GCSE

History

Modern Depth Study:

Germany, 1918-39

Paper 3

1

Contents

1.The Weimar Republic, 1918-29

2. Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1929-33

3. Nazi control and dictatorship, 1933-39

4. Life in Nazi Germany, 1933-39

2

Key Topic 1: The Weimar Republic, 1918-29

How devastating was the First World War for Germany?

Germany before the First World War

Germany was a strong industrial country that had been building up its armaments

(weapons, naval ships, army) before the First World War, just as many other European

countries (e.g. Britain) had been.

They lacked an Empire and were jealous of Britain’s. Britain had the most powerful navy in

the world, Germany wanted to gain lands abroad to improve its prestige.

The German government was controlled by Kaiser Wilhelm II, he was a strong individual

who had a lot of power over Germany. There were some elections but the Kaiser was very

much in charge of the government.

Germany at the end of the First World War

German people were shocked at the ending of the war was one of shock. The German

people did not know that their army had been retreating in 1918 while many soldiers

thought they had not lost the war.

People were told that the army had been cheated by their government and Kaiser (king)

surrendering. In the end the Kaiser was forced to abdicate (resign).

Germany suffered the loss of 1.7 million young men, with another 4.3 million men being

wounded during the conflict.

The amount produced by industry and factories fell by over 40% between 1914 and 1918.

The workforce was not physically fit enough to work as hard as required as food

shortages had been so bad that, "Germans ate dogs, crows, zoo animals and rodents, and

even the front-line troops were reduced to meagre (small) portions of horse-meat."

Food shortages also led to widespread starvation especially as the British were blocking

German ports.

In early October, 1918 Prince Max of Baden formed a government and sought to make

peace with Britain, France and the USA.

Revolution of 1918-19: In October 1918, the German navy mutinied at a port called Kiel.

They had refused to attack a British fleet which led to unrest across Germany. This led

to the Kaiser deciding to abdicate (resign) on 9th November.

Problems for Germany at the end of the War:

1. Power vacuum: The Kaiser left Germany, he had been incredibly powerful, this created a

power vacuum (a lack of anyone in charge).

2. Shock of defeat: A new German government (led by Friedrich Ebert) agreed to

surrender and signed the Armistice on 11th November 1918; they believed they were

agreeing to peace terms created by US President Woodrow Wilson. These were known as

the 14 points (as there were 14 of them) and the German government thought they were

3

reasonable. Others said that the new government was filled with Jews and Communists

who had stabbed the army in the back. As well as this, there were rumours that Jewish

banks had refused to give the German army any more money which forced them to lose

the war.

3. Anarchy: Germany was in a state of near anarchy (lawlessness) as armed groups of

soldiers were disbanded from the army but kept their weapons, they formed bands known

as Freikorps and roamed the streets causing trouble. Berlin was too dangerous a place for

the new government to be formed there.

4. Stab in the back myth: People in Germany were generally shocked that they had lost

the war and blamed the new government for this, rather than the Kaiser. They believed

that the new government stabbed the army in the back by surrendering, this was known

as the ‘stab in the back myth’.

Creating the Weimar government:

The new government was to be democratically elected, Ebert announced there would be

elections in Germany on 19th January 1919. Instead, they formed a new government in

Weimar, a more peaceful town. This new government became known as the Weimar Republic.

There were LOTS of new political parties and because of the voting system, there was no

party with over half of the seats. This meant that the parties had to share power by forming

a coalition.

The results of the elections in January 1919:

Party Number of seats

Social Democratic Party (SDP) 163 (39%)

German Democratic Party (DDP) 75 (18%)

Centre Party (ZP) 71 (17%)

German National People’s Party (DNVP) 44 (10%)

Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD) 22 (5%)

Bavarian People’s Party (BVP) 20 (5%)

German People’s Party (DVP) 19 (5%)

Others 7 (2%)

Total 421

At the end of the war, Germany was in a weak position whereas before the war, they

had been strong and wealthy. Many people blamed the new government for all of the

problems and viewed it as weak as no party had overall control. In the following years,

the Weimar government faced a number of threats and was very unpopular. People felt

that democracy was weak compared with the strong rule of the Kaiser before the war.

In reality, the government struggled due to the number of problems created by the war

and how badly Germany had been affected.

4

How strong was the Weimar Constitution?

A constitution is simply a set of rules/principles that determine how a government works. As

the Kaiser had left Germany, they needed a new way of governing Germany that was more

democratic as this is what the USA wanted.

The new constitution had strengths as well as weaknesses:

Feature of

government

Strengths Weaknesses

President They were elected every 7 years

which provided some stability. He

was elected separately from the

Reichstag.

It would be difficult to remove the

President making it less democratic.

However, Ebert was not popular

with the army who wanted a strong

military leader like the Kaiser.

Chancellor

(equivalent of

our Prime

Minister)

They would lead the Reichstag

(Parliament) and be supported by

the President, who chose the

Chancellor.

They would have to make

compromises in order to get support

from other parties meaning they

could not always fulfil their

promises to the public.

Reichstag

(German

Parliament,

equivalent of

our House of

Commons

where MPs sit)

There were 421 members in 1919

but the Reichstag was expanded to

647 by 1933. They were elected by

Proportional Representation

meaning every vote would count to

determine the percentage of seats

each party would be given.

It was difficult for one party to get

a majority (50%+). This meant

bigger parties had to compromise

and work with smaller parties. It

was easy for small and extremist

parties to gain power this way. It

was also easy for extremist parties

to quickly get seats.

Voters All men and women over the age of

20 could vote which made this

system fair and democratic.

The Weimar government was

unpopular, people would vote for

anti-democratic parties which would

make life more difficult for the

government.

Article 48

This was an

important rule

of the

Constitution

This gave the President and

Chancellor the power to make laws

without the approval of the

Reichstag during an emergency to

restore public order and safety.

It could be abused by the President

and Chancellor and make them seem

like dictators who were ruling for

themselves.

Proportional

Representation

This meant that every vote

counted as each party gained the

same percentage of seats as they

gained in votes. This made the

voting very fair.

It meant that there were lots of

parties meaning power had to be

shared in a coalition. This made it

unpopular with conservative elites

such as judges who did not like how

liberal the new government was.

5

One of the biggest problems for the new government was settling the problems

6

created by the First World War. France blamed Germany for the outbreak of the war, as

the German army attacked France early in the war. The leaders of Britain, France and the

USA created a document called the Treaty of Versailles, which was strongly influenced by

the French hatred. This document created the peace terms to try and rebuild Europe

following the war but it punished Germany severely.

Terms of the Treaty - GARGLE

Guilt for the War

By clause 231 of the treaty, Germany had to

accept the blame ‘for causing all the loss and

damage’ of the war.

Armed forces

The Treaty restricted German armed forces to: - only 100,000 men in the army - conscription was banned – soldiers had to be volunteers - no submarines or aero planes - only six battleships - the Rhineland had to be de-militarised

Reparations Germany had to pay for all the damage of the war – a sum was eventually set at £6.6 billion – in installments,

until 1984.

Germany lost land - Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France

- The Saar coalfields were given to France for 15 years

- Malmedy was given to Belgium

- North Schleswig was given to Denmark (after a plebiscite)

- West Prussia (including the ‘Polish corridor’) and Upper Silesia were given to Poland.

- German colonies were made ‘mandates’ of the League of Nations, to be looked after by France (Cameroons),

Britain (Tanganyika), Japan (islands in the Pacific), Australia (New Guinea) and New Zealand (Samoa)

League of Nations An international forum set up to settle disputes by discussion, not war.

Extra points

In addition, the Treaty: - Forbade Germany and Austria to join together - Made Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania independent states.

In all, Germany lost: - 10% of its land - all its colonies - 12% of its population - 16% of its coalfields

7

How severe were the threats to the Weimar Republic?

Why was the Weimar Republic so unpopular?

Reason 1: ‘Stab in the back’ myth

The Weimar government was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The chancellor

at the time, Scheidemann resigned due to his disgust at how harsh the Treaty was on

Germany. The terms were incredibly harsh on Germany, particularly as Germany was forced

to take the blame for the war starting (clause 231) which meant they had to promise to pay

for the damages caused by the war, which was eventually set at £6.6 billion in 1921. This led

to widespread outrage and people blamed the Weimar government for signing the Treaty,

despite the fact that they were forced to sign it or see France invade Germany. A rumour

circulated Germany that the ministers in the Weimar government had surrendered even

though the army was winning so that they could force the Kaiser from power. In times of

trouble, this rumour became more popular and discredited the government.

Reason 2: Treaty of Versailles

The terms of the Treaty crippled Germany economically. As well as the reparations bill,

Germany lost 10% of its land and 16% of its coalfields such as the Saar coalfield. This land

was particularly valuable and would help Germany to make the reparations payments. This led

to anger, particularly amongst nationalists who felt that the Treaty was an attack on

Germany and had severely damaged their national pride. Furthermore, German citizens were

now being ruled over by foreign governments and it seemed that the Weimar government had

abandoned its citizens.

Reason 3: Weaknesses of the Constitution

The Weimar government appeared weak. This was the first time Germany had a fully

democratic system and the voting method meant that parties had to share power. This made

them appear weak and prevented them from keeping their promises to voters as they had to

water down proposals to get other parties to support them in passing new laws. This made

them particularly unpopular with conservative elites who disapproved of giving power to the

masses as it created a divided government with lots of smaller parties gaining influence in

the Reichstag.

Reason 4: Communist threat

The conservative elites were worried that Germany would see a communist revolution.

Communists had taken control of Russia in 1917 and the influence of communism was

spreading to Germany. The conservative elites feared a communist uprising that would strip

them of their wealth and property. This seemed highly likely as there was still widespread

starvation and the Weimar government appeared weak and unable to solve the economic

problems. This led to clashes between opposing groups such as the Freikorps and the

workers.

8

This unpopularity led to a number of rebellions/uprisings against the government. These

threats came from the left (communist/socialist) and the right (army/nationalists).

