functions of leadership

Functions of

Leadership Ikeorha Dele-Israel

The Functions Of Leadership

Ikeorha Dele-Israel, AMIMC PRESIDENT, LEADERSHIP THRUST

First Published by

Network Publishers 18/19 Ahmadu Bello Way

Kaduna, Nigeria.

©1999 Ikeorha, Dele-Israel 1. Title: The Functions of Leadership

©1999 All Rights Reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any

means, electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers or written

authorization by the author or his authorized agents.

ISBN 978-32132-7-X

Printed By Network Press, Kaduna, Nigeria.

Typeset in 10pt. CG Omega At No. 1 Computa Strategies Centre

18/19 Ahmadu Bello Way, Kaduna, Nigeria

Contents

Authors Preface vii-xvi PART I

LEADERSHIP FUNDAMENTALS: FIRST PRINCIPLES,

FIRST CONSIDERATIONS & FIRST IMPRESSIONS

Introduction 1-15

1. Leadership Defined 15-25

2 Leadership and The Human Factor 26-48

3 Motivation Revisited: The Cyclical Value Theory of Motivation

49-61

PART II

THE SCIENCE OF ORGANIZATION

4. Social Organization: A Theory 64-71

5. The Laws of Social Organization 72-86 6. Characteristics of Social Organization 88 – 101

PART III THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

7. Paradigm of Leadership 103-130

8. From Theory To Practice 131-137 PART IV

THE CONCRETE FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP

9. The Concrete Functions of Leadership 139-146

10. Function of Leadership No. 1 Establishment of Executive Organizations

147-161

11. Function of Leadership No. 2

Discrimination of Purpose and Strategic Factors 163-168


Establishment and Maintenance of Means and Ends

169-172


Creating, Distributing and Maintenance of Utilities in a Creative Economy

173-176


Maintenance of a Workable Moral Code and Organizational Morality

177-182


Maintenance and/or Establishing the Integrity of the Communication and Political Processes

183-188


Creation and maintenance of organizational effectiveness,

189-190


Maintaining and sustaining the pressure and enthusiasm for responsibility throughout the organization

191-196


Focusing on the forces and area(s) of strength 197-200


Maintaining a readiness to, and demonstration of show of command.

201-206

20. Function of Leadership No. 11 Ensuring, Maintaining and Protecting the Overall Welfare of the Total Followership/Society

207-212

21. Function of Leadership No 12 Creating and Maintaining the Right Atmosphere.

213-218

PART V FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP PART II

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS

219

22. Elemental Functions of Leadership 221-230 PART VI

LEADERSHIP IN THE REAL WORLD 231

23. The Making of Leaders 233-237

24. Leadership In Action 238-243

25. Leadership In The Real World 244-251 26. Principles of Leadership Behavior 252-272 27. Skills of Effective Leadership 276-287 28. Why Organizations Fail 288-289 29 Leadership Structures 290-294 29. From Statesmanship To Leadership 297-304 30. Conclusion 305-310

Appendix: Leadership Without Tears 312-341 v Preparations For Leadership Index 342-

356

PART I: FUNDAMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Preface

The success of the millennium depends on having a different sort of leaders who are thoroughly educated for their work. It depends on leaders who have internalized effective leadership skills, and are willing to adapt such skills to emerging and novel situations

We need leaders who can transform the world; preachers who can convert the world; practitioners who can mobilize society to accomplish transformative results.

This book explains an organic theory of leadership and contains the conclusion of more than a decade investigation into the subject of the leadership phenomenon.

While leadership functions have not changed over the years, it has become apparent that today’s leaders must adapt new methodologies to old strategies. It has become equally essential for today’s leaders to adapt leadership functions to social and technological imperatives to effectively perform their role.

Significantly, the astronomical revolution in information technology, the rapid pace of time for change and significantly shorter frame of time, have revolutionized the way leadership functions are performed or should be performed. But essentially, what is to be done remains the same. What has changed is how it is to be done. The ‘how’ can only be limited by the ability to adapt to the pace of technological development, and innovate effectively in their usage to achieve leadership and social expectations.

Leadership is the ability in a social context, to exert the utmost sagacity in devising the most suitable means to accomplish the great end on which the heart is set.

PREFACE

vii

According to Charles G. Finney, “wisdom is the choice and pursuit of the best end by the most appropriate means (p.194)1 and since choosing and pursuing the best end by the most appropriate means is the sinquanon of leadership, it therefore implies that leadership will demand the effective exercise of the attribute of wisdom.

The challenge before leaders in the new millennium, is the challenge of the effective use of wisdom in operationalsing technology, of innovating in the use of leadership systems to perform leadership functions and meet social expectations.

Thrust at the age of 22 to the General Managership of a company with turnover exceeding N5 million and 36 staff, I realized the need to develop my executive capacity to cope, not only with the demand of my role then, but to develop for the future.

In the performance of that job, I came face to face with the crisis of ability and possibility, the gap between what you want to do and what you can do; with the pervasiveness of the human factor in organization; To the reality that while resources and skills may be vital variables in organizational success, the human factor primarily remained the most significant factor in all cooperative effort; to the fact that the capacity of leadership to respond to the human factor and the general organizational need, and adapt to changes in the external environment is imperative to both leadership success, organizational progress and survival.

In the quest to build personal competence, I engaged myself in books written by experts in social theory, leadership, and management - both by practitioners and theorists.

It became apparent after a while, that knowledge in the leadership and management fields, though substantial was basically fragmented.

Two statements more than anything else - one by Drucker, that ‘leadership can’t be learnt or promoted…,’ another by Miner, that 1 Charles G. Finney, Revivals of Religion (p.194)

PREFACE

viii

leadership has outlived its usefulness - made me to take personal responsibility to fashion a practical theory on which the practice of leadership can be based or explained. This began the long road into research that has lasted more than a decade and culminated into the total leadership theory as enunciated in this book.

It is pertinent to mention here, that in the pursuit of this objective, observation and analysis, experimentation by self in practical situation, observation of leaders in practical situations, observation of leaders in the broader society and world, monitored through cable satellite and the world media, were used to ensure universality which is known to exist but abstracted with difficulty owing to the lack of taxonomies and concepts on which the whole leadership reality could be built.

Historical explanations and perspectives were studied, leaders were questioned, past research studies were analyzed, commentaries in local and international magazines, histories and biographies of leaders were read, children in the demonstration of leadership capacity were observed; and the internalization of leadership functions, which usually are not easily explained but understood by practitioners and their watchers and followers were investigated, with a consciousness of the fact that the diversity in the nature of organization generally, the diversity and complexity in technological systems employed by organizations, the diversity in personal style adopted by individuals in response to social situations; the obscurity in the leadership and organizational processes and in its diverse elements; and the challenge of using every day terms to explicate the subject, represent fundamental walls that must be scaled, before the objective of formulating a credible paradigm of leadership could be attained.

This book looks at the fundamental function areas of leadership. It is an expose of leadership functions and represents a fresh insight and approach that clearly unveils and simplifies the leadership task. It aims at radically equipping the leader and leaders-to-be with a clearer idea of the leadership role, and at providing a more useable concept of the functions of leadership.

PREFACE

ix

Leaders are torn between a rudimentary concept of what they intuitively understand their roles to be, and the dramatized technological demands that presents and represent new challenges and extends new paradigms of leadership.

While some leaders understand the need to walk across this chasm, others become ineffective simply by refusing or ignoring the need to accept the imperative of innovating, learning and adapting and/or adopting old and new strategies to old and new problems in an ever emerging new world.

This book puts everything in perspective. It presents a new view of motivation, a deeper understanding of the human factor and a fresh insight into the subject of leadership that will enhance the performance in practice and provide an intellectual pillar for effective leadership action.

Leadership and social organization are analyzed from a total perspective. Social organization, while having a structural element, is inherently spiritual; while having a science also has art in it. Understanding the structural and spiritual dimensions of leadership and social organizations is imperative to an understanding of the leadership phenomena and to effectiveness in its performance.

One of the disturbing aspects of social science today is the concept of destruction of authority. Authority is not being destroyed by the emerging social and technological structures or world order, rather authority is becoming more explicit. The world and citizens in organizations are not becoming authority-resistant, rather they are becoming authority-responsive, or more precise authority-trapped. The growing crisis in the world is not caused by or causing the destruction of authority. Rather, the domination of manifest authority has heightened the impact of resistance and compliance wherever it manifests; thereby posing a challenge to leaders in this age.

The purpose of this book - in the midst of the forest of theories of social organization – is to erect a complete and total theory of leadership and social organization based on the concrete elements of social organization: Man/individual, society and situation, that

PREFACE

x

will not only provide an explanatory paradigm for the elements of the organizational MOLE – Management, Organization, Leadership and Entrepreneurship – but also provide a workable agenda for the performance of leadership functions, and the imperative of moving from leadership to statesmanship starring us in the face of the emerging millennium.

Every leader, from the corporate chieftain to the Master of Ceremony at a party or organized function, from the family executive to the president of a nation, from institutional leaders and leaders who occupy formal positions, to those who exercise informal leadership; will gain a better education by reading this book.

In the words of Late Mayor Coleman A. Young of Detroit (1918 –1997) “Those of us who are passing off the scene, like Nelson Mandela, like me, like Martin (Luther King Jr.) who is already gone, we’re passing on to you who are coming on the scene, the torch. You should be thrilled with the opportunity that you have to complete the revolution.”2 This book is about skills that will enable you complete that revolution. Read on.

Since the ideas in this book were developed over a period eleven years, it is evident it could not have happened or been completed without the patient help, involvement and assistance of many and also the stimulating discouragement of many who have kept my spirits to persist in the task.

I must pay special attribute to members of the think-thank The Leadership Forum, who gathered between 1990 and 1992 over refreshments and using the discourse method of the Greeks (Socrates, Plato etc.) to verbalize, criticize, reassess and develop leadership concepts. All of you greatly enabled me to develop the social and scientific temper vital for understanding leadership and its elusive scheme, and contributed to the final outcome of this book. To you all - Okey Okafor MD of Kezgold Investments Ltd., Bola Olorunyomi, Peter Arowosafe.

2 Young Coleman A. (1997) Late Mayor of Detroit USA (1904 – 1997) Quoted in Ebony Magazine August 1997

PREFACE

xi

Also, I must not fail to mention Professor David Iornem, FIMC, CMC, Director General of the Institute Management Consultants, Elder Theophilus Ashaolu, Principal Partner of Theophilus Ashaolu & Co. Chartered Accountants. Mr. Godwin Nkwazema, of Kelnab Ltd. and Dornier Aviation Nigeria AIEP, for going through this book, making contributions and giving valuable advice. Thanks to you all.

To Segun Abrams, my able former Editor In Chief when I was Managing Editor of Network Magazine, for his moral support and pressure on me to persist in the worthwhile task, and to God above all, who gave me the courage that I can change my world and those in it by making a contribution.

Gratitude also goes to my students at Computa Strategies Institute where I’m also President, who took great pleasure in translating a relatively illegible manuscript to this book; especially Faith Abu, who did most of the typing, Phil Aimasor, the two Grace Elijahs I & II, Fred Okpenge, and Madam and many others who expended energy and goodwill in getting this book out in four months of vigorous writing, typing and editing as they were being written.

Special thanks to all members of Leadership Thrust. You are leaders without equal. Your cooperation in the task of providing impetus for development is greatly appreciated. Kudos.

Also to Professor Jerry Gana, Minister For Cooperation And Integration in Africa, and to President Olusegun Obasanjo of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, a leader and statesman, for agreeing to write the forward to this book.

I wish to appreciate all my lecturers, all those from Aristotle to Chester Barnard, Philip Selznick, Warren Bennis, Gary Yukl and many whose lectures I attended via their books and articles. I must have borrowed by osmosis many of your ideas, which enabled me to articulate mine. I thank you all.

Like Karl Marx, I owe a lot to the British Council whose library in Kaduna, I used exhaustively these twelve years; and to the

PREFACE

xii

Harvard Business Review and other journals. I doubt if there is a better research school any can attend.

Functions is a seven-part book.

Part I Preliminary Fundamentals: First Principles First Considerations And First Impressions in descriptive enough and looks at defining leadership its human factor implications and a revision of motivation. Part II - the science of organization provides a theoretical basis for social organization, states laws governing social organizations and its characteristics.

Part III - Nature of Leadership aims at providing a conceptual framework, paradigm or taxonomy for leadership and the need to integrate a mode from theory to practice. Part IV unveils details of the Concrete Functions in 13 chapters.

Part V- treats the various Elemental function of leadership, while Part VI - Leadership In The Real World, analyses the making of leaders, leadership in action, principles that guide leadership behavior and action for effective leadership, why organizations fail, the universality of leadership structures and the need for leaders to move from leadership to statesmanship.

Part VI is an appendix - Leadership Without Tears and provides rudimentary information on how to prepare and develop leadership in individuals and organizations.

Dele-Israel, IKEORHA September, 1999 Kaduna, Nigeria.

To My Father, Who taught me early in life that every man is born great. But those who become great are those who are not only willing, but who pay the price for it.

You died so young, but you live so long..

To My Mother You remain an inspiring influence. Your

leadership can never be forgotten.

And to all my friends. You are all darlings

xiv

Here we are, repeatedly turning to positive laws and concrete instances instead of following the traditional path to the upper philosophical regions where theories can rest at ease, disregard the distant swarms in the humid valley, and send forth utterances of absolute and universal validity. Most of the literature of moral and political philosophy has been composed on just such heights, which may explain why it comprises so many unqualified pronouncements. Thinkers who talk from such heights are safer when they remain there. Perhaps the most we can claim for our chosen road which runs along the floor of valley after valley - is that we usually bring our merchandise back to the same market of concrete human experience where we found the raw materials. If, in the course of our progress, we succeed in processing some specific combination of laws, decisions and civic behavior into a generalized statement, which will almost never aspire to perfect or universal validity, the empirical criteria of our meaning are at hand for anyone to observe and use.

Edmund Cahn(1961) The Predicament of Democratic Man:

New York Feffer & Simon p.76

INTRODUCