geography and environmental science

Geography and Environmental ScienceAuthor(s): Walther ManshardSource: Area, Vol. 7, No. 3 (1975), pp. 147-155Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20000995 .

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Geographers in public service: 1. Walther Manshard

Geography and environmental science

Walther Manshard, Freiburg

This address was given by Prof. Dr Manshard as the guest lecturer at the IBG annual conference at

Norwich in 1974. He gave the audience his obser vations and experiences as a geographer ' parachuted' for over three years (1970-73) into the UN system to take charge of the Department of Environmental Sciences with UNESCO in Paris. It is here reprinted as the first in an occasional series of reviews by geographers who have been, or continue to be, involved in national or inter national government agencies.

My lecture is divided into three parts. First, I make some general observations about the place of geography within the field of environmental science; secondly, 1 give some examples from my own specialized field, the geography of the tropics, and finally, as a well-behaved former international civil servant, listening to the voices and whisperings of our member states, 1 should like to give you a summary of a recent survey on environmental questions addressed to scientists in developing countries.

I think it is already commonplace that it will be the task of our generation of geographers-and perhaps the next-to clarify the position of our subject within the framework of environmental sciences. Now what do we mean by environment? Sometimes, the human environment is considered to be limited to the physical and biological matter, processes and influences which have a significant effect on the wellbeing of the human race as a whole. This kind of definition (e.g. WMO, 1970) excluded from the environment man himself, in fact it is a definition that comes closer to what generally is called the biosphere.

On the other hand, social scientists tend to define the environment for a given population as a system of spatial and temporal regularities of non-human structures (Reichardt, 1970), which influence the biological and behavioural processes of these human groups. A geographer, who tends to focus on the

man/land relationships should obviously include the social processes as well as the physiographic and biological background (Manshard, 1972). But in spite of many possible definitions, the term environment in the present discussion has nearly always clear ecological undertones. I am thinking in this connection also of the term human ecology, which at times (since the Chicago school in the 1920s) has been linked with geography. I believe, however, that too close a link with human ecology, that is with the biological aspects of man, involves a

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148 Geography and environmental science

certain danger of misunderstanding with older and well established disciplines such as anthropology or even medicine. In fact, such a biological isolation of the environmental phenomenon ' Man' does not seem desirable, because he himself shapes his environment. This becomes quite clear if we apply, for in

stance, a popular term of zoo-ecology such as ' ecological niche ' to society. We then find that man in contrast to animal shapes and determines his

'ecological niches ' himself. Neef (1972) has pointed out that environment from the biological point of

view deals with the phenomena of the biosphere, while the human environment includes what several authors have described with different terms, such as technosphere, sociosphere, anthroposphere, or in the widest sense even 'noosphere' (after Vernadskij and Teilhard de Chardin).

Therefore it is largely man who shapes his environment and many major environmental questions seem to be related to problems of a kind of metabolism between nature and society. This seems to be rather academic, but I think on this approach there depends to some extent the possibility of geography in this field. In the narrowest sense, tackling technological questions, for example, in the field of air and water pollution, the chances of our participation seem rather limited. It is true that there is always a demand for cartographical documenta tion and for a general environmental data collection (as a kind of handy back ground for other subjects), but I think we may have a task before us of much wider scope.

An integrated approach-through the region?

The study of man-environment interactions may again link physical and human geography. Only this integrated approach, should now be based on the modern concepts of system analysis, with building models, analysing regional patterns, establishing hierarchical regional categories and using modern survey tech

niques such as remote sensing. Although one has to warn against the dangers, especially for the LDCs, of expecting too much of these techniques such as

scanning, side looking airborne radar and satellite photography. We have in all parts of the tropics a huge backlog of traditional aerial photographs that has never been seriously looked at. This had a number of reasons, partly the lack of properly trained scientists, and partly because this information has been 'classified ' (O'Reilly Sternberg, 1973) for political or military reasons.

One of my main experiences at UNESCO has been, that with our regional or better spatial approach, we as geographers in research and also in adminis

tration have' an ace up our sleeve ' that we haven't played enough yet or maybe not in the right manner, and that has been played increasingly therefore by other disciplines. They have even renamed this regional synthesis as ' integrated survey ' or ' integrated study '-using teams of specialists, but this has still

many elements of our old brain child' Regional Geography ', which admittedly needs modernizing and severe pruning.