Threat 1: The Spartacist

Rising, 1919

Leaders: Rosa Luxemburg

and Karl Liebknecht

Party name: Spartacus

League (changed to German

Communist Party on 31st

December 1918)

Membership: Approximately

5000

Political view: Their party

was much like Lenin’s

Bolsheviks who had taken power in Russia in 1917. They argued strongly against Ebert’s plans

for a democratic Germany. They were Communists who wanted Germany ruled by workers’

councils.

Methods: Street demonstrations and rallies, strikes, sabotage and assassination, no

cooperation with Ebert and no support for the proposed parliament.

Height activity: From when the Kaiser abdicated in November 1918 until the end of their

uprising in January 1919.

The Spartacist Uprising

Freidrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic, was head of the government after the

abdication of the Kaiser. He ordered improvements in people’s living conditions such as

ending censorship and allowing free speech. He ordered a maximum 8-hour working day, help

for the unemployed and increased food supplies. He arranged for elections to be held in

January 1919 for a new national Parliament (you learnt about these last lesson).

The Spartacists opposed everything that Ebert did. For them, the changes that he made did

not go far enough. They were concerned about the plans for the new Parliament, believing

that it would not make Germany truly democratic. On the last day of 1918 they renamed

themselves the German Communist Party and made plans to seize power for themselves.

The Spartacists tried to seize power on the 5th January 1919 in what became known as the

Spartacist Uprising. They occupied public buildings, organised a general strike and formed a

revolutionary committee. The day before the uprising began, Ebert had created a volunteer

9

force of 4000 ex-soldiers known as Freikorps (Free Corps). They were right-wing men who

hated Communists. They were well disciplined and now fully equipped by the new government.

The Spartacist Uprising was crushed by the Freikorps and the leaders, Rosa Luxemburg and

Karl Leibknecht were executed.

Even though the Spartacist Uprising failed, the new Weimar government continued to clash

with communists. Many Germans were alarmed by the Communist threat because of the

radical and violent changes they had seen in Russia. Ebert’s government was ruthless in its

treatment of the communists, creating a lasting bitterness between them and his Socialist

Party.

Threat 2: The Kapp Putsch, 1920

Ebert’s government faced violent opposition from the Right. His right-wing opponents were

largely people who had grown up in the successful days of the Kaiser’s Germany. They had

liked the Kaiser’s dictatorial style of government. They liked Germany having a strong army.

They wanted Germany to expand its territory, and to have an empire. They had been proud

of Germany’s powerful industry.

Dr Wolfgang Kapp was a right-wing journalist who opposed the government on the grounds

that he held it responsible for the humiliating Treaty of Versailles. This view was shared by

many leading officers of the German army, who turned to Kapp for support. Two significant

officers joined Kapp. They were General Luddwitz and General Ludendorff.

In March 1920, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led 5000 Freikorps into Berlin in a rebellion known as the

Kapp Putsch (Putsch means rebellion). The army refused to fire on the Freikorps, and it

looked as if Ebert’s government was doomed.

However, it was saved by the German people, especially the industrial workers of Berlin.

They declared a general strike which brought the capital to a halt with no transport, power

or water. After a few days, Kapp realized he could not succeed and left the country. He was

hunted down and died while awaiting trial. It seemed that the Weimar government had

support and power after all. Even so, the rest of the rebels went unpunished by the courts

and judges. The Kapp Putsch also revealed that the Weimar government had more enemies

than just the communists and that the support of the army could not be taken for granted.

Nonetheless, we should consider that the Freikorps had helped crush the Spartacist

Uprising and that the strike from the workers helped to crush the Kapp Putsch. This shows

that the enemies of the Weimar government on the left and the right hated each other more

than they hated the Weimar government. This perhaps was its greatest strength in its early

years.

10

Threat 3: The Munich Putsch, 1923

Adolf Hitler:

Born in 1889 in Austria

Joined the Germany army in 1914 and fought in the First World War. Won medal for

bravery

Nazi Party:

Founded by Anton Drexler to draw workers away from Communism.

Original name = German Workers’ Party

Joined by Hitler in 1919

1920 – Hitler helped to write the 25 Point Programme, outlining the party’s beliefs (anti-

democratic, anti-Communist, anti-Treaty of Versailles, belief in superiority of the German

Master Race, anti-Semitic)

The party was renamed the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. At this point (pre-

Munich Putsch), the party believed in attacking big businesses.

Hitler became the leader of the Nazi Party in 1921 and set up the SA as a party militia

force who began attacks on other political parties. Hitler saw the Nazi Party as a

revolutionary force at this point, whose aim was the overthrow of the Weimar Republic

that he saw as being controlled by the November Criminals, Jews and Socialists.

Munich Putsch in November 1923 – This was a Nazi attempt to overthrow the government

by force. Hitler stormed a meeting of the Bavarian government in a beer-hall in Munich

and threatened the leaders, as well as threatening to commit suicide, if they did not join

him. He and his supporters then took to the streets and planned to march on Berlin.

However, the police failed to support him, opened fire and the putsch was suppressed.

Although the Munich Putsch failed, but the trial and publicity that followed gave Hitler

the chance to make a name for himself. He gained sympathy from a right-wing judge and

despite only being sentenced to 5 years in prison, he ended up serving a mere 9 months.

1924 – in prison, Hitler wrote ‘Mein Kampf’ (My Struggle), outlining his main ideas about

how Germany should be ruled

On his release from prison, he started to rebuild the Nazi Party, improving the way it was

organised and changing its tactics

His aim was to use democratic means, rather than force, to get into power as he realised

this would be a more secure method. The Nazi Party joined the first elections in 1924.

Introduced party organisation and a strong propaganda machine. Attempted to appeal to

the middle classes rather than just the workers in order to widen appeal in elections.

Aims of the Nazi Party

Make Germany strong and reverse Treaty of Versailles

Create a pure German master race

Restore traditional values in Germany

Strong government with clear leader

Destroy communism

11

The Putsch

On the 8 November, Kahr, the Bavarian Prime Minister, and his two most senior Bavarian

officials were addressing a meeting of around 3000 businessmen at a beer hall in Munich.

Hitler and Goering arrived with 600 Stormtroopers. Hitler stopped the meeting and took

Kahr and his ministers into a side room at gunpoint where he persuaded them to support him

in overthrowing the government.

The first part of his plan had succeeded but now he made a big mistake. He let Kahr go, while

he and Ludendorff planned how their supporters could seize Munich the following day. It

soon became clear that Kahr’s pledge of support, made at gunpoint, was worthless. When

news of the putsch reached Berlin the government ordered the army to stop it. The Nazis

could not backtrack now, however. They would march to Munich the next day as planned.

They would challenge the army and the police not to fire on them, but support them. With

Ludendorff as their leader, Hitler hoped they might succeed.

So the next morning in the driving snow, Hitler, Ludendorff and 3000 Nazis marched into

Munich. When they reached the city centre they found the police and the army waiting for

them. In a narrow street called the Residenzestrasse about 100 police blocked the path of

the march.

The police used rubber truncheons and rifle butts to push back the crowd. On Nazi ran

forward and shouted to the police: ’Don’t shoot, Ludendorff and Hitler are coming.’ Hitler

cried out ‘Surrender!’ Then a shot rang out – no one knows who fired first – and a hail of

bullets swept the street from either side. Hitler fell, either pulled down or seeking cover. He

had dislocated his shoulder. The shooting lasted only a minute, but sixteen Nazis and three

policemen lay dead or dying in the street.

According to eye-witnesses Hitler now lost his nerve. He was the first to scramble to his

feet. He struggled into a yellow car which was waiting nearby. He was undoubtedly in great

pain from his dislocated shoulder, and probably believed himself to have been wounded.

Ludendorff on the other hand, marched onwards to the next square where he was arrested.

Hitler himself was arrested two days later.

12

How far was 1923 a year of crisis? Problem

Germany owes Britain, Belgium France and some other countries the equivalent of £6.6billion.

Germany had to make regular payments in DM (Deutsch Mark) to these countries.

Germany cannot afford to keep making these payments.

So…Invasion of the Ruhr

In 1922, Germany announced that it could not afford to pay

reparations for the next 3 years.

France did not believe this and was determined to make Germany

pay.

In 1923, 60,000 French and Belgian troops marched into the Ruhr,

an important industrial area in Germany. They seized control of all

mines, factories and railways. They also took supplies from shops and set up machine-gun

posts in the streets.

Germany’s response

They told the workers in the Ruhr NOT to co-operate with the French. All workers went on

strike. This policy was known as passive resistance and was meant to be non-violent. Despite

this, 140 Germans were killed in clashes with French/Belgian troops.

The workers who went on strike received money from the German government but this was

incredibly expensive at a time when they had lost the money coming from the Ruhr.

The government was running desperately short of money and decided the solution was to

print more money.

This was a disastrous decision for most Germans.

What is ‘hyperinflation’?

1. The government became short of money

2. They printed more money to pay workers and their debts.

3. The more money printed, the less it was worth.

4. People lost confidence in the German Mark.

5. Prices rise at an incredible rate. In January 1919, $1 = 9

marks, November 1923, $1 = 200 billion Marks! At one

stage, an egg cost 80 million Marks.

6. By November 1923 the German Mark was worthless.

13

Why did this happen?

Paper money is really just an ‘IOU’. If you look at any

paper note it says ‘I promise to pay the bearer upon

demand the sum of…’. Theoretically, paper money could

be exchanged for its value in gold. So if you have more

paper money but the same amount of gold, your money

buys you less gold and this is how the value of money

decreases – it gets you less gold.

- Hyperinflation losers

People with savings found that these became

worthless e.g. if you had 2000 marks in the

bank, this amount did not increase – interest

rates did not rise with inflation.

Pensioners were badly hit.

In 1919 6000 Marks was a small fortune – by 1923 it wouldn’t even by a stamp.

Workers found that wage increases did not keep up with rising prices.

Some people did benefit…

- Hyperinflation winners

People with debts could pay these off easily as the amount of money they owed stayed

the same.

However, on the whole hyperinflation ruined the German economy.

Did hyperinflation damage the Weimar Republic more than any other problem?

The Weimar Republic was seriously weakened by hyper-inflation. Millions lost their savings

and there was widespread poverty. Ordinary, respectable Germans who had worked hard all

their lives lost out whilst people who had been in debt did well out of it. This seemed

extremely unfair and turned a lot of people against the Weimar Republic.

It was hard to have confidence in the government when there was such chaos and they were

largely seen as responsible for the economic troubles. The damage caused by hyperinflation

was not forgotten.

14

Why was Germany able to recover after 1923?

Reason 1: The Dawes Plan

Stresemann agreed a new repayment plan with for the £6.6 billion reparations

The US Vice-President, Charles Dawes, agreed to provide Germany with loans to help the

German economy to recover. They provided $3,000 million over the next 6 years.

Germany would use this money to improve its industry and make repayments

Germany would pay 1 billion Marks for the first year; this would increase to 2.5 billion by

the 4th year.

The French were to leave the Ruhr industrial area by 1925.

This helped to stabilise the German economy and led to long-term improvements in its

prosperity. Stresemann was applauded for his success in negotiating this deal and

became a key figure in the Weimar government. He stood down as Chancellor though

after 5 months to take up the position as Foreign Secretary, which he held for 5

years. This ensured long-term stability for Germany’s economy by both providing the

finances for Germany’s recovery and opportunity for them to invest in their industry for

the longer-term recovery which would provide jobs.

Reason 2: Political stability – Stresemann

The Social Democrats were the biggest single party in the Reichstag up to 1930.

Extremist groups gradually lost support as the economy improved.

Election results, 1924-28

Party May 1924 December 1924 May 1928

Social Democrats

(SDP)

Moderate socialists

100

131

153

National Party

(DNVP)

Moderate

nationalists

95

103

73

Communist Party

(KPD)

Extreme left

62

45

54

Nazi Party (NSDAP)

Extreme right

32

14

12

This provided a period whereby the government could achieve more of its aims to keep

voters happy as they wouldn’t have to negotiate as much with rival parties to pass laws.

The SDP did not achieve a majority (over 50%) but were the main party of power

throughout the period. Their increased support over this period demonstrates the

success they had in helping the economic recovery which voters rewarded with support.

15

Reason 3 – The new currency (Rentenmark)

Hyperinflation in 1923 made the German Mark worthless.

The Rentenmark was introduced as a temporary currency in November 1923.

In 1924, it was converted into a permanent replacement, the Reichsmark.

This brought a swift end to hyperinflation and made trade and paying for

services much easier. It ensured that confidence in the economy was

restored and meant Germany could again trade with other countries.

Peoples’ wages could be paid in this new currency which stimulated the

economy again.

Reason 4 – Foreign policy

In 1925, Stresemann (as Foreign Secretary) signed an agreement with

Britain, France, Belgium and Italy.

o They agreed that the existing borders (agreed in the Treaty of

Versailles) would remain in place, Germany would not attempt to gain

back land it had lost.

In September 1926, Germany was invited to join the League of Nations.

In 1928, Germany signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact with 64 other nations.

o It was agreed that armies would only be kept for self-defence and that

international disputes would be solved by ‘peaceful means’.

These policies greatly improved Germany’s international reputation which

helped to stimulate further trade between nations. It led to a further

renegotiation of the reparations payments which resulted in the Young Plan

of 1929. Germany successfully negotiated a reduction in the total

reparations bill from £6.6 billion to £1.85 billion as a result of an

investigation undertaken by a US banker, Owen Young. They were also

given more time to repay, 59 years in total. This helped to prolong the

economic recovery by ensuring the reparations payments were not inhibiting

the growth of the economy and made it more affordable for Germany. The

Allies also agreed to remove troops that had been stationed on the banks

of the Rhine which was a mark of the confidence the Allies had in the

German government to maintain order.

NB: The Young Plan never came into effect due to the Wall Street Crash.

16

17

To what extent was 1924-29 a ‘golden age’ for German society and culture?

Successes/improvements

Failures/Problems

1. The economy:

Wages

By 1928, the value of wages had increased by 10%; German workers were amongst the

best paid in Europe.

Those who had lost money in the 1923 hyperinflation crisis did not recover their savings,

this particularly hurt the middle and upper classes meaning they were less likely to invest

their money now and support the economic recovery.

Unemployment remained high amongst professions such as lawyers, civil servants and

teachers.

In April 1928, 184,000 middle class people were unemployed but did not qualify for

unemployment relief (benefits).

Housing

There was a shortage of housing across Germany so architects and planners were

employed to reduce this.

Building was helped by low interest loans; tax breaks for house builders and land grants.

1924-31: more than 2 million new homes built; 200,000 were renovated or expanded.

By 1929 there was 33 times more housing than in 1913.

Homelessness reduced by 60% by 1928.

Unemployment insurance

Germany already had an insurance scheme into which everyone paid through taxes to

support the ill, old and anyone who could not work due to accident. The Weimar

government extended this in 1927 by ensuring all employees paid into the scheme.

War veterans and widows were also supported as well as single mothers and the disabled.

Women in work

The proportion of women in work remained very similar to how it had been previously.

After the war, the better paid jobs were taken back by the men, especially in heavy

industry.

Married women who worked suffered discrimination from traditionalists who believed

they should be at home caring for their husband and children.

Women gained work in new areas such as the civil service, teaching and social work.

Women in the civil service earned the same as men.

By 1933 there were 100,000 women teachers and 3,000 doctors.

2. Politics

Many of the political changes are detailed in the previous section, here are some additional

details on how political change affected women.

Women gained the right to vote on the same basis as men: all women over the age of 20

could vote under the Weimar constitution from 1919.

Equality of opportunity for the sexes was also applied to education and legal rights.

By 1926, there were 32 female deputies in the Reichstag.

18

3. Culture

Leisure

Women enjoyed more freedom e.g. being able to go out unescorted, drinking and smoking

in public and had access to new fashions such as short skirts, shorter hair cuts and

wearing make up. This was heavily influenced by fashions in America.

There were American factories in Germany which produced goods influenced by American

fashions.

Architecture

The Bauhaus (School of building) movement

pioneered new designs e.g. housing estates,

chairs, cigarette kiosks.

The founder of the Bauhaus movement, Walter

Gropius believed in using basic shapes and

colours as well as being careful with how much

space, material, time and money the structures

would need. It was much more minimal than the

older more elaborate designs.

Art

Art shifted towards greater realism – focussing on

everyday life. 1920s artists believed art should

represent society at that time.

This new approach was referred to as ‘new

objectivity’.

George Grosz (a former soldier who became a

communist) often depicted disabled people along with

robot-like figures in depressing cities; the figures are

seen to have little control over their own lives.

Otto Dix tried to show the uglier side of humanity by

finding characters to represent this, he too was heavily

influenced by his wartime experiences.

Cinema and theatre

Fritz Lang produced the film Metropolis which was regarded as the most technically

advanced film of the decade.

Marlene Dietrich became one of the most popular film stars as she played a strong,

mysterious and glamorous women.

‘The cabinet of Dr Caligari was a horror film with an anti-war and anti-military message.

Zeittheater and Zeitoper were theatres and operas ‘of the time’ with greater realism,

just like art.

19

Key Topic 2: Hitler’s Rise to Power, 1929-33

How was the Nazi party formed, 1918-23?

The Nazi party was founded by Anton Drexler at the end of the First World War. Hitler

joined later and eventually designed their ideology (set of beliefs) with Drexler.

An overview of Hitler’s life:

Born in Austria in 1889, Hitler had an unhappy childhood. His father was a drunk and was

often violent. By 1900 it was clear that Hitler was doing badly at school.

Hitler ran away to Vienna in Austria. He wanted to go to Art College but was rejected.

Between 1909 and 1914 he was virtually ‘down and out’. He lived little better than a tramp,

selling postcards he had painted.

Hitler was in Germany when the First World War began in 1914. He volunteered to join up.

Like most Germans he celebrated and thought the war would be over quickly.

During the war 1914-1918, Hitler was awarded for bravery with the Iron Cross Second

Class in 1914 and First Class in 1918. He called the war, ‘the greatest of all experiences.’

When the war ended in 1918 Hitler was in hospital, temporarily blinded by a gas attack.

He was devastated when the war ended.

In 1919 Hitler remained in the army and became an informant. He was to attend meetings

of political groups and report back to any potential rebellion/violence. He became

interested in the work of the DAP and eventually joined them. By 1922 he was the leader

and had changed the name to NSDAP – the Nazis. His brilliant speeches attracted more

support for the party.

In 1923 Hitler attempted a violent takeover. The uprising was a failure. 16 Nazis were

killed and Hitler was arrested and sent to prison in 1924.

Nine months later Hitler was released. However, between 1924 and 1928 the Nazis got

very little support. Many Germans regarded them as a joke.

From 1929 to 1933 support for the Nazis increased rapidly. Hitler and the Nazis

promised ‘work and bread’ and to restore Germany to greatness. Their share of the vote

quickly grew. In January 1933, Hitler became Chancellor (PM). He now had political

control of Germany and a lot to smile about.

Formation of the Nazi party

The party was formed in the aftermath of the First World War, amongst the violence and

chaos. The Nazis were created partly as a reaction to the communists who attempted a

revolution in 1919. The Nazis despised the communists. Despite this, the party was actually

socialist in some of its economic views. There were lots of right-wing parties being formed at

this time, the Nazis were not unusual. The increase in membership that they enjoyed

between 1919 and 1923 meant they were able to publish their own newspaper, The People’s

Observer. This was used to spread their views which increasingly focussed around the

powerful leadership of Hitler. This helped the Nazi party to grow from 1,100 in June 1920 to

55,000 in November 1923.

20

Views of the Nazi party – the 25-point programme

Whilst the Nazi party is considered to be right-wing, their views were intended to appeal to

workers as well. This means their ideology is a mix of right-wing nationalism and left-wing

socialism; hence their name: National Socialist German Workers’ Party. Hitler and Drexler

worked together to establish the core beliefs (ideology) of the Nazi party. They agreed on

25 ideas which became known as the 25-point programme.

Left-Wing/Socialist views Right-wing/Nationalist views

All key businesses to be nationalised

(controlled by the government) that had

been formed into corporations.

The government to gain the profits from

major industries e.g. government gets

profits from the coal industry.

Seize land needed for communal purposes

(take land from owners that was needed for

schools, hospitals etc.)

A classless society (people not divided by

wealth).

Unite all Germans to form a Greater

Germany.

Destroy the Treaty of Versailles

Citizenship of Germany was only for people

of German blood, therefore no Jews could

be German citizens.

Deport foreign nationals if there was not

enough food for the German people.

All non-Germans who entered after 1914

forced to leave.

Fuhrerprinzip (leadership principle) – the

support for a strong and powerful leader.

The Sturmabteilung (SA/Brownshirts)

Hitler felt that an armed presence was needed to

protect speakers during meetings. He came into

contact with Ernst Rohm who had a squad of

Freikorps at his command. They shared similar views

and the SA agreed to support the Nazi party. They

wore brown shirts with a swastika arm band, though

they were a separate body to the party itself, they

essentially became a private army for the Nazis. The

SA’s role included:

- Protecting Nazi meetings from disruption

- Removing unwanted people from meetings,

especially communists

- Beating up opponents of the Nazis, especially

communists

- Putting up propaganda posters and destroying those of their opponents

21

How successful was the Munich Putsch?

Before reading this, it would be useful to remind yourself of the problems

in 1923 i.e. hyperinflation etc.

On the 8 November, Kahr, the Bavarian Prime Minister, and his two most senior Bavarian

officials were addressing a meeting of around 3000 businessmen at a beer hall in Munich.

Hitler and Goering arrived with 600 Stormtroopers. Hitler stopped the meeting and took

Kahr and his ministers into a side room at gunpoint where he persuaded them to support him

in overthrowing the government.

The first part of his plan had succeeded but now he made a big mistake. He let Kahr go, while

he and Ludendorff planned how their supporters could seize Munich the following day. It

soon became clear that Kahr’s pledge of support, made at gunpoint, was worthless. When

news of the putsch reached Berlin the government ordered the army to stop it. The Nazis

could not backtrack now, however. They would march to Munich the next day as planned.

They would challenge the army and the police not to fire on them, but support them. With

Ludendorff as their leader, Hitler hoped they might succeed.

So the next morning in the driving snow, Hitler, Ludendorff and 3000 Nazis marched into

Munich. When they reached the city centre they found the police and the army waiting for

them. In a narrow street called the Residenzestrasse about 100 police blocked the path of

the march.

The police used rubber truncheons and rifle butts to push back the crowd. On Nazi ran

forward and shouted to the police: ’Don’t shoot, Ludendorff and Hitler are coming.’ Hitler

cried out ‘Surrender!’ Then a shot rang out – no one knows who fired first – and a hail of

bullets swept the street from either side. Hitler fell, either pulled down or seeking cover. He

had dislocated his shoulder. The shooting lasted only a minute, but sixteen Nazis and three

policemen lay dead or dying in the street.

According to eye-witnesses Hitler now lost his nerve. He was the first to scramble to his

feet. He struggled into a yellow car which was waiting nearby. He was undoubtedly in great

pain from his dislocated shoulder, and probably believed himself to have been wounded.

Ludendorff on the other hand, marched onwards to the next square where he was arrested.

Hitler himself was arrested two days later.

The Trial

In February 1924 the trial began of the leading members of the putsch. It was at this point

that Hitler seemed to snatch some kind of victory out of the jaws of defeat. The trial gave

him a national platform on which to speak. He greatly impressed his audience by his

eloquence and the strength of his nationalist feelings. Newspapers throughout Germany and

around the world reported his claim that he had led the movement against the ‘treasonable’

22

Weimar system in Berlin. The trial established his reputation as the natural leader of

extreme right wing elements throughout Germany.

In the glare of publicity even the putsch itself seemed to confirm that Hitler was a man of

immense and unusual political talent. By sheer bluff he had secured the support of the famed

general Ludendorff who had publicly promised to serve under the dictatorship of ex-corporal

Hitler.

At the trial he was treated leniently. He was sentenced to five years imprisonment but

served less than nine months before he was released. His prison was Landsberg Castle. He

had his own room and had as many visitors as he wanted. He spent the time writing his book,

Mein Kampf (My Struggle). Ludendorff was let off without a prison sentence.

Although the years after the putsch were a difficult time for the Nazis, Hitler emerged

from it a much stronger figure. Ten years later, in 1933 he stated, ‘The events of 9th

November 1923, with their blood sacrifice, have proven the most effective propaganda for

National Socialism.’

Successes Failures

Hitler was initially successful in using

force to get the Bavarian Prime Minister,

Kahr, to support a revolt.

The Nazis had the support of an

important army general – Ludendorff

which helped to persuade others to

support them.

They raised 3000 supporters to attempt

the revolt.

The trial was a great success for the

Nazis as they gained national attention.

Newspapers covered the trial in detail

and this helped to spread the Nazi

messages.

The judge was sympathetic to Hitler and

allowed him to make long speeches which

showed his passionate hatred for the

Weimar government.

The Nazis later used this to show that

they had long opposed the Weimar

government when it failed after 1929.

When Hitler left prison, he reformed

the party and limited the violence of the

SA to give them more appeal.

Hitler published ‘Mein Kampf’ which sold

well and shared his ideology.

Kahr withdrew his support and informed

the police and army of Hitler’s intention

to attempt a revolt.

The 100 police officers refused to let

the Nazis through and did not support

them.

16 Nazis were killed and 4 policemen.

Hitler was arrested, as was Ludendorff.

Hitler was eventually sentenced to 5

years imprisonment (but only served 9

months).

The Nazi party was banned following the

Munich Putsch, though it continued to

operate in secret.

23

Why did the Nazis gain support between 1929 and 1933?

Reorganisation after 1925

Once released from prison, Hitler persuaded the President of Bavaria to lift the ban on

the Nazis.

Hitler appointed Gauleiter to run separate parts of the party, he chose people that were

loyal to him.

A conference was held in 1926 at Bamberg where Hitler won over possible leadership

rivals.

Hitler created his own bodyguard, the Schutzstaffel (SS) and replaced the leader of the

SA (Ernst Rohm) with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon. (Rohm was reinstated as leader of the

SA in 1930).

The Nazis focussed on gaining support from rural areas (farmers) rather than urban

voters.

The party won over some new supporters after reorganising. Their membership grew to

100,000 by the end of 1928 (having been 27,000 in 1925). This represents nationwide

support for the party.

Despite this, they only achieved 12 seats in the Reichstag in 1928, a fall from 32 in

1924. It wasn’t until the Wall Street Crash and its devastating results on the economy

that the Party gained support.

Context: The Wall Street Crash

In October 1929, the Wall Street stock exchange saw billions of dollars wiped from the

value of companies as share prices plummeted. This had a devastating effect on Germany as

US companies withdrew funding from Germany. German companies closed down over the

coming months which gave rise to extremely high unemployment:

The Nazis hugely benefitted from this as the millions of unemployed became angry with

the Weimar government who failed to deal with the situation.

24

The reasons for the rise of the Nazis - PLUG

Reason 1: Policies/Weimar responses

Politicians seemed unable to tackle the problems of the Depression.

When the Depression began to bite in 1930 the Chancellor, Bruning cut government

spending and welfare benefits.

o Some historians think that he was deliberately making the situation worse in order to

get the international community to cancel reparations payments.

o Other historians think that he was afraid of hyperinflation recurring as in 1923.

o In protest, the SPD pulled out of the government.

o To get his measures passed, Bruning relied on President Hindenburg to use his powers

under Article 48 to bypass the Reichstag.

Bruning and Hindenburg decided to call new elections in1930.

o This was a disastrous decision, as it gave the Nazis the opportunity to exploit the fear

and discontent in Germany.

o The new elections resulted in another divided Reichstag and the problems continued.

o The impression was the democracy involved politicians squabbling over which job they

would get in the Cabinet.

o Meanwhile, they did nothing about the real world, where unemployment was heading

towards 6 million and the average German’s income had fallen by 40% since 1929.

This led to anger, especially amongst the working classes who were the worst affected

by Wall Street Crash. They searched for alternatives to the main parties of the

Weimar government which appeared to collapse with the withdrawal of the SPD. This

helped the Nazis to gain support with the working classes as they offered an antidote

to the weak Weimar government.

Reason 2: Leadership – Appeal of Hitler

Hitler was a powerful speaker.

Hitler ran for president in 1932.

o He got 13 million votes to Hindenburg’s 19 million.

o Despite Hitler’s defeat, the campaign raised his profile hugely.

o Using films, radio and records he brought his message to millions.

o He travelled by plane on a hectic tour of rallies all over Germany.

o He appeared as a dynamic man of the moment, the leader of a modern party with

modern ideas.

This helped the Nazis to expand their support amongst the middle classes who believed

Germany now needed a strong leader to take control of government and provide quick

solutions that would prevent the extension of Communist support. Hitler also appeared

to be a dynamic leader who offered a strong vision for Germany’s future success, which

they would profit from.

25

Reason 3: Unity/Organisation – Propaganda and the SA

Nazi campaign methods were modern and effective, under the leadership of Goebbels.

They relied on bold slogans such as ‘blood and soil’ rather than detailed policies.

They talked about uniting the people of Germany behind a strong leader and traditional

values.

The Nazis repeated at every opportunity that they believed Jews, Communists, Weimar

politicians and the Treaty of Versailles were the causes of Germany’s problems.

They expressed hatred for Weimar’s democratic system and said that it was unable to

solve Germany’s economic problems.

Their posters and pamphlets could be found everywhere. The propaganda campaign was

orchestrated by Josef Goebbels and featured simple messages such as ‘blood and soil’ to

appeal to an old German ideal. Hitler was featured prominently to emphasise his strong

leadership.

Their rallies impressed people with their energy, enthusiasm and sheer size.

At this time, there were frequent street battles between Communist gangs and the

police. Unruly groups of unemployed workers gathered on street corners.

o In contrast, the SA and SS gave an impression of discipline and order. Many people

felt the country needed this kind of order.

The Nazis appeared to be highly organised against the lack of units in the Weimar

government. They used the collapse of the SPD in the Weimar government to

demonstrate the weaknesses of the democratic system and promised strength. The SA

were well deployed to promote the ideology of the party by spreading the propaganda

designed by Josef Goebbels. The working and upper classes believed the SA could be

used to deal with the communist threat and in contrast to the KPD (Communists), the

Nazis seemed extremely unified and disciplined.

Reason 4: Great depression – Wall Street Crash

6 million Germans being unemployed in the summer of 1932.

Nazis argued that the Weimar government was indecisive and Germany needed a strong

leader.

They argued that reparations were adding to Germany’s economic problems and therefore

they needed to destroy the Treaty of Versailles.

They argued that unemployment could be solved by joining the army, building Germany’s

armaments and constructing public works such as road building.

The Nazis’ Twenty-Five Points were very attractive to those most vulnerable to the

Depression: the unemployed, the elderly and the middle classes.

People started to see the Nazis as the only possible saviours of Germany and the way out

of this economic crisis.

The Wall Street Crash created the economic circumstances in which the extremist

ideologies of the Nazis became more appealing. The working and middle classes viewed

the democratic system to have failed and believed that now was the time to return to

the strong leadership style of the Kaiser. This period also saw the rise of extreme

leftist policies and the KPD which the upper and middle classes feared. The Nazis were

opposed to the Communists and were viewed as a better alternative.

26

EXTRA: Fear of Communism – Growth in Communist Party

As the crisis deepened, Communist support was rising too.

The Communist Red Fighting League broke up opposition party meetings, just like the SA.

They fought street battles with police.

Many middle-class business owners had read about how the Communists in the USSR had

discriminated against people like them.

The owners of the big industries (such as Bosch and Krupp) feared the Communists

because of their plans to introduce state control of businesses.

The industrialists were also concerned about the growing strength of Germany’s trade

unions.

This led to strong support for the Nazis from industrialists who felt that the Nazis

would combat these threats. The financial support given to the Nazis by the industrialists

and businessmen allowed the Nazis to fund the expansion of the SA as well as the

propaganda campaigns and Hitler’s attempts to become President in 1932. They also

became closer allies with the DNVP (National Party) and their leader, Hugenberg was a

major newspaper tycoon. He allowed the Nazis to publish articles which attacked

Chancellor Bruning. Farmers were also alarmed by the Communists. They had read about

Communist farming policies in the USSR where the Soviet government had taken over all

of the land. Millions of peasants had been killed or imprisoned in the process. In

contrast, the Nazis promised to help Germany’s desperately struggling small farmers.

27

Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor? The PLUG reasons above are all relevant for explaining why Hitler was able to become

Chancellor, the Nazis gained popularity which was needed for Hitler to then be invited as

Chancellor. In addition to this, Hitler needed political support to get Hindenburg to invite

him to become Chancellor.

The final reason was the Sneaky deal between von Papen and von Hindenburg to complete the

PLUGS.

Sneaky Deal – Political developments in 1932

Hindenburg was still President of the government and despised Hitler. During the elections

of 1932, the Nazis became the largest party in the Reichstag but Hindenburg still refused to

appoint Hitler as Chancellor.

Results of the elections in 1932:

Political Party

July 1932 November 1932

Number of seats % of vote Number of seats % of vote

Nazis 230 37.4 196 33.1

Social Democrats 133 21.6 121 20.4

Communist 89 14.3 100 16.9

Centre 75 12.5 70 11.9

National 37 5.9 52 8.8

People’s Party 7 1.2 11 1.9

Democratic 4 1.0 2 1.0

Bruning had been Chancellor since March 1930 but had little support left by 1932. His rule

depended on the use of Article 48 which undermined his position as it ignored the will of the

people who had voted for other parties in the Reichstag.

Hindenburg lost confidence in Bruning and appointed Franz von Papen to replace him.

However, the Nazis refused to work with von Papen and Hitler demanded the position of

Chancellor for himself. Hindenburg refused and instead asked General Kurt von Schleicher

to become Chancellor, believing his military background would allow him to control the

Reichstag. This plan failed and despite losing seats between the July and November

elections, the Nazis still refused to support any new laws unless Hitler was made Chancellor.

Von Papen met with Hitler in January of 1933 and agreed to support him in a Nazi-

Nationalist government with Von Papen as Vice-Chancellor. Papen used his influence with von

Hindenburg to appoint Hitler by convincing him they could use Hitler and the SA to suppress

the Communists and eventually force Hitler out of power. Hitler was appointed Chancellor on

30th January 1933. However, he was in a weak position as only 3 out of the 12 cabinet

ministers were Nazis, including himself. Hindenburg and Papen believed Hitler would be

merely a figurehead whilst they controlled Germany from behind the scenes.

28

Key Topic 3: Nazi control and dictatorship, 1933-39

How was Hitler able to become Fuhrer by August 1934?

Hitler’s position in 1933:

Support for Nazis had fallen from 37% to 33% in 1932 – a long way from a majority

Hitler could be sacked by Hindenburg at any time and Hindenburg despised Hitler -

'that Bohemian Corporal'

Only 2 other Nazis in government (Wilhelm Frick – Interior; and Hermann Goering) – 9

other ministers were controlled by Hindenburg and von Papen. These ministers were

generally ex-army, monarchists and nationalists.

Hitler was still at the whim of the army and trade unions as well – one could organise a

coup, the other a general strike (this had broken the Kapp Putsch in 1920)

Hindenburg and von Papen planned to use Hitler’s popularity.

o Von Papen said that in 2 months they would have pushed Hitler into a corner

But, by August 1934:

• Von Papen had resigned

• Hindenburg had died so Hitler was President as well as Chancellor

• Army had taken an oath of loyalty to Hitler

• Nazis were the only legal political party

• Threats to the Nazis had been eliminated

• Hitler could personally bring in new laws

How was he able to achieve this?

Step 1: Called New Elections

Within 24 hours of election as Chancellor, Hitler called for new elections to be held in

March 1933

The elections were dominated by terror with Nazis regularly breaking up the meetings

of socialists and communists. In Prussia Goering enrolled 50,000 extra people into the

police, almost all of whom were SA and SS.

69 people died during the 5 weeks of the election campaign

February 20 leading industrialists promised Hitler 3 million Reichsmarks – allowed

them to continue their work

27th February 1933 – Reichstag set alight.

Van der Lubbe – Communist arrested

Many believed it was a Nazi plot – still not conclusive either way – 1962 concluded van

der Lubbe worked alone. 1980 West Germany acquitted him posthumously. Ian Kershaw

argues that he DID act alone.

4000 leaders were arrested

28th February – Frick got Hindenburg to sign “Decree for the Protection of the

People”

Civil liberties were suspended and more power given to the government – arrest

without trial and the banning of political meetings and specific newspapers.

29

Step 2: Reichstag Fire

• Within 24 hours of election as Chancellor, Hitler called for

new elections to be held in March 1933

• Election campaigns were dominated by terror – 69 died

• February 20 leading industrialists promised Hitler 3 million

Reichsmarks

• 27th February Reichstag building set alight

Results of the Reichstag Fire

• Van der Lubbe – Communist arrested

• Many believed it was a Nazi plot – still not conclusive either way

• 4000 leaders were arrested

• 28th February – Frick got Hindenburg to sign “Decree for the Protection of the

People”

• Civil liberties were suspended and more power given to the government

Step 3: 5th March - New elections

Nazis pressured opponents – 69 people were killed

Goering used police in Prussia to crush opposition

Used radio propaganda to broadcast anti-communist message

Nazis got 44% of vote (288 seats)

Needed a coalition to get majority with nationalists

Changes in constitution required 2/3 vote

Step 4: 24th March – Enabling Law

• The Enabling Law/Act give power to pass laws without the

Reichstag or President for 4 years

• Claimed powers were necessary due to Communist threat

• Hitler needed 2/3 majority to get this

• Communists were banned already

• Centre Party were promised protection for

the Catholic Church

• Only SDP voted against

• Passed by 444-94 votes – Germany now a

dictatorship

Step 5: August 1934, Hindenburg dies

Hitler’s main political detractor had now died which removed Hitler’s final obstacle in

becoming Fuhrer.

30

Why did Hitler order the Night of the Long Knives?

By the Spring of 1934, Hitler’s dictatorship seemed secure. Germany was a one-party state

in which the rule of law had been abolished and the threat from the left (Communists) had

been crushed. However, conservative forces threatened Hitler in business, the Civil Service

and most importantly, the army.

What happened during the Night of the Long Knives?

Written after the war by Hitler’s chauffeur, Eric Kempka

“Just before Wiessee, Hitler suddenly breaks his silence: ‘Kempka’, he says, ‘drive carefully

when we come to the Hotel Hanselbauer: You must drive up without making any noise. If you

see an SA guard in the front of the hotel, don’t wait for them to report to me; drive on and

stop at the hotel entrance.’ Then, after a moment of deathly silence: ‘Rohm wants to carry

out a coup.’

An icy shiver runs down my back: I would have believed anything, but not a coup by Rohm!

I drive up carefully to the hotel entrance as Hitler had ordered. Hitler jumps out of the car,

and after him Goebbels, Lutze and the adjutants. Right behind us another car stops with a

squad of detectives which had been raised in Munich.

As soon as I have turned the car so that it is ready to leave in a moment, I rush into the

hotel with my gun at the ready… I run quickly up the stairs to the first floor where Hitler is

just coming out of Rohm’s bedroom…

(A few seconds later) Rohm comes out of his room in a blue suit and with a cigar in the

corner of his mouth. Hitler glares at him but says nothing. Two detectives take Rohm to the

vestibule of the hotel where he throws himself into an armchair and orders coffee from the

waiter. I stay in the corridor a little to one side and a detective tells me about Rohm’s

arrest.

Hitler entered Rohm’s bedroom alone with a whip in his hand. Behind him were two

detectives with pistols at the ready. He spat out the words: ‘Rohm, you are under arrest.’

Rohm looked up sleepily from his pillow: ‘Heil, my Fuhrer’.

‘You are under arrest’, bawled Hitler for the second time, turned on his heel and left the

room.

Over the weekend Rohm and around 200 other SA leaders were executed. These also

included other opponents of Hitler who were not part of the SA, for example the former

Chancellor von Schleicher.

Why did it happen?

Reason 1: The Threat of Ernst Rohm to leading Nazis

Röhm had made powerful enemies within the Nazi party. Hermann Göring and Heinrich

Himmler both pressured Hitler to take decisive action against Röhm and the SA to prevent

them from staging their own revolution.

Hitler needed to reduce rivalries within the party to assert his own control over the

leading Nazis and demonstrate his overriding power. The SA had now fulfilled their role

in establishing Hitler as Chancellor, he needed to have control over government to

assert himself as Fuhrer and Ernst Rohm undermined this.

31

Reason 2: To appease the conservative elites

In April 1934, a group of leading generals demanded that Hitler discipline the SA

brownshirts. They called for a return to normal decencies and an end to the violence. Hitler

needed the support of these generals and other conservatives as they were close to

President von Hindenburg. Hitler chose to keep the support of the Conservative elites as

they were key to transforming the economy and achieving the promises of employment

Hitler had made before his election. He needed their financial backing to continue.

Reason 3: Increase Hitler’s personal power

Hitler also felt threatened by the personal ambition of the SA leader, Ernst Röhm who was

the leader of 2 million men by now. Röhm wanted a revolution to remove all of the old ways of

governing such as the established army generals, wealthy businessmen and Civil Service. He

also wanted to amalgamate the SA with the army to create a new ‘People’s Army’ under his

leadership. This was treated with suspicion by many and it made Hitler uncomfortable as this

army would be loyal to Röhm rather than Hitler. The army swore an ‘oath of loyalty’ to

Hitler following the Night of the Long Knives. This made them loyal to him personally

which was vital for his military plans in the longer-term. It also ensured there was

continuity and stability.

SA vs Army

Advantage; Disadvantage; Problem

The SA:

Throughout the rise of the Nazis, Hitler depended on the SA to put his policies into action.

They had fought loyally for Hitler against the Communists and had helped him come to power.

By 1934, the SA was an enormous organisation with more than 2 million members. It was also

very powerful. In fact, its leader Ernst Rohm, whilst being an old friend of Hitler’s, was now

a potential rival.

Rohm wanted Hitler to continue the Nazi revolution by reducing the power of big business

and carrying out the anti-capitalist parts of the Nazi programme – such as taking over major

industries. Rohm also wanted the SA to take control of the army.

The SA had a reputation amongst many Germans for being thuggish.

The army:

The army was much smaller than the SA – it had only 100,000 soldiers.

The army leadership were supported by big business. They wanted Hitler to expand the

army and to buy new weapons.

The army was totally opposed to being taken over by the SA and was very suspicious of

Rohm. Hitler had always known how important the army was in gaining effective control of

Germany.

As soon as he became Chancellor on 3rd February 1933 he went to the army leaders to

explain his aims. He told them he intended to rearm Germany and to take over Lebensraum

in Eastern Europe. He also told them that his plans would involve defeating France in a war.

Many of the army chiefs were from upper-class families and rather looked down on Hitler.

On the other hand they agreed with Hitler’s nationalist aims and his belief that the army

needed to be much larger.

32

To what extent did the Nazis achieve a ‘police state’?

Success; Failures; Problem

The Gestapo = Nazi secret police

What: It was the Gestapo’s job to spy on anyone who they suspected of being anti-Nazi.

They had the power to tap telephones, open letters and collect information on a huge

scale about people they suspected.

The newspapers often reported on the success of the Gestapo arresting and locking up

enemies of the state. This led to many believing that they were ‘everywhere’.

The Gestapo relied on a huge network of informers who reported on local people who they

believed were anti-Nazi.

These informers, alongside Block Leaders helped the Gestapo arrest many ‘anti- Nazis’

without trial, torture and imprison them in concentration camps.

By 1939, there were around 160,000 people under arrest for political crimes.

There were only 40,000 agents for the whole of Germany and large cities such as

Frankfurt and Hamburg (with around 500,000 people) only had 40-50 agents.

Most Gestapo work (50-80%) was prompted by public informers, much of which was mere

gossip but created enormous amounts of paper work with limited results.

The Gestapo had few ‘top agents’ and over-relied on the Kripo for investigative work.

The SS (Schutzstaffel)

What: The black shirted ‘Schutz staffel’ or SS were originally Hitler’s personal body guard.

But the end of the Nazi regime it had grown into a vast organisation, involved in controlling

many aspects of Nazi life. The emergency powers of February 1933, which remained

permanently in force, to take suspects into custody, were put at the hands of the SS.

Between 1933 and 1939 225 000 Germans were convicted and imprisoned of political

crimes.

The leader of the SS, Heinrich Himmler managed to become leader of the Bavarian Police

in 1933, then he became leader of all of the police and SS three years later.

He expanded the membership of the SS. By 1939 there were 240,000 members organised

into different divisions. By 1944 there were over a million members

SD (Sicherheitsdienst)

What: It was an intelligence body under the Command of Himmler but run by Reinhard

Heydrich. Their purpose was to discover enemies of the Nazi party and act as an internal

police, removing people from the party itself.

It attracted many educated professionals to its ranks such as lawyers, economists and

professors.

33

Concentration camps

What: As soon as the Enabling Act was passed, the Nazis set up temporary prisons called

concentration camps. At first they were in old warehouses and disused factories, later

purpose built camps were erected in rural areas, away from the eyes of most people. The

first camp was at Dachau.

They placed political opponents that were arrested in the first months of 1933; especially

communists following the Reichstag Fire.

By the late 1930s the camps had been expanded into a massive business. Prisoners were

used as slave labour to mine or dig for raw materials. Others made weapons.

By 1939, there were 150,000 inmates in Concentration Camps.

The public feared the camps dreadfully and this fear helped to control people from

speaking or acting against the Nazi regime.

They were used to remove ‘undesireables’ such as the work-shy; homosexuals; sexual

offenders and later, Jews.

Law, Legal system and Judges

Court judges were generally conservative in view and had often struggled to get along

with the Weimar government meaning the judges were not so hostile to the Nazis.

The courts though had been ‘co-ordinated’ (gleichschaltung) and obliged to join the Nazi

Lawyers’ Association and make the oath of loyalty.

Very few were replaced and the justice minister until 1941, Franz Gurtner, was not a

Nazi.

However, over time the courts saw more interference by the Nazis.

o 1933: Special Courts setup to try political offences without a jury.

o 1934: The People’s Court was established to try cases of high treason with a jury

of Nazi members (7000 of 16,000 cases resulted in a death sentence)

o 1939: Anyone qualifying to become a judge had to make ‘a serious study of National

Socialism and its ideological foundations’.

o All legal authorities became subordinated to the SS-police system which

increasingly behaved above the law itself.

The decree Nacht und Nebel (night and fog) of 1941 gave the SS the right

to imprison without question any person thought to be dangerous.

34

How successful were attempts to control beliefs and attitudes?

Successes for the Nazis Failures for the Nazis

Religious Control

Germany was a highly religious country (2/3rds Protestant; 1/3rd Catholic). Nazism was heavily

opposed to Christianity. Their aim was to remove Christianity as the dominant ideology

(set of beliefs) and replace it with Nazism through the German Faith Movement.

German Faith Movement:

Ministry of Church Affairs was setup in 1935 to weaken the Catholic and

Protestant churches and setup an alternative – the German Faith Movement but

only 5% of the population joined it.

Catholic Church (22 million members):

In 1933, Hitler signed an agreement called the Concordat with Pope Pius XI, this meant

the Catholic church would not interfere with politics if Hitler did not interfere with the

church.

The Catholic Church supported the Centre Party – Hitler had this removed in 1933.

However, Hitler broke this promise and began harassing priests; Catholic schools were

disrupted and closed; Catholic youth groups were closed.

In 1937, Hitler had 200 Catholic priests arrested on charges of sexual and financial

misbehaviour.

Pope Pius XI responded to all of this by issuing a declaration against what was going on in

Germany.

Cardinal Galen delivered sermons attacking the Nazis but the Nazis couldn’t arrest him as

he was too influential and they may suffer a backlash.

The Catholic church continued in Germany throughout the Nazi period.

Protestant Church (40 million members):

Some Protestants strongly supported Hitler and setup the Reich Church in an attempt to

combine all Protestants under one church that supported Hitler.

o They were led by Ludwig Muller (a member of the Nazi party).

o They believed all members of the church should take an oath of loyalty to Hitler.

o Their slogan was ‘The Swastika on our breasts and the cross in our hearts.’

In September 1933, Protestants opposed to the Reich Church setup the Confessional

Church.

o It was banned in 1935 but already had 5000 clergy.

o It was led by Martin Niemoller who was an outspoken critic of the Nazis,

particularly their T4 Euthanasia campaign.

o The Nazis rounded up many of the leaders, including Niemoller and sent them to

concentration camps. Niemoller lived in one for 7 years.

Many Nazi party members remained members of the Catholic or Protestant churches

themselves rather than becoming supporters of the German Faith Movement.

35

Propaganda

The Nazis established the Ministry of Public Propaganda and Enlightenment alongside the

Reich Chamber of Culture led by Joseph Goebbels to influence the thoughts, beliefs and

opinions of German people. Musicians, writers and actors all had to belong to the Chamber.

The aims of propaganda:

Use modern propaganda techniques by using current technology

To tell the masses what the leader wants to ensure mass support for policy

Glorify the regime

Support the integration of Germans into the Volksgemeinschaft

Spread Nazi ideology and values (and censor the unacceptable)

Propaganda Method 1: Rallies

- Annual mass rallies were held at Nuremburg to show the power of the Nazi state, around

1 million people attended.

- Rallies were also held on special occasions such as Hitler’s birthday (20th April).

- The SA and Hitler Youth held rallies in towns.

Propaganda Method 2: Radio

- Once in power, Goebbels created the Reich Radio Company to bring all broadcasting

under Nazi control (it had been organised regionally before). - 13% of the current radio staff were removed and replaced with his own staff.

- In 1932 less than 25% of households owned a radio.

- Solution: Volksempfanger (People’s receiver) was made available by the government and

was cheaper than other radios. By 1939, 70% had a radio.

- Broadcasting was also directed at public places – loudspeakers placed in restaurants,

cafes, factories, offices.

- Radio wardens were appointed to ensure people were listening to the radio

Propaganda Method 3: Sport and Olympics

- Berlin had been awarded the games in 1931 but Goebbels saw it as an opportunity for the

Nazis. They were to glorify the regime for the world, not just Germans.

- Over 42 million Reichsmarks were spent on the sports complex and stadium (seated

110,000) which was built from natural stone in the classical style and excellent facilities

were provided at the Olympic village.

- Radio: 20 transmitting vans were provided for international media plus 300 microphones.

- Film: Leni Riefenstahl brought 33 camera operators and shot over a million feet of film.

She spent 18 months creating a 4-hour film, Olympia.

- Television: This technology was in its early stages, around 150,000 people saw broadcasts

of the games in television rooms, the images were of variable quality.

- The Germans finished top of the table with 89 medals, USA second with 56.

36

- The Nazis were praised for the excellent organisation of the games e.g. by US

correspondent William Shirer who recognised the lavish scale of the games.

- The Nazis were forced to remove their anti-Semitic messages from around Berlin, they

had to reduce attacks on Jews.

- Hitler was furious when the black American athlete, Jesse Owens, defeated his Aryan

German athletes to gain 4 gold medals during the games. This conflicted with the Nazi

message that Aryans were the superior race.

Propaganda Method 4: Film

- Goebbels wanted to use love stories and thrillers to entertain audiences but also

delivering Nazi ideas.

- For example, ‘Hitlerjunge Quex’ in 1933 told the story of a boy who tried to break away

from the Communist Party to join the Hitler Youth only to be murdered by Communists.

- There was a 45 minute newsreel accompanying the films which were used to glorify Hitler.

- ‘Triumph of the Will’ was a documentary about the 1934 Nazi Conference and Rally.

- Anti-Semitic films were less popular with audiences.

- Jewish actors and directors such as Fritz Lang were removed and left Germany, Marlene

Dietrich who was the most famous actor to leave.

- Between 1933 and 45, 1097 feature films were produced, only 96 were specifically at the

request of the Ministry.

Propaganda Method 5: Posters

- These carried simple messages and targeted younger audiences.

- They often glorified Hitler and made him appear as a superhuman leader.

- They were restricted to the towns and cities of Germany meaning people living in the

countryside would not receive these messages as easily.

Propaganda Method 7: Music and Theatre

- Cheap theatre tickets were made available.

- Plays incorporated Nazi political and racial messages.

- Jazz music was banned, it was seen as black music.

- Traditional German folk music was encouraged alongside classical music e.g. Beethoven and

Wagner.

- Younger people found the Nazi approved music to be boring and a backwards step from

the more exciting forms of music that they had heard in the 1920s.

- People tuned their radio stations into foreign broadcasts to listen to banned music.

Censorship

As well as using propaganda to promote the Nazi messages and ideas, the Nazis controlled

the information people received through censorship (stopping people from publishing anti-

Nazi messages).

37

Censorship method 1: Literature

- In May 1933, there was a huge bonfire of books in Berlin with students burning 20,000

books written by Jews, communists and other anti-Nazis.

- Writers were compelled to write pro-Nazi literature otherwise it would not be published.

- 2500 writers left Germany before 1939 leaving a lack of talented writers to work for the

Nazis e.g. Thomas Mann and Bertolt Brecht both left.

Censorship Method 2: Newspapers

- In 1933, the Reich Press Law was passed which led to the removal of Jewish and left-wing

journalists.

- By 1935, over 1600 non-Nazi newspapers and magazines had been closed down.

- The Propaganda Ministry controlled what could be published.

- Circulation of the Party’s official newspaper Volkisher Beobachter increased to 1.7 million

by 1944 whilst the internationally renowned Frankfurter Zeitung was forced to close in

1943.

- A lot of the content was seen as dull and poorly written due to the loss of skilled

journalists, this led to an overall 10% decline in newspaper sales by 1939.

Censorship/Propaganda Method 3: Art and Architecture

- Modern schools of art were hated by Hitler as was the artwork from the Weimar period

was rejected as representing the moral decline of the age.

o Otto Dix was banned due to strong political/social messages o Bauhaus style was banned due to emphasis on art and technology.

- Hitler encouraged artwork that glorified Germany’s former glories and the power of the

Third Reich.

- Workers, peasants and women were portrayed as glorious and noble.

- July 1937: two contrasting art exhibitions were held, ‘Degenerate Art’ at which the

censored and derided art was mocked and destroyed whilst at ‘Great German Art’ Nazi

themes of Volksgemeinschaft were glorified e.g. Albert Speer’s work (he had designed

the Olympic stadium and plans for German cities) with traditional C19th German

Romanticism.

- Hitler took a personal interest in grand architecture projects which were made in Ancient

Greek or Roman style.

38

How much opposition was there to the Nazis?

Despite the strong forms of control and propaganda that the Nazis used, there was still

opposition to the regime. Between 1933 and 1939, 1.3 million people were sent to

concentration camps plus around 300,000 opponents leaving Germany in this period.

Opposition from the church

- Bishop von Galen

Bishop von Galen was the Roman Catholic Bishop of Munster. Before the Nazis came to power

he was a Catholic Priest. By the time the Nazis came to power he had become a Bishop.

32% of Germans are Catholic. He disliked the Nazis from the beginning. In 1934 he started

criticising the Nazis racist policies in my sermons. In 1941 he found out about the Nazi T4

euthanasia policy (murdering people who were not fit to work – the mentally and physically

disabled). He immediately spoke out against it and started an open campaign to stop it. Many

people supported him. It worked and forced the Nazis to stop murdering the physically and

mentally ill in 1941.

- Martin Niemoller

During World War One he was a successful U Boat (submarine) commander. He then trained

as a Protestant Minister in 1924. He was always a Nationalist and welcomed the arrival of the

Nazis in 1933.

However, he started protesting against the Nazis in 1933 as he hated the Nazi created

Church called the ‘German Christians’. Each Sunday he preached against them in church. In

1936 he wrote a strong protest against their increasing anti-Semitism. He was arrested in

1938 and kept in concentration camps until 1945.

Opposition from the young

- Edelweiss Pirates

This was a youth group that hated the way the Nazis tried to control every aspect of their

lives. They wanted to have some fun and kick against the system. A number of young boys and

girls left school at the age of 14 to avoid having to join the Hitler Youth.

During the war, many groups began to form with different names like ‘swings,’ ‘packs,’

‘cliques,’ or ‘pirates’. Together they are now known as the Edelweiss Pirates, the members of

these groups are thought to have totalled more than 5,000, about 3,000. They got together,

listened to jazz and hung out

As the war progressed, so did the seriousness of the activities in which these Edelweiss

Pirates took part. Pirates in Cologne “offered shelter to German army deserters, escaped

prisoners from concentration camps and escapees from forced labour camps,”, while others

“made armed raids on military depots and deliberately sabotaged war production.” Some used

to beat up members of the Hitler Youth and steal their bikes.

- Swing Youth

These tended to be middle class youths who opposed the Nazis. They loved swing music which

was hated by the Nazis who associated it with blacks and Jews. They hated the disciplined

control of the Nazis. The boys often grew their hair long and girls would wear make-up using

bright colours on their lips and finger nails.

39

Why wasn’t there more opposition to the Nazis?

Reason 1: Nazi successes

- Many people’s careers advanced more quickly under the Nazis. The removal of Jews from

professions such as 10,000 Jews removed as doctors meant that others could take their

place.

- The economy was doing far better under the Nazis with high employment and a stronger

army from 1935.

- The Nazis restored order and reduced criminality through a strong police force and

economic success.

Reason 2: Propaganda

- The attacks on Jews and Communists were explained through newspapers and the radio

which made people feel like these were not major incidents and were deserved.

- Seeing huge crowds at the rallies made people who heard and saw this feel like everyone

was supportive of the Nazis.

- The Nazis continually reminded the German people of the poor state of the economy

under the Weimar government.

Reason 3: Fear

- The Nazis attacked and beat opponents from the moment Hitler became Chancellor. On

the night of 30th January 1933, Communists and Trade Unionists were beaten and

hospitalised.

- Rumours circulated about people being locked up by the Nazis after informants told the

Gestapo about them such as sweet shop owner Ludwig Shoer.

Reason 4: Isolation

- It was difficult to organise opposition as political parties and trade unions were banned.

- Socialist leaders were sent to concentration camps from where it was very difficult to

coordinate any opposition.

40

Key Topic 4: Life in Nazi Germany, 1933-39

How successful were policies towards women and youths?

Successes Failures

Women

Nazi ideals: Gertrude Scholtz-Klink was the Nazi Party’s ideal German woman. She had

classic Aryan looks: blonde hair and blue eyes; she had four children, was devoted to her

family and accepted without question the leadership of the Party. In 1934 she was made

Head of the Women’s Bureau, but she never had any real political power. The Nazi Party was

run by men who believed politics was not part of a woman’s world. One of their first edicts

was to ban women from positions of leadership in the Party. Gertrude did as she was told!

For the Nazis, a woman:

- did not wear make-up; had blonde hair; athletic with big hips (good for child bearing); did

not smoke; did not work; took no interest in politics

When the Nazis came to power in 1933, there were 100 000 women teachers, 13 000 women

musicians and 3000 women doctors. 1/10 of Reichstag members were women. For the Nazis

this was yet another sign of how degenerate and corrupt Weimar Germany was.

A massive propaganda campaign to promote motherhood and large families was

launched.

The government offered special loans to new brides who agreed not to take up a job:

800,000 took these up.

To improve women’s fertility, they were encouraged to stop smoking, stop slimming and to

do sport.

Young women, especially newly married, could attend mothercraft and homecraft classes.

In 1936, there were over 30% more births than there had been in 1933.

All women employed by the state – doctors, civil servants and many teachers – were

sacked. In appointing new staff, men were preferred to women.

Medals were awarded for having children: gold for 8, silver for 6 and bronze for 4.

However, not everyone was allowed to have children. It was compulsory for women with

inherited diseases, or weaknesses such as colour-blindness, to be sterilised.

Women were urged to follow the ‘Three Ks’:Kinder (Children); Kirche (Church); Kuche

(Kitchen)

Historians argue that Nazi Germany was full of contradiction and chaos. For example,

after years of trying to get women out of work, they suddenly discovered they needed

them back!

Germany was rearming. Men were joining the army. Now the Nazis needed more women

to work.

They abolished marriage loans and introduced a compulsory ‘duty year’ for all women

entering the labour market.

This usually meant helping on a farm or in a family home in return for bed and board but

no pay.

More women did get jobs, but not nearly as many as the Nazis hoped.

41

In 1939, there were fewer women working than there had been in Weimar Germany

before the Great Depression.

Hitler, however, worried about women working; he continued to believe that a women’s

place was in the home and that work would harm the chances of giving birth.

Youths

Educational aim: Nazis controlled schools to ensure that the children were taught the Nazi

way of seeing things

All teachers had to be Nazis and belong to the Nazi Teachers League

All lessons had to reflect Nazi beliefs (e.g. History taught about the ‘stab in the back’ in

1918 and the greatness of the German race, Biology taught that Germans were members

of the Aryan race – superior to all other races, especially Jews and Black people, number

of hours spent doing PE was trebled and boxing was compulsory for boys – Hitler wanted

fit boys for the army)

The education of girls concentrated on turning them into perfect Aryan mothers

Jewish teachers were sacked in 1933; Jewish children were expelled in 1938.

The curriculum became far less academic with standards dropping significantly.

Graduates of the Adolf Hitler schools went to ‘Order Castles’ where they played war

games but there were instances of students being killed there.

Youth movement aim: To make young people grow up supporting the Nazi Party

The whole Hitler Youth movement was overseen by Balder von Shirach.

Hitler Youth catered for 10-18 year olds – At 10, boys joined the German Young People

and transferred to the Hitler Youth at 13. Activities involved marching, bayonet drill,

grenade throwing, trench digging, map reading and use of dugouts. This was because

Hitler’s foreign policy required a strong army.

League of German Maidens - girls encouraged to be fit, healthy and taught to become

mothers. Girls had to be able to run 60 metres in 14 seconds, throw a ball 12 metres,

complete a 2 hour march, swim 100 metres and know how to make a bed.

Boys and girls were also taught Nazi beliefs (e.g. that Jews and Communists were to

blame for WWI and that the Treaty of Versailles should be reversed

The young were encouraged to report on their parents if they over-heard them criticising

Hitler or the Nazis.

The young were attracted to join the Hitler Youth / League of German Maidens because

it was seen as fun, it gave them a sense of purpose and belonging, the smart uniform was

appealing.

Youth Movements were popular – youth enjoyed camping and sporting activities. In 1935,

2.3 million boys joined the Hitler Youth and 1.5 million girls joined the League of German

Maidens. By 1936, the Hitler Youth had 4 million members.

However, groups such as the Edelweiss Pirates and Swing Kids showed that not all youth

approved of Nazis. By 1938, attendance at the Hitler Youth was so poor (25% of young

people) that the Nazis made membership compulsory in 1939.

Some of the children were bored by the military drills and army procedures they were

being forced to repeatedly practice at the camps.

42

How successful were Nazi economic policies?

Economic aim: Reducing unemployment would increase Hitler’s popularity and making Germany

self-sufficient (autarky) would help Germany in times of war.

- Hitler reduced unemployment from 6 million in 1933 to 0.3 million in 1938 by:

i) Public work programmes – e.g. building autobahns (motorways) and house-building

ii) Rermament – building tanks, planes, weapons created jobs

iii) Armed services – army increased from 100 000 in 1933 to 900 000 in 1938.

Conscription was introduced in 1935.

iv) Many Jews and women were forced out of work – replaced by German men.

- Nazis and the workers: Nazis tried to control the workers with a ‘stick’ and ‘carrot’

method:

Stick – Trade Unions banned; the Nazi German Labour Front told

workers how long to work and set their level of wages

Carrot – ‘Strength through Joy’ provided leisure activities such as

football, theatre trips, athletics, cruises. ‘Beauty of Labour’ improved

working conditions such as ventilation.

People who were better off – Big businesses benefited and the average salary of managers

rose by nearly 70% between 1934 and 1938. Unskilled workers were mostly given jobs and

even though wages were low and work was hard, they at least had a job. Some farm debts

were written off and all farmers benefited from an increase in food prices. The value of the

trade of self-employed skilled craftsmen nearly doubled between 1933 and 1937.

People who were worse off – Farmers resented the government’s meddling in setting quotas.

Unskilled workers were given no choice about their job – if they did not accept the

government programme they were assigned, they would receive no unemployment benefit

which was sometimes higher than the wage on the scheme. The government also took control

of prices, wages, profits and imports which was resented by some businessmen.

The New Plan – Run by Dr Schacht from 1933-1934, the aim was to limit imports, make

trade agreements and reduce unemployment. It was successful but Hitler was annoyed that

Schacht told him that Germany could not afford to rearm so quickly.

The 4-Year Plan – The aim was to prepare for war within 4 years. It was run by Goering.

The aim was to make Germany self-sufficient in materials essential for war. It worked by

increasing production of raw materials, reduce imports even further, tighten controls on

prices and wages, use forced labour if needed, build new industrial plants. By 1939, Germany

still depended on foreign imports for 1/3 of its raw materials. ‘Arms not butter’ was

Goering’s slogan, but in 1939 butter was still rationed in Germany.

43

Impact on workers:

Positive results Negative results

Unemployed workers were immediately put

to work on government programmes. These

were compulsory and if the workers did not

take part then the government stopped

their unemployment benefits.

The Beauty of Labour organisation run by

the DAF, aimed to persuade employers to

improve working conditions in factories.

Beauty of Labour organised successful

campaigns such as ‘Hot meals in the factory’

and ‘Good ventilation in the workplace’.

The Trades Unions which supported

workers’ rights were abolished soon after

the Nazis came to power.

The RAD (Reich Labour Service) made all

18-25 year old men do six months work

service. Young men worked on projects like

ditch digging and road construction. They

started their day at 4.45 am There were

also frequent propaganda talks on Nazi

beliefs which the young men in the RAD had

to attend. A 1938 Social Democratic Report

commented that, ‘The young people are

deadened by physical exercise. The Daily

wage is not enough to buy a beer.’

An organisation called ‘Strength through

Joy’ was set up to organise the leisure time

of the workers. It offered activities such as

cruises, concerts, variety shows and other

popular entertainments. Millions attended.

Nazi propaganda was ever present at these

events.

All Socialist Parties, usually popular with the

workers, were abolished when the Nazis

came to power. The workers now had no

political choice. There was only one party

left – the Nazis.

Average working hours actually went up. In

1933 – 43hrs, in 1939 – 47 hours.

44

To what extent did the Nazis achieve Volksgemeinschaft?

Hitler wanted to achieve ‘volksgemeinschaft’ (people’s community) which would see the Nazis

promote the positive ideals of the Aryan race (see above) but the unpleasant side was it led

to the exclusion of people who were not part of the Nazi view of what society should be.

‘Undesirables’

Aim: Nazis wanted to remove all people with physical or social defects to prevent the

weakening of the German Aryan ‘Master-Race’

Physical and mentally handicapped – Sterilised by the law of 1933. Euthanasia

programme established. By 1941, 100 000 mentally ill people had been killed.

Gypsies – prevented from marrying ‘pure’ Germans; rounded up and sent to

concentration camps; 500 000 murdered by 1945

Homosexuals – racial enemies of the state for not producing children; 15000

homosexuals sent to camps

Prostitutes/alcoholics/beggars – sterilised and used as cheap labour

1933: In July 1933, Nazis introduced a Law for the Prevention of Hereditary

Diseases (Sterilisation Law) which made it compulsory to sterilise certain categories

of ‘inferiors’ such as Schizophrenics, Manic-depressives, Epileptics, those with

hereditary blindness/deafness. This meant they could force those with these

conditions to be sterilised – stopping them from having children.

1935: The sterilisation laws of 1933 were changed so that women who became

pregnant and suffered from one of the conditions could be forced to have an abortion.

1939: By October 1939, the Nazis authorised euthanasia for the mentally and

physically disabled. This meant disabled people could be killed in special wards of

hospitals. The first case was of a severely disabled child, the father of whom wrote

directly to Hitler asking for his child who he described as a ‘creature’ to be put to

sleep. Hitler sent an SS doctor who recommended euthanasia. From October 1939 the

Nazis used the T4 Euthanasia programme by working out of offices in Berlin which

processed cases. Children were sent to special hospitals to be starved to death or

given lethal injections, some were experimented on first. Parents were assured that

their child had died in spite of being given the best treatment. More than 5000

children were killed this way.

Jews

Aim: Hitler regarded the Jews as an inferior race who had infected the Aryan Master Race

and caused Germany many problems (e.g. losing World War One, the Depression of 1930-2).

He wanted to remove this threat.

1933 – any Jews who were civil servants, teachers were sacked. SA were posted

outside Jewish shops to prevent people shopping there; Public burning of books by

Jews and anti-Nazis; Police and the courts no longer protect Jews; April boycotts of

Jewish shops - for one day, Germans are told not to buy from shops and business

owned by Jews; Department of Racial Hygiene ('ethnic cleansing') established

45

1935 – Nuremberg Laws – made it illegal for Jews to marry or have sex with ‘Aryan’

Germans. Jews lost their rights as German citizens. Jews were banned from public

places, e.g. swimming pools, parks, restaurants.

9-10th November 1938 – Kristallnacht / Night of the Broken Glass - thousands of

Jewish shops and synagogues were destroyed; 40 000 Jews were sent to

concentration camps. The trigger was the shooting of a Nazi in Paris by a Jewish man.

This was just an excuse to increase persecution of Jewish people following the

Nuremberg Laws as some said the Nazis had been waiting contemplating a planned

outbreak of violence against Jews.

1939: Jews forced to wear a yellow star of David in public.

1939-41 – Jews were put in camps and Einsatzgruppe (Killing squads) were formed