pacific and

Indian Oceans

where water

is warm and

clear

Dynamite fishing, sand

mining and land

reclamation can destroy

coral reefs

Water pollution hinders

growth of coral reefs

Malaysia, for example,

banned fishing in

protected areas

CONCLUSION: MAPWORK AND PATTERNS

1. Map-work materials

Long ruler Set square Protractor Calculator String Pencil Eraser

2. Formulas

Gradient Vertical Distance (Make use of the contour lines, make sure line corresponds)

Horizontal Distance (Make use of long ruler and multiply with scale accordingly)

Always express as a fraction or ratio with the numerator as 1 and denominator 3 sig. fig. if not exact

3. River and drainage patterns

Dendritic Trellis Radial Centripetal

dep

ict Main river resembles tree

trunk and tributaries

resemble branches

Resembles pattern

formed by bricks on a

wall

Move out from

centrally elevated

location

Rivers move towards

of a focal point or

depression

feat

ures

River flows over areas of

same rock types

Rocks are made up of

alternate bands of

resistant and less

resistant rocks

River originates

from the top of a

steep hill, mountain

or volcano

Usually towards a

volcano crater

forming a crater

lake

dia

gram

Opposite direction

from radial,

resembling spokes of

a bicycle wheel

4. Common unique rivers

Centripetal rivers Waterfalls formed by faulting

Rivers around Lake Toba in Indonesia Victoria Falls along Zambezi River in South Africa

5. Weather patterns (describing from climograph)

Mean Range/Distribution Seasonality Extreme months

Tempe-rature

Mean annual temperature

of climograph is high at

26.8ºC

Annual

temperature range

is low at 1.7ºC

Temperature is

hot throughout

the year...

...with the hottest

months in May and

June at 27.5ºC

Rainfall Mean annual rainfall

shown is very high at

2343.7 mm

Rainfall is well

distributed...

...with no dry

season

The highest rainfall

in December at

282.2 mm

Identify From the temperature and rainfall data, it can be seen that the climograph experiences

a hot and wet climate throughout the year and is likely an equatorial climate.

6. Weather descriptors

High Moderate Low

Mean temp. Above 20ºC 10ºC to 20ºC Below 10ºC

Temp. range Above 15ºC 5 to 15ºC Below 5ºC

Rainfall Above 2000mm 1200 to 2000mm 750 to 1200mm 250 to 750mm Below 250mm

7. Others

When Relation to factors Why Features

Velocity

drops

Channel shape When there is an increase in wetted perimeter

Channel slope When there is a sudden change in gradient Floodplains

Channel pattern When the river flows into a calm lake or sea Deltas

Volume

drops

Size of drainage

basin

When little or no rain enters a river

Permeability of

rocks

When the river flows across permeable rocks,

allowing sinking in of water

Climate When the river flows across a desert when

evapotranspiration rates are high

TOPIC 3: DEVELOPMENT

1. Development terminologies

Development Improvements in quality of life and standard of living

Standard of living Living conditions or conditions in which people live

Quality of life A measurement of the satisfaction with one’s living conditions and lifestyle

Core Region that has a high concentration of people, wealth and standard of living

Periphery Region that has a low concentration of people, little wealth and sol.

Cumulative causation

Increase in wealth of the core due to more economic activities from the movement of people and resources from the periphery

Multiplier effect Result of the initial development of the core that comes with benefits to drive development

Backwash effect Flow of labour and other resources from the periphery to the core

Spread effect Spread of wealth and knowledge from the core to periphery, assisting economic development in the periphery

2. Core Periphery Theory

Core (or DCs) Spread

Backwash

Periphery (or LDCs)

1 Availability of jobs 1 Fewer jobs, services and investments

2 High concentration of secondary and tertiary industries

2 High concentration of primary industries

3 Urbanised with good infrastructure 3 Limited infrastructure like roads and piped water

4 High concentration of wealth 4 Weak and poor economy

High standard

of living Full access to healthcare and education

Low percentage of population have access to healthcare and education

Low standard of living

High quality of life

Good infrastructure with many transport and communication systems

Poor infrastructure with few transport and communication lines and constant congestion

Low quality of life

Good social benefits with health plans and tax rebates

Lack of social benefits

Access to leisure facilities High pollution, little access to leisure facilities

Backwash Cumulative causation Spread Centrifugal growth

Singapore 1. Attracted workers from periphery

countries like Bangladesh and Philippines

2. Developed quickly 3. Periphery drained of labour,

hindering development in the periphery countries

1. Thailand developed automobile industry in late 1990s 2. Japanese car manufacturing companies moved their factories to

Thailand to reduce manufacturing costs 3. Local people picked up knowledge and skills in automobile

manufacturing from Japanese counterparts

4. Investments from Japan helped Thailand’s economy grow (spread)

5. Japanese car manufacturers benefited with cheap labour costs by employing Thai workers (centrifugal growth)

3. Explaining development indicators

Effective Ineffective

Eco

no

mic

Emp

loym

ent

stru

ctu

re

Industrial level - High availability of industries - Wide variety of services and food - Potentially generate more income for citizens

Level of wealth - Tertiary and secondary industries involve manufacturing machines and trained workers, creation of the various industries require money - Countries with this wealth can

Wealth of citizens - Trained and knowledgeable workers will gain higher salary - Goods produced in tertiary and secondary generate more income as It is more value-added

Only a ratio - A country may have a less people employed in the SAT industry compared to another, but more people by proportion to primary industry - Inaccurate to conclude that the country is more developed

Labour and raw

materials

Finished products, investments, wealth,

knowledge

Effective *Ineffective Ec

on

om

ic

Inco

me

per

cap

ita Industrial level - More developed country - Added goods and

services from secondary and tertiary industries - Finished products instead of raw materials - Generate more income - Higher GNP per capita

Higher standard of living - More money Greater ability to build education, healthcare and sanitation facilities - Higher quality of life for people

Average GNP per capita figure - May appear large although majority of country’s citizens are living in poverty - Large income gap between the extremely rich and the extremely poor

Informal economic activities - Activities such as tutoring services, street hawking are not registered with the government - GNP per capita appears lower

Social and environmental costs - E.g. Increasing income gap between the rich and poor - E.g. Air pollution which came with development

Emp

loym

ent

op

po

rtu

nit

ies

Purchasing power - High levels of wealth of people - Demand for good and services high - Expansion of businesses and infrastructure seen to generate revenue - High employment opportunities - Lower long-term employment levels in workforce

Hea

lth

Life

exp

ect-

ancy

Level of healthcare and sanitation - People can live longer due to availability of healthcare and proper sanitation resulting in proper hygiene levels.

Level of wealth - Countries with higher life expectancy are usually DCs - Government can afford to build healthcare facilities and proper sanitation - People can afford to pay for such services \

Infa

nt

mo

rtal

ity

rate

Sanitation & healthcare systems - Easier accessibility to sanitation and healthcare services - Higher availability of such services

Wars or droughts in LDCS - Cause a shortage of food - Babies die from famine or malnutrition

Wat

er

sup

ply

&

san

itat

ion

Wealth of country - Country able to provide proper sanitation and safe water supply for its citizens

Edu

cati

on

Lite

racy

rate

Wealth of country - Many financial resources of a country available to meet educational needs of its people - More schools built, more teachers can be trained - Cost of education can be subsidised

Unable to compare between LDCs - Social customs in LDC may result in limited female’s access to education - Lower literacy rate - Few schools are built as children have to help out on the farms.

4. Cumulative Causation

Development of new industry in core Further development of commercial and economic activities Greater demand for goods and services

Jobs created Employment

level Demand of goods and

services Businesses Wealth level

Public services and facilities

Support for goods and services

Industrial growth

A. Creation of jobs result in more income

B. Attracts youthful workers from the periphery in search of jobs

A. Full employment opportunities

B. Wide range of skills and youthful workers

C. Population required increases

A. Increase in income, affordability and purchasing power

B. Increase in size of domestic market

C. Greater secondary and tertiary activities like in health, entertainment, education and retail sectors

Increases across research and development and within goods and super marts

A. Increases due to higher paying jobs

B. Higher standard of living

C. Government collect more taxes

A. Transport and healthcare expands

B. Improved infrastructure like more community centres built

A. Linkages to support production and distribution established for exports to overseas world markets

B. Allow for more innovation and invention

Old industries revamped to more tertiary and quaternary industries

5. Factors influencing level of development

Factors Description Examples

His

tori

cal

Co

lon

ial h

isto

ry

Colonial powers tend to develop countries colonised to obtain raw materials with basic infrastructure like railway system and industries like mining and rubber plantations

Outflow of natural resources resulted in colonies being unable to develop their economy fully as they were very dependent on their colonial government politically & economically

The Portuguese colonised Angola in 1500s to set up cotton, coffee and cocoa plantations by exploiting favourable physical conditions and availability of labour.

Cash crops exported to Europe for sale at high prices.

Countries that were colonised because of their strategic locations for control of important trade routes in the past were able to develop faster

As compared to countries that were colonised because of their raw materials.

Singapore was colonised by the British due to its location along the Straits of Malacca.

The British developed its port and city by setting up schools , building infrastructure & investing in businesses.

Ph

ysic

al R

aw

mat

eria

ls Countries that have plenty of raw materials develop faster than countries that have

few or no materials.

Money earned from selling the raw materials, like timber and crude oil, can be spent on projects to develop the country

Norway, ranked first in HDI, is well-endowed with na-tural resources like oil from the North Sea off its shore

Able to use money generated to improve infrastructure like roads, housing and water treatment plants

Clim

ate

Temperate climate usually favours the growth of crops

People grow these crops on a large scale for sale in their countries and export overseas Cool and moist climate in Canada and USA is suitable

for growing many important crops like wheat and oat

Harsh climates with constant disasters result in people having to constantly rebuild their homelands and hindering development and revenue from tourism

China experiences floods every year along major rivers, killing 1000 and losses of US$12.6 billion in 2005

Factors Description Examples Ec

on

om

ic

Cu

mu

lati

ve

cau

sati

on

Investments in industries create jobs that encourage an inflow of workers

and triggering a local demand for goods and services.

Revenue gained from expansion of industries allows government to improve infrastructure

With a multiplier effect, investors from urban centres who seek to provide their goods and services are attracted, enhancing the economic activities and wealth generated in the area

Thailand development of a automobile industry in late 1990s attracted Japanese car manufacturing companies to shift factories to there to reduce manufacturing costs

Soci

al

Edu

cati

on

Lack of trained teachers and facilities in LDCs result in lower percentage of population able to get the necessary education and low literacy rates

People with little formal education face difficulties learning new skills and embracing modern technology

Shortage of skilled labour hinders development of industries

Italy has a high GDP per capita of about US$28 000 in 2005 and 98.5% literacy rate

Due to long history of placing a strong emphasis on education - Has wealth to build schools and train teachers to educate its people

Sierra Leone has a low literacy rate of 30% as it has little money to spend on education with a GDP per capita of only US$548.

Much of the population is involved in agriculture, little effort to provide opportunities for rural people to learn to read and write

Po

pu

lati

on

gr

ow

th r

ate

Effects of high birthrates cause development of country to slow down as more resources have to be given to provide healthcare, food and education for the youthful population

Less resources available for improving quality of life for the general population

Populations of Kenya, Nigeria and Ethiopia increase approximately 3% per year at a much faster rate than DCs like Norway and Japan of 0.5% per year.

Fewer children show a higher cost of living, higher standard of living and changing lifestyle preferences

Po

litic

al C

on

flic

t

Stable government attracts more MNCs by creating stable and peaceful environment for business to develop.

Investments will not be at risk in changes of political leadership with no internal struggles for power

Assured that no bribes will be needed to set up businesses in the country.

Sierra Leone has experienced political conflict and social instability due to a civil war in the 1970s that killed 1.7 million people.

Sierra Leone being one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. The HDI of Sierra Leone was ranked second from the bottom in 2005.

Long history of political stability and peace.

Local businesses have flourished with foreign investors having confidence in setting up businesses.

Switzerland had a GDP of US$30 552 in 2005.

Lead

ersh

ip

Countries that are progressing well in their economic, health and education sectors are run by efficient and development-oriented governments.

These governments are forward-looking and dedicated to meeting the needs and aspirations of their people, ensuring maximum development.

Norwegian government set a profit cap for petroleum producers

The rest of the money earned goes to the people of Norway

Ensures that wealth generated from Norway’s petroleum industry is shared among its people.

Norway ranked first in HDI in 2005

6. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally

Way Org Description Example Effectiveness In

tern

atio

nal

org

anis

atio

ns

Wo

rld

Ban

k

1. Aid to less developed countries

2. Social or Economical help 3. Aid and money 4. Including loans with low or

no interest

1. Kecamatan Development Programme in Sleepy Tirtomoyo, Indonesia

2. Provides financial aid and water 3. Locals to dig wells to tap on underground water

sources and build pipelines.

1. Some countries in need might not voice out 2. Not agree to some of the ways they should handle

problems 3. Sudden rise of food prices in the world in January 2011,

countries like Thailand and Africa tended to impose import taxes on foreign goods to get money

4. Did not realise this selfish acts will only aggravate the malnutrition situation in the world

Asi

an D

evel

op

men

t

Ban

k

1. Alleviate development 2. Reduces poverty 3. Increases quality of life 4. 67 member countries in the

Asia-Pacific region 5. Monetary loans and

technical assistance.

1. Bridge of Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge Project of Bangladesh

2. Connects less developed northwestern region to more developed regions

3. Financial and technical support include roads, railways, gas pipelines and telecommunication lines

4. Less traffic congestion allows farmers to transport their produce to markets for sale.

1. Greater industrailisation from alleviating development 2. At the expense of degradation of the environment such

as deforestation, depletion of minerals, and environmental pollution

3. Global warming will be more fatal to the world than issues of poverty in the long run.

Inte

rnat

ion

al a

gree

men

ts

UN

Mill

enn

ium

Dev

elo

pm

ent

Go

als 1. International agreement

2. Other countries pledged their commitment

3. Aim to help LDCs get out of poverty by 2015

4. Encompass social, demographic and economic goals

1. Poverty and hunger-stricken Vietnam 2. Increased access to basic social services for the poor 3. Educational campaigns to raise awareness of poverty

in the country 4. Pressure on the government to create jobs and

increase income

1. Conflicts of interest present 2. Most investments made in the country trap farmers and

their children to work on the farms with low wages 3. They cannot afford to send their children to schools for

education

UN

Co

nve

nti

on

on

th

e

Law

of

the

Sea

1. Adopted by more than 160 countries

2. Control usage of seas and oceans in the world for sustainable use them

3. So that they will not be depleted

1. Coastal LDC Peru 2. Fishing industry is important to its economy 3. Law disallows larger fishing boats from surrounding

DCs, that can spot and collect fish underwater easily, from fishing at Peru’s seas without permission

4. Allows the poor fishermen to make a living and maintain their livelihood

1. Landlocked countries like Bolivia in South America do not benefit from it

2. Allows other American countries to develop at a faster rate than it

3. Alleviation of development between LDCs and DCs would not be complete

7. Measures to alleviate uneven development internationally

Social Demographic Economic Water supply and Sanitation Education Population control Job creation

Pla

n

Parivartan Slum Networking Programme in Ahmedabad of Gurjarat, India

Hill Tribe Education Project in Thailand One Child Policy in China KALAHI ‘Linking Arms Against Poverty’

in the Philippines

Res

ult

s

Besides general underdeveloped characteristics, the area lacks basic minimum education and insufficient skills with low income and poor standard of living.

Water supply to individual households. Underground sewerage connection to

individual households. Toilets to individual households. Training was provided to teach

villagers proper usage of new facilities

Northern hill tribes like Karen and Yao were introduced to formal and informal education programmes to suit the needs of their communities.

A community learning centre was built in each village open to children and adults.

To promote literacy, the Thai language, Mathematics and life and social skills were taught.

The Chinese government discovered in the 1970s that there was an increasing rate of population growth that could result in overpopulation to hinder further development.

Therefore, the One Child policy was implemented to limit every couple to have only one child.

Volunteers were recruited to promote late marriages, late childbearing and teach proper contraception methods to keep birth rates low.

Fertility rates in China fell, especially in urban areas

Pro-poor policies were implemented to help more people set up and run small businesses, usually run by families.

The ultra-poor were given interest free loans and leadership and self-employment training to help them run businesses effectively.

The government also obliged banks to allocate part of their credit loans to be given to poor farmers and entrepreneurs.

Lim

ita

tio

ns

The slums were not developed on priority basis.

The slum networking basically deals with notified slum and not with the other poor settlements, and because of lack of funds the project could only be carried out in phases. It took 5 years for death rates to drop by almost half.

While it benefited some slums, majority are still deprived of clean water and sanitation facilities

Hill tribes live in small communities and in geographical isolation.

It is difficult for the government to reach out to the large population in the community.

Communication barriers between the hill tribes and lack of volunteer teachers have been time consuming and a great challenge to this project.

It is more difficult to implement this policy in the rural areas of China as couples in the region required more children for additional help their farms to make a living.

Many of the couples would want a son and hence tend to continue bearing until they succeeded in having a son.

With more males than females eventually, gender imbalance might not allow sufficient people to take care of the elderly in the future.

Products and skills of the poor not diversified as yet.

The poor requires greater market access in order to get more people to purchase their goods and services, as competition still exists among the poor.

More volunteers are needed to reach out to those living in areas that are difficult to reach.

TOPIC 4: GEOGRAPHY OF FOOD

1. Trends in Food Production and Distribution

LDCs Description Evidence DCs Description Evidence

Ch

angi

ng

foo

d p

refe

ren

ces

Less carbo-hydrates in diets

Mainly obtained from staple food making up important part of diet

Decreasing in proportion although still makes up large proportion

76% carbohydrates in 1971 to 1973 in LDCs

68% carbohydrates in 1999 to 2001 in LDCs

More healthy food

Increasing levels of health-consciousness

Moving away from high-fat products

Olive oil reducing risks of heart disease

Organic food found to be healthier choice

Though high consumption of meat

Proportion of fats in USA diet fell from 33% to 26% from 1950s to 2000

Consumption and imports of olive oil more than doubled from 1995 to 2005

Sales of organic food tripled over the last five years in UK

More non-staple food

More non-staple food like meat, fish and coffee

Consists largely of proteins and fats

More common in urban areas

5% to 10% proteins

10% to 15% fats from 1972 to 2000

High-fat diet urban China citizens from 33% to 61% 1991 to 1997

Larger variety of food

People in DCs becoming more exposed to different types of food around the world

Globalisation has increased due to faster transports and advanced communications

Fusion food popular

Asian person exposed to American fast food may choose to eat more bread or potato than rice

Thai food in UK, Mediterranean food in Canada is common

Americans introduced to sushi in the 1970s, LA chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi

Leve

ls o

f fo

od

co

nsu

mp

tio

n

LDCs consume less food than DCs

Poorest 20% in the world’s population

Consumes only about 5% of meat and fish in the world

Food consumption per capita of Africa

Lower than 2200 kCal/person/day

DCs consume more food than LDCs

Richest 20% in the world’s population

Consumes nearly half meat and fish in the world

Food consumption per capita of North America & Europe

Exceeds 3400 kCal/person/day

Increased food con-sumption in the world

Efforts to increase supply of food

Green revolution

General increase on amount of food consumed

Mid-1960s to 1990s

Sub Saharan African region

Increased by 137 kCal/person/day

Increased food con-sumption in the world

Efforts to increase supply of food

Green revolution

General increase on amount of food consumed

Mid-1960s to 1990s

East Asian region

Increased by 964 kCal/person/day

2. Reasons for variations of food production

Reason Description Examples Result

Aff

ord

abili

ty

Pu

rch

asin

g p

ow

er

People in DCs generally have higher incomes - Greater purchasing power - More likely to be able to buy enough food - Meet basic nutritional needs -Wider variety of food - LDCs improving financial conditions in urban areas by cumulative causation

East Asia food consumption - Increased 827 kCal/person/day more than Sub-Saharan Africa did - Mid-1960s to 1990s

High-fat diet urban China citizens - Increased 33% to 61% from 1991 to 1997

Greater consumption of food

Non-staple food, since more expensive, increasing in consumption than staple food in urban areas of LDCs

Sto

ck

pili

ng

DCs can set aside and store food - Economically well-to-do - Buy extra food and storage facilities - Control food supply in market - Less effect during crop failure or food disruption - Low risk

East Asian Emergency Rise Reserve (EAERR) started in 2004 - Member countries like Vietnam and Singapore contribute certain quantity of rice to a reserve - Used during emergencies like disasters

Improved food security

Better stability of food in DCs

DCs not self-sufficient able to tackle food emergencies

Stab

ility

of

foo

d s

up

ply

Co

nfl

icts

an

d r

iots

Conflicts among nations - Crops and livestock destroyed - Farmers abandon fields - Threaten food supply and security

Second Congo War in Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 - 3.6 million dead from starvation and easily preventable diseases

Unstable food supply

Lower food security - People unable to obtain enough food of acceptable quality and variety readily

Countries not self-sufficient like Singapore and Japan which rely on food imports affected adversely

Nat

ura

l ca

use

s Droughts, floods, earthquakes or hurricanes - Wipe out entire harvests easily - Severe food shortages - Lower food supply

Hurricane Katrina in 2005 - Destroyed much farmland and livestock in southwestern USA - Left people without food

Spread of bird flu in Asia in late 2003 - Over 20 million poultry destroyed by dying or being culled - Shortage of poultry meat

Acc

essi

bili

ty o

f fo

od

Tran

spo

rt

faci

litie

s Absence of transport facilities in LDCs - Hinder food distribution - Prevents access to food

Lack of transport routes especially in rural areas of LDCs and congestion in LDCs like India - Decrease time for transport

Landslides like those from 1999 Taiwan earthquake - May make some areas inaccessible

Lower levels of food consumption in LDCs

Temporary cut-off of ability to obtain food needed

But improvements and additions in transport - Cross rivers by bridges and mountains by planes

Glo

bal

isat

ion

Advancements in trans.comm - Increase exchange of information, ideas, cultures and values - Companies expand food business by opening outlets abroad

Americans were introduced to sushi in the 1970s

Los Angeles chefs developed California roll, replacing the raw fish in sushi with cucumber, cooked crabmeat and avocado

Larger variety of food in DCs

More healthy food in DCs

Increased food consumption in the world

But access in LDCs often limited to urban areas - where there are more food outlets and better transport and communications networks in place.

In China, it is easier to find restaurants and fast food chains offering wide variety of food - In cities like Shanghai - Compared to rural regions like Inner Mongolia.

Trad

e People have greater access to food from around the world - Trade barriers limit trade between countries - Access to food will be affected

UN prohibited countries from trading w/Iraq aft ‘91 Gulf War

Significant decrease in imports of food and farming inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides into Iraq

Variety of food minimised temporarily

Food supply affected slightly

Foo

d

ou

tlet

s Few places selling food in LDCs - Limited variety and quantity of food - Grown locally or imported from other countries based on globalisation

3. Impacts of Variations of Food consumption

Description Effects

Starvation 70% of most Sub-Saharan African countries like Somalia

People do not receive enough energy from their diet due to severe shortage of food

Poor harvest and low purchasing power are factors

Bodies become skeletally thin

Muscle tissues burnt for energy

Organs may become permanently damaged

Malnutrition

Late 1990s Davao City in the Philippines, widespread deficiencies in iodine, iron and Vitamin A - Slow growth for children and low energy for adults

People consume an imbalanced amount of nutrients over a period of time.

Anorexia nervosa, starving oneself forcibly, and bulimia, vomiting everything that was just eaten by a person, are factors relating to this, including low purchasing power

Bodies are weakened

Lower resistance to common illnesses

Damage to internal organs due to low vitamin D, calcium that result in poor teeth and deformed bones

Inevitable eventual death

Rickets and anaemia due to low iron levels

Obesity 400 million obese, USA has 32% adults obese

People consume much more nutrients than a body can use, body fat exceeds one-third of one’s weight

This can be attributed to growing affluence in LDCs

High blood pressure

Diabetes

Heart disease

4. Factors Affecting Intensity of Food Production

Effective Ineffective (*or problems)

Po

litic

al

Go

vern

men

t p

olic

ies

High technology farming - Aeroponics and hydroponics, more efficient, less pollution, higher out per unit area

Examples Limitations in fish catch (both sides) - Country’s amount and type of fish is regulated, fish caught limited, ensures enough fish in future

Examples

Oh Chin Huat farms, Singapore

European Union adopted Common Fisheries Policy

Resettling aid schemes - Land, facilities, tools and seeds to help farmers resettle in new farm areas

Federal Land Development Authority, Malaysia

Bans on GM Food - Farmers will lose chance to increase income and food supply

Zambia rejected GM food imports, fear health impact

Tech

no

logi

cal

#G

M F

oo

d C

rop

s (L

OR

Ms)

Increases income for farmers - GM food crops are generally fresher and more resistant to pests and low rainfall

Pest resistant corns created with Bt, fewer crops damaged, more output, income

*Potential health risks - Some food substances may cause unknown allergies as they are not natural

Some people fear that they may unknowingly consume potatoes containing Lectin, which prevents successful aphid attacks.

GM Pea caused health problems in research mice.

Increases food supply - Some GM crops are able to produce higher outputs than non-GM

Super Rice produces double the output of normal rice

*Loss of biodiversity - More species become endangered and extinct, greater loss of variety of living things in an ecosystem

Monarch butterflies which fed on plants that were dusted with Bt corn pollen had larvae growing slower and dying at a faster rate than butterflies which did not, possibly affect animals higher up the food chain

Reduces environmental pollution - Pest-resistant GM Crops, less use of chemicals, like non-ozone-friendly ones

Lowa, USA, eutro-phication due to high amounts of fertilisers

Effective Ineffective (*or problems) Te

chn

olo

gica

l

^GM

Fo

od

Improves nutritional value - Nutrients and vitamins added to prevent common illnesses and diseases

Golden Rice enriched with beta-carotene, more Vitamin A, hinders blindness and death

*Loss of natural species - Some GM crops genetically pollute natural crops that are not GM, may result in superweeds

A herbicide-resistant strain of the Charlock weed was compatible to and therefore genetically polluted by herbicide-resistant rapeseed plant

Ch

emic

als

(G R

ev)

Fertilisers - Substances added to soil to provide nutrients for healthy plant growth

*Eutrophication of water bodies - Excess fertilisers in water bodies cause rapid growth of algae, reducing oxygen supply

Lowa, USA, Algae grows rapidly on surface, blocking of oxygen and sunlight

Pesticides - Toxic chemicals destroying pests which affect crop growth

Arsenic is used by farmers in India to poison rats attacking rice crops

*Water pollution - Contaminates water bodies, reducing quality of water, harming aquatic plants and animals, and animals which consume them and the water

Distribution of drinking water from a dam near Rennes, France, was stopped by public health authorities due to pesticide contamination

Herbicides - Toxic chemicals destroying weeds competing for nutrients in the soil

*Imbalance of soil nutrients - Chemical fertilisers supply 2-3/>20 essential nutrients, which excludes humus, unable to restore nutrients loss, lowering soil fertility

Mo

der

n Ir

riga

tio

n (

G R

ev) Overcomes physical limitations -

Water is supplied to land through artificial means. Dams, canals divert water from rivers and reservoirs to farms.

Farmers in India, with seasonal, irregular rainfall, can grow 2 to 3 crops instead of 1 per year

*Salinisation of soil - Salts are built up within the soil through flood irrigation, use of dams and groundwater when water contains natural dissolved salts

Aswan High Dam across River Nile, Egypt, disrupts flow of water, causing minerals trapped in reservior to dissolve into water, salinity of soil will be too high for crop growth

Increases crop output - Automated irrigation systems may use water sprinklers and sluice gates to control water usage

Farmers in Turkey use spray irrigation, drip amounts of water just sufficient for healthy crop growth, save water

*Waterlogging - Too much water used in fields, soil becomes saturated with water - Air and nutrients unable to reach crops - They wither and die

Pakistan and India, farmers use excess water to deal with salinisation but this over-irrigates the fields

HYV

s (G

Rev

) Cross breeding a range of rice, wheat, cereal strains - More pest resistant or shorter growth durations, higher yield and outputs per unit area

China’s rice output >doubled from 1961 to 1992 & Indonesia’s rice output increased 80% from 1970 to 1990.

Sophisticated - Cultivation and maturing process complicated - Farmers unable to follow procedures accurately

Although cereal crops increased significantly in LDCs like Mexico and India, it has increased rural unemployment due to less manual labour needed

Expensive - Large quantities of chemicals have to be used - Less well-off farmers cannot afford

Blu

e R

ev.

Encourages fish farming - Farmers rear fish in ponds or enclosed areas under special conditions promoting growth instead of catching fish from oceans

Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture in India - 500 hatcheries and laboratories - conduct research on species like prawns and carp - 30% of fish harvest is supplied commercially

Medicines and vaccines - Medicines and vaccines have to be used to improve the health & nutrition of fish since viruses can spread rapidly if present

Thousands of kilometres of destroyed in Philippines, Indonesia and Ecuador to create fish and shrimp farms *Destruction of coastal mangroves - Mangroves

are replaced by farms - coastal erosion more likely

Ineffective [*or effective of inverse (boxed up) ] Effective P

hys

ical

Rel

ief

*Steep relief - In this way, soil is better drained, for proper tea cultivation of certain crops

Tea plantations are a common sight in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia

Gentle and flat - Soil erosion less likely, nutrients not lost easily, land remains fertile - Tractors and harvesters operated with ease - No labour needed for terraces

Canadian Prairies, Canada, farming

Soil erosion - In some countries that experience snow or earthquakes with steep relief - Nutrients is soil are washed away during soil erosion - Arable land is not enough for people to grow land to meet nutritional needs.

Nutrients in soil is washed away by constant melting snow and heavy rainfall in certain parts in the Himalayas, Andes. Two-thirds of total households suffer from malnutrition.

Soil

Fertility of soil - Floodplains, river deltas with large amounts of air, water essential for plant growth and nutrients like phosphorus, iron and zinc to help plant growth - Near volcanoes with ash rich in minerals

Volcanic ash deposited around Mount Mayon, Philippines, from time to time cause soil around the area to be fertile, favourable for cultivation of crops as less fallowing time is needed

Type of soil - Different types of soil are required by different types of crops

Wet rice is more likely to be found on floodplains and river deltas and wet and clayey soil is found. Bangladesh farmers grow wet rice on a flooded field and are able to produce two or more successive crops in the same year.

Clim

ate

*Low temperature and rainfall (cool and dry climate) - Temperature regions enable crops like wheat and potatoes to grow without too much water and fish like salmon to grow and reproduce well.

In Hunza, Pakinstan, potatoes are grown largely in farms where they are 2000m above sea level. Salmon farms are popular in Ireland and USA.

High temperature and rainfall (hot and wet) - Output is higher is general as conditions are favourable for plant growth.

Soci

al

Land

Frag

ment

ation

Father divides land into smaller plots equally among children traditionally - Resultant plots very small over generations - Limited output - Unprofitable for expensive machines

China and Korea, land fragmentation, more labour required, productivity low

Land

Ten

ure Farmers usually do not own land they

farm in LDCs - By governments or landlords - Farmers to give much of harvest - Little motivation for farmers to improve farming methods

Brazil, landlords make up 2% of population but own 42% of the land

Eco

no

mic

Dem

and

High demand for food - Encourage food producers to increase their output and productivity - More employment and more money is earned

Coffee is high in demand for ~25 mil people in LDCs, hence Brazil has many coffee plantations. 200 new employees are employed every day worldwide for this purpose.

Cap

ital

Large amount of capital - Needed for farming machines, fertilisers, pesticides, sonar for fish detection - More money to start or expand food production - Loans let farmers upgrade farming methods

Successful large-scale capital investments by the European Union in member countries have seen massive food surpluses of wheat, sugar beet, butter and wine being produced.