On the practical application of environmental science many of the burning questions are local, regional or national in character and the regions of different

scale can provide us with a very suitable base for quantification. If we look

through the papers of any geographical meeting-such as this IBG gathering we find many aspects that have a direct significance for environmental science.

They only require the proper integration into national or international pro grammes. They require work on a scale that is neither too small nor too large



Geography and environmental science 149

for meaningful results. On the micro-scale we generally cannot compete with the technical specialists. For an increased participation in environmental work I would advocate work on regional analysis and synthesis on scales in which we have been very successful in the past: something between the traditional British one-inch map or the German Messtischblatt (1: 25,000) on one hand and the International World Map (1: 1 million) on the other.

Surely, by itself geography cannot claim to be a better suited environmental science than most other subjects dealing with such questions. However, because of our historical and methodological development, we do possess reasonable possibilities. For example in environmental protection and conservation-the problems of ' Man and his Biosphere '-the physical geographer and the bio geographer have the chance to study the interdependence of man and the eco systems of the world. For planning the human environment in its widest sense and designing an environment which is physically sustainable and culturally and socially rewarding, both for the short and long term future, the human and social geographers would have at least as much of a chance as had applied geographers in the field of town- and country or regional planning in the past.

Looking back over the history of geography I think we have already given proof with many studies of our intent and capability to deal with environmental

problems. A good example was the Princeton Symposium (Thomas, 1956) under the chairmanship of Carl Sauer on ' Man's Role in the Changing Face of the Earth'. This symposium, long before the modern wave of ecological work, made a very significant contribution to our scientific perception of the human environment.

Environmental sciences at UNESCO After these more general remarks of introduction I should like to tell you briefly what a geographer may have to look after at UNESCO. The Department of Environmental Sciences (SCE) was part of the Science Sector of UNESCO. It consisted out of four divisions:

1. Natural Resources Research (NRR)-now renamed Ecology and Earth Sciences (EES); 2. Hydrology; 3. Oceanography, and 4. The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC).

Out of the five intergovernmental programmes in UNESCO four fell within the scope of my department: Man and the Biosphere (MAB); the International

Hydrological Decade (IHD), followed after its completion 1974 by a long-term scientific programme in hydrology (see Area 7 (1975), 1, 14-15); the Inter national Geological Correlation Programme (IGCP), which is run jointly by UNESCO and the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), and finally, IOC, covering the wide field of marine sciences.

A major objective of the MAB Programme* is to increase man's ability to manage wisely the natural resources of the planet, in such a way as to maintain their potential. Thus, an essential component of the Programme is considered to be the study of the structure and functioning of the biosphere, and its mode of reaction when exposed to human intervention.

*Further details about MAB activities in Britain will appear in the next issue of Area-Editor.




During its evolutionary history, the biosphere has differentiated, as a function of climate, geological substrata, available genetic information and the action of living organisms, into a complex pattern of interdependent units or ecosystems

which are well-exemplified by the various types of forests, steppes, and tundras which make up the landscapes of the globe. These ecosystems, although part of a larger continuum, are endowed with more or less specific system character istics and it has been convenient to use them as basic units for research, while recognizing that they can be grouped together in larger units according to their interactions or to research objectives. The nature and intensity of man's impacts on a system will depend on such factors as the proximity, concentration and life style of human populations, the pattern of land use, and the type and intensity of management.

Man's impact may be considered to be of two different, though interacting, types. First, there will be that attributable directly to the pressures exerted by human populations, such as the demands of urban conglomerates for easily reachable recreational space and the consequences of waste disposal and major engineering works. More easily recorded, and more easily controlled and quantified, impacts will include the management practices associated with different forms of land use, such as grazing pressures of large herbivores, application of biocides, irrigation, and the adoption of different cultural practices (Manshard, 1970; 1971).

With these objectives in mind, the programme is intended more specifically: 1. To identify and to assess the effects of man's actions upon the biosphere

and conversely to those of the biosphere on man. 2. To analyse and compare the functioning of natural, modified and managed

ecosystems on a world-wide scale. To develop ways and means to monitor and measure quantitative and quali

tative changes in the environment in order to establish scientific criteria to serve as a basis for rational management of natural resources and for establishment of standards of environmental quality.

3. To establish agreed, and where appropriate, standardized methodologies, for the acquisition and processing of data, and to facilitate the exchange and transfer of available and newly-developed knowledge on the analysis and treat

ment of environmental problems, in order to help bring about greater global coherence of environmental research.

4. To promote the development and application of simulation and other approaches which will facilitate the prediction of likely future trends, permitting

mankind to direct its actions with a view to its long-term best interests. 5. To develop environmental study material for educational curricula at all

levels, to promote technical training and to stimulate global awareness of environmental problems through public and other information media (UNESCO, 1971).

Tropical applications

Now let me take only one or two examples of the many projects or problems, that were (or will be) looked after by the ' Man and the Biosphere' programme of UNESCO, as well as by other agencies of the UN in the field of environ mental sciences (mainly FAO, WHO, WMO and the UN itself with UNEP, Nairobi, as a coordinating focus).




One problem, for instance, that we tackled in close cooperation with FAO, UNDP, IUCN and now UNEP, Nairobi, and which links to several MAB projects, was the opening up of forest land in the humid tropics for animal hus bandry. There have been quite extensive deforestation schemes in, for example, the lowlands of Costa Rica and Peru. In areas with climaticconditions that produce a very lush forest vegetation, deforestation has formerly been very costly. With

modern machinery it can now be achieved at considerably lower prices, for those who can afford the initial investment. These large clearings seem to be one of the most dramatic mistakes made today in the name of ' development ' in the humid tropics. Even if the first grasses that follow deforestation look healthy, the high humidity soon brings about the growth of a very aggressive type of forest thicket, which is exceedingly difficult to eradicate. After a few more years, these ' pastures ' become more heavily invaded by shrubs and other woody species, until it becomes too expensive to maintain a grass cover! (Budowski, 1970). Then another piece of forest will be cut down to open new land, while the old degraded pasture is reverting to a very poor secondary

woodland of little potential. Of course, there are several variations on this theme, but the general trend towards a unproductive and also rather un aesthetic environment usually prevails. This useless destruction of many tropical forests, particularly in Latin America, should be stopped.

While population pressure is at the root of some problems, it would often be more logical and safer to attempt the improved utilization of existing agricul tural land and pastures. Citing CIAT (1969):

The present beef cattle population of tropical grassland areas of Latin America could probably be increased four to five times, and total marketable beef production increased up to ten-fold through application of available knowledge to existing pasture and ani

mal resources, proper seeding of improved pasture, population with beef cattle of now idle grassland and development of improved breeding systems, particularly through selection and crossbreeding.

Another typical example is the opening up of new roads. Building new roads in undeveloped areas is a common thing for all tropical countries. After the road has been opened, peasants follow practising slash-and-burn agriculture and timber contractors arrive, who cut down the few valuable logs. Strips of cleared forest appear on either side of the road, and quick environmental deterioration and denudation is a consequence if the soils are unsuitable for permanent agriculture or grazing. Often the situation is particularly bad if the road passes through government land. More wholesale environmental destruction has probably been achieved through opening of new roads than for any other reason. A very topical example is the 'Transamazonica' highway in Brazil, although the road-contractors or the project's executors will surely decline responsibility for this. And can they really be blamed, since they are only executing orders within so called 'development plans', where considerations of ecology and conservation had little or no place? As Budowski (1970) has put it: ' These plans have, of course, their origin in short term political or economic

considerations whose long term merit does not receive much attention.' In this field ecologists and other environmental scientists including geographers should be advising governments and big private companies. Enough ecological data should be collected to ascertain the possible after-effects through the opening of new land (terres neuves), so that we then would be able to guide and control




development, based on proper ecological principles, including human ecology. The wholesale destruction of tropical forests in Africa, Asia and Latin

America has reached the proportions of a major ecological crisis. While for a long time it was difficult to get a clear picture about the extent of these losses, it now appears that the greatest losses have occurred in West Africa and South

East Asia. The area of the African rain forest which was estimated to be about 218 million ha has shrunk to about 600% of its original size. It is estimated that between 1930 and 1970 alone, about 25-30% of the African rain forest was destroyed. In coastal and densely populated areas, the proportion of forest that has been transformed into secondary bush is even higher. In Sierra Leone, for instance, the forest area which previously covered nearly two-thirds of the country has dropped to about a few per cent. Also in Liberia, the area under rain forest was reduced within a few decades from 9.3 million ha to 3.6 million ha. (For several years over 20,000 ha were cleared for the growing of hill rice in Liberia.) In South-West Ghana, of the original area of 8.2 million ha, about 5.8 million ha were changed into farmland and bush fallow. The annual loss is here estimated at 52,000 ha. In spite of Government action and the establish ment of forest reserves, the destruction of non-reserve forest proceeds rapidly. Hesmer (1966) believes that by 1980, only 18 % of the original forest in Ghana will be left. Until the end of the century, almost all rain forest in the West African forest belt between Sierra Leone and Ghana will be changed into secondary formations, bush fallow and cultivated land. Even in the large forest areas of the Congo Basin, in Zaire the extent of forest destruction is serious, losses are estimated to be around 50% (Manshard, 1974).

In South and South-East Asia, the annual losses through forest clearing amount to over 15 million ha. (Indonesia 5.3 million ha, India 4.8 million ha and Burma 1 2 million ha and the Philippines 0.75 million ha.) Only a total of about 4.5 million ha has been reafforested. In addition, the use of herbicides in the Vietnam war has adversely affected over 2 million ha of rain forest. The annual forest losses in Latin America were estimated by FAO to be about 10 million ha, even without taking into account Brazil's recent crash programmes of forest development.

Or take as a further example the dry savannahs, which cover about 400% of Africa. This topic was discussed also at the 1973 Symposium on ' Drought in Africa' in London, and is covered by MAB project No. 4 on the impact of human activities on the dynamics of arid and semiarid ecosystems. Climatic changes in this semiarid zone seem to indicate that at various times it has been both drier and wetter than at present. Soils which have been formed under different climatic conditions may be vulnerable to the impact of man. Interest ingly, Lord Lugard speaking to the Royal Geographical Society in 1904 about his early work in Northern Nigeria, suggested that the desiccation of the extreme north of Nigeria was due to man's interference with the vegetation cover. This was confirmed 33 years later by the finding of an Anglo-French commission appointed to enquire into forest conditions (Prothero, 1953). Also the Dixey-Aubert-FAO-Team in 1959 investigating the Sudan, underlined the scale of the problem, the major environmental deterioration of a whole ecological zone.

A relatively modest ecological investment in long term environmental planning relating to the use of rural land in the future economy of these countries would have been essential. What use of the limited water supplies




should have been made, for example, in the Sahel for irrigation for gardening, for human consumption, or for livestock? These alternatives should have been linked to the potential of the Sahel savannah situation. In the event this zone

was overtaken by a catastrophe of subcontinental scale. Improved environ mental planning and long term strategies would perhaps not have averted this catastrophe, but possibly some of the hardship and sufferings could have been eased by more foresight and the research in alternative solutions in land-use and water-supply for this zone.

One last interesting piece of investigation that could eventually become a classic has been conducted by the UNESCO-Department of Environmental Sciences on the Nile Delta, where after the closing of the Aswan High Dam more serious shore-line erosion began on the Mediterranean Coast (Nielsen, 1973). This links to MAB project No. 10 on ' Effects on man and his environ

ment' of major engineering works. From my experiences with UNESCO I could give you many examples from

each corner of the world where costly mistakes have been made in the name of development and where more sound scientific advice would have helped. Even where this type of work has been undertaken as for the big man-made Lakes in Tropical Africa, much of this research has been rather too fragmentary.

Third World attitudes and priorities

I now come to the third and last part of my lecture, in which I would like to give the floor-so to speak-to the scientists of the Third World. One of my closest co-operators in UNESCO, Francesco di Castri, an Italian zoologist with extensive experience as a professor of zoology in Chile, did an interesting survey among more than 500 scientists from developing countries, including geog raphers, before he joined us as Vice-President of SCOPE.

In a questionnaire 19 different environmental problems were touched upon, which were classified as being related to three categories: management of ecosystems, control of human population, and pollution. The first important question was: What is the priority of your environmental problems? Or, if you had the possibility of working out an environmental action programme for your country, what would you propose?

It is interesting that the degradation of ecosystems was given top priority by

900% of the answers. The main causes of degradation of terrestrial ecosystems in decreasing order according to their frequency of mentioning were:

1. Inappropriate agricultural management; frequently mention was made of overgrazing, monocultivation, lack of recycling to the soil, biological impoverish

ment (especially in Latin America) and the practices of shifting cultivation. 2. Deforestation as the most important factor for the degradation of natural

resources, together with the inadequacy of reafforestation, both qualitatively and quantitatively (mainly in Latin American and Asiatic countries).

3. The effect of fire-or at least of bad management of fire-with all its consequences in accelerating soil-erosion.

4. The poor management of domestic and wild life, especially referring to large mammals, a point made nearly by all African scientists.

While everyone seemed to agree that a certain control of the world popula tion is a key issue of mankind, problems relating to pollution reached only relatively low priority. Here the effects of pollution by pesticides and fertilizers in soil and water were considered to be more important than air pollution, for




example in Mexico City, Sad Paulo, BogotaJ, or pollution of coastal waters, as in

Kenya and Tanzania which are effected by tankers from the Middle East.

In the second part of the SCOPE questionnaire the scientists were asked for their opinion about the most important difficulties for the solution of their environmental problems. Their comments were in general very similar. Briefly, they included: too few specialists in the field of environmental sciences; lack of economic backing; lack of background information about natural resources; little sensitivity of public opinion; problems of interdisciplinary organization, and problems of international collaboration.

One point-about difficulties in the relationships between scientists and their governments-was not included in the questionnaire so as not to start polemics, but replies were almost word for word on this, mentioning lack of environ

mental policy; lack of awareness and knowledge on the part of the administra tors to understand these problems; absence of environmental scientists in the bodies created for science policy, and in the institutions for the planning of agricultural, urban and industrial development.

Although admittedly the majority of the scientists were ecologists and biologists, I think the writing on the wall is fairly clear and most of these points have been confirmed by our geographical colleagues from the developing countries during recent years.

To sum up: Let it be understood quite clearly. It is far from me to advocate anything like no- or zero-growth or any other utopian attitude towards develop

ment, which after all by definition means change. But as Forrester (1971) has put it, ' Our challenge now is to steer a course of transition and some kind of a

sound equilibrium. Our society has behind it a thousand years of tradition that has encouraged and rewarded growth.' But that is surely not the only alternative.

We have reached a point where economic and demographic growth must be considered differently from the time 50 or even 30 years ago. Stagnation is not the point, but we must aim at strategies with a new coordination of research, development and planning.

In this connection new environmental policies will need comprehensive scientific information and thorough economic analysis; traditional methods and tools of economic analysis alone are not adequate; the concept of progress as

mere economic growth will have to be adjusted to a more comprehensive concept of development. GNP also does not give an adequate indication of the ' quality of life'. We have to work out a new system of social and economic accounting; the analytical instrument of capital output ratios will have to be modified by

more comprehensive cost benefit models. We all know that many environmental problems are typically international or

even global in nature. Many environmental difficulties are largely a consequence of uncoordinated and sectoral application of technologies. This is why the cooperation in the field of environment cannot be a new sector but should be, by definition, interdisciplinary. Well coordinated and integrated national and international programmes are necessary. This requires a change in attitude, because it deeply penetrates into structures of government and participation of our modern technological society (Stanovnik, 1971). Effective environmental action on our planet requires universality. And this is where, first, the UN System has an important role to play, in spite of all its obvious shortcomings, and secondly, we as geographers working in a field with an admittedly universal outlook should have something to say.




' De utilitate et necessitate Geographiae'. This as you all know was the title

chosen by Varenius some 300 years ago. How serious his Geographia Generalis

was taken by his contemporaries is born out by the fact that Isaac Newton was the editor of the English edition (Brunnschweiler, 1971).

I here plead for new environmental concepts and outlooks to be included within the framework of our ' Geographia Generalis '. I also feel that with the IBG you have an instrument neither perhaps yet too big nor too small that could

be the right vehicle for a new departure.

References Berry, L. and Rates, R. W. (1972) 'Environmental problems-a view from East Africa',

Draft for The African Review Brunnschweiler, D. (1971) 'De utilitate et necessitate Geographiae, Umweltforschung-mit

oder ohne Geographie?' Geogr. Helvetica, 5-8 Buchwald, K. (1972) 'Umwelt und Gesellschaft zwischen Wachstum und Gleichgewicht',

Raumforschung und Raumordnung, 147-67 Budowski, G. (1970) ' The opening of new areas and landscape planning in tropical countries',

Keynote paper delivered on 8.9.1970 at the XII Congress of the Internat. Fed. of Landscape Architects (IFLA), Lisbon

di Castri, F. (1971) 'Environmental problems in the Less Developed Countries-goals and strategies', in Lundholm, B. (ed.) Ecology in the Less Developed Countries, Symposium (Stockholm, 1971), 2-20

CIAT (1969) Centro Internacional do Agricultura, Annual Report 1969 Dalby, D. and Harrison Church, R. J. (eds), Drought in Africa (Symposium: London, 1973) Dresch, J. (1973) 'The desert strikes south', Development Forum, May Forrester, J. W. (1971) ' Alternatives to catastrophe', Ecologist, 1, and World dynamics

(Cambridge, Mass.) Gerasimov, I. P. (1971) ' V. I. Vernadskij als Schopfer der wissenschaftlichen Konzeption von

der Biosphare', Vergl. Resursy biosfery na territorii SSR (Moscow), 8-10 Hesmer, H. (1966) Der kombinierte land- und forstwirtschaftliche Anbau, I. Tropisch-Afrika

(Stuttgart) Leszczycki, S. (1972) ' Perspective on development of geographical sciences', Presidential

Address to the XXII Int. Geogr. Congr., Montreal Lugard, F. (1904) Geogrl. J. 23, 14 Manshard, W. (1971) 'Die Stellung der Geographie in der Internationalen Wissenschafts

organisation der UNESCO', Geogr. Rundschau, 373-8 Manshard, W. (1972)' Man and Environment', Editorial, Geoforum 10, 3-5 Manshard, W. (1972) ' The scientific approach of the " Man and the Biosphere Programme " '

Geoforum 11, 83-4 Manshard, W. (1973)' Umweltbelastung in Entwicklungslandern-gegenwartige und zukiinftige

Perspektiven', Vierteljahresberichte des Forschungsinst. der Friedr. Ebert-Stiftung Nr. 52, 117-25

Manshard, W. (1974) Tropical agriculture Neef, E. (1972) ' Geographie und Umweltwissenschaft', Petermanns Mitt., 81-8 Nielsen, E. (1973) 'Coastal erosion in the Nile Delta', Nature and Resources (UNESCO,

Paris, 1973/N.1), 14-18 Prothero, R. M. (1953) ' Some contributions of geography to tropical studies: the need for

integration', NISER Conf. Proc. (March, 1953), 73-88 Reichardt, R. (1970) 'Approaches to the measurement of environment', Internat. Soc. Sc.

Journal XXII, 4, 661-71 O'Reilly Sternberg, H. (1973) 'Development and conservation', Erdkunde, 253-65 Rittershofer, F. (1973) ' " Transamazonika " und die okologischen Folgen ', Entwicklung und

Zusammenarbeit (Bonn, 1973/12), 12-13 Schmithilsen, J. (1973) 'Die Qualitat der Umwelt des Menschen', Ms. Lecture, Univ. of

Cologne, 20.1.1973 Stanovnik, J. (1971) ' International organization and the human environment ', Rensselaerville

Conference, Statement 21.5.1971 Thomas, W. L. (ed.) (1956) Man's role in changing the face of the earth (Chicago) UNESCO (1971) ' Use and conservation of the biosphere', Natural Resources Res. X (Paris) UNESCO (1973) MAB, Final Report Internat. Co-ordinating Council, Paris, 10-19.4.1973



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