FITZHUGH

ROSSABI

HONEYCHURCH

EDITED BY:

WILLIAM W. FITZHUGHThe Smithsonian Institution

MORRIS ROSSABICity University of New York and Columbia University

WILLIAM HONEYCHURCHYale University

13th-century paiza, a safe conduct pass protecting officials, traders, and emmisaries

• The Bronze Age & the Inner Asian Steppe

• The ascendancy of the Xiongnu, empires before Genghis

• The Golden Horde, impact in the west

• Kublai Khan, including his attempts to invade Japan

• The decline of the Yuan Dynasty; Ming to Marxism

• Contributions by forty leading scholars

• 320 pages, 270 color illustrations & 15 maps

GENG

HIS KHAN and THE MO

NGO

L EMPIRE

Smithsonian Institution/

NMAH/ Odyssey Books

Genghis Khan and the Mongol Empire—Mongolia from Pre-History to Modern Times

A concise, rich text, with contributions from archaeology to biological anthropology. Presented in five parts, concluding

with Genghis’ legacy; the decline of the Yuan dynasty to the present day. Findings from excavations and extensive evidence of handicraft production and metalwork. The book’s clear prose, beautiful design, and wide-ranging illustrations will fascinate general readers as well as scholars.

William Fitzhugh, the director of the Arctic Studies Center at the Smithsonian Institution, is an anthropologist specializing in circumpolar archaeology, residing in Washington, DC.

ISBN 978-962-217-835-9

US$39.95

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GENGHIS KHANAND THE MONGOL EMPIREEditEd by

William W. Fitzhugh Morris RossabiWilliam Honeychurch

ProjEct AdministrAtor

Abigail McDermott

PublishEd by Arctic Studies Center, Smithsonian Institution & Mongolian Preservation Foundation in collaboration with Odyssey Books & Maps

distributEd in usA by

W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.

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Contents

Part III. The Mongolian Western Empire

22. The Mongolian Western Empire by David Morgan 16323. Rashid al-Din by David Morgan 17024. The Golden Horde and Russia by Daniel C. Waugh 17325. Conquerors and Craftsmen: Archaeology of the Golden Horde 181 by Mark G. Kramarovsky 26. The Mongols at War by Timothy May 191

Part IV. Kublai Khan and Yuan China

27. The Vision in the Dream: Kublai Khan and the Conquest of China by Morris Rossabi 20328. Emissaries, East and West: Rabban Sauma and Marco Polo by Morris Rossabi 21729. Ibn Battuta by Ross E. Dunn 22030. The Yuan Synthesis: Chinese Influence on the Mongol Culture (1271–1368) 223 by François Louis 31. Chinese Influence on Iranian Art in the Mongol Empire by Willem J.Vogelsang 23332. A Marriage of Convenience: Goryeo–Mongol Relations in the Thirteenth and 239 Fourteenth Centuries by George L. Kallander 33. The Lost Fleet of Kublai Khan: Mongol Invasions of Japan by James P. Delgado, 245 Randall J. Sasaki and Kenzo Hayashida 34. Forensics in the Gobi: The Mummies of Hets Mountain Cave by Bruno Frohlich, 255 Tsend Amgalantugs, David R. Hunt, Janine Hinton and Erdene Batshatar33. Cave Burials of Mongolia by Ulambayar Erdenebat 259

Part V. Genghis Khan’s Legacy

36. Mongolia from Empire to Republic, 1400 to 1921 by Pamela K. Crossley 26537. Buddhism in Mongolia by Shagdaryn Bira 27238. Genetic Legacy of Genghis Khan by Theodore G. Schurr 27639. I Conquer Like a Barbarian! Genghis Khan in the Western Poular Imagination 278 by Peter K. Marsh and Myagmar Saruul-Erdene 40. Today’s Genghis Khan: From Hero to Outcast to Hero Again 283 by Nomin Lkhagvasuren

Acknowledgments 289 Object Checklist and Illustration Credits 291 Works Cited 299 Index 313

Forewords: Oyungerel Tsedevdamba, Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Mongolia, Member of the State Great Hural (Parliament) of Mongolia 8 Jonathan Addleton, United States Ambassador to Mongolia, 2009–12 9 Mongolia: The book and Genghis Khan: The Exhibition by Don Lessem 10 Contributors 19 1. Introduction: Genghis Khan: Empire and Legacy by William W. Fitzhugh 23 Part I. Before Genghis: Lands and Peoples of Mongolia

2. Mongolia: Heartland of Asia by James Bosson 433. Mongolia: Ancient Hearth of Central Asia by Steven B. Young 504. Tree Rings, Climate History, and Genghis Khan by Gordon C. Jacoby 53 5. Masters of the Steppe: Peoples of Mongolia by David Sneath 576. Mongolian Shamanism: The Mosaic of Performed Memory 65 by Manduhai Buyandelger7. Sounds from Nature: Music of the Mongols by Peter K. Marsh 728. Precursor to Empire: Early Cultures and Prehistoric Peoples 75 by William Honeychurch, William W. Fitzhugh, and Chunag Amartuvshin 9. Empire Building before the Mongols: Legacies of the Türks and Uyghurs 85 by Jonathan K. Skaff and William Honeychurch10. Genghis Khan Emerges: Power and Polity on the Steppe by Isenbike Togan 91

Part II. Genghis Times

11. Genghis Khan by Morris Rossabi 9912. Mongol Women by Morris Rossabi 11013. “All the Khan’s Horses” by Morris Rossabi 11314. Introduction to “The Secret History of the Mongols” by Paul Kahn 11715. Rule by Divine Right by Shagdaryn Bira 12416. Ancient Cities of the Steppe by J. Daniel Rogers 12717. Searching for Genghis: Excavations of the Ruins at Avraga 132 by Noriyuki Shiraishi18. The Crossroads in Khara Khorum: Excavations at the Center of the Mongol 137 Empire by Ulambayar Erdenebat and Ernst Pohl 19. The Search for Khara Khorum and the Palace of the Great Khan 146 by Hans-Georg Hüttel20. John of Plano Carpini and William of Rubruck by David Morgan 15021. Xi Xia: The First Mongol Conquest by Ruth W. Dunnell 153

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Lenders to the Exhibition

CovEr

Nadaam RidersHorses have been central to Mongol cultures for thousands of years. Speed and horsemanship are contested as much today as in the past, primarily in nadaam festivals held annually in early July. Competitive racing has been an important part of Mongol life for centuries, if not for thousands of years, and was the basis for training Genghis Khan’s 13th-century cavalry troops. PAgE 1Whistling arrowMongol battle commanders used whistling arrows as sound signals to initiate battle orders and for disorienting prey during the hunt. The sound was created by wind rushing across small cup-shaped hollows in the arrow stem.

PAgE 2-3 Erdene Zuu MonasteryAfter its heyday in the 13th century, the Mongol capital city, Khara Khorum, declined and knowledge of its location was lost. Archaeological work conducted in the 20th century identified its buried remains under and north of the Erdene Zuu monastery. Archaeologists believe the monastery, founded in 1586, is built on the remains of the khan’s palace.

bAck covEr:Paiza Use of metal paizas, or messenger passes, preceded the Mongol period, but were adopted by Genghis and later Mongol khans to guarantee safe passage for official representatives and emissaries throughout the Mongol realm. They were worn about the neck and were inscribed with a silver-inlaid message proclaiming that anyone harming the bearer could be put to death. Early paizas were shaped as oblong plates, while those of the Yuan period like this one were round and inscribed with ‘Phags-pa script.

The Dornod Province Museum, Mongolia

The Dornogobi Province Museum, Mongolia

Natsag Gankhuyag, Arlington, Virginia

Larry and Pat Gotuaco, San Francisco, California

The Institute of Archaeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Vahid and Cathy Kooros, with the cooperation of the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston

Arthur Leeper, Belvedere, California

The Military Museum of Mongolia

The National Library of Mongolia

The National Museum of Mongolia

The Qinxuan Collection, San Francisco, California

The State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg

 

Copyright © 2013 by Arctic Studies Center, Smithsonian Institution.

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-962-217-835-9

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Genghis Khan and the Mongol empire / edited by William W. Fitzhugh,

Morris Rossabi, William Honeychurch

p. cm.

Published in conjunction with an exhibition which is first appearing

at the Houston Museum of Natural Science, February-September 2009.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Genghis Khan, 1162-1227. 2. Mongols--History--To 1500. 3.

Mongolia--Antiquities. 4. Mongols--History. I. Fitzhugh, William W.,

1943- II. Rossabi, Morris. III. Honeychurch, William, 1966- IV. Houston

Museum of Natural Science.

DS22.G46 2009

950’.21092--DC22

Notes on Transliteration

The Editors have adopted a common sense approach toward translit-eration of foreign words. In general, the following standard systems of Romanization have been used: pinyin for Chinese, the revised roman-ization of Korean of 2000, and Hepburn for Japanese. The Royal Asiatic Society system has been used for the transliteration of Persian.

Antoine Mostaert’s scheme for the transliteration of Classical Mongolian, as modified by Francis Cleaves, has been adopted, except for these deviations:

ch is used for c

sh is used for š

gh is used for y

kh is used for q

j is used for j

Macrons and other symbols have not been used in order not to impose on the reader. For contemporary Mongolian terms in the Cyrillic alpha-bet we use a simplified transliteration system in which some letters and diacritical marks represent one or more than one Cyrillic letter as follows:

a is used for А

e is used for Э

i is used for И and Й

o is used for O and Ѳ

u is used for y and Y

y is used for Ы

ye is used for E

yo is used for Ё

ya is used for Я

yu is used for ю‘ is used for ь

When a Mongolian term has a traditional transliteration in English, such as the word “gobi,” we defer to that form. When authors have requested specific transliterations, we have done our best to accommodate them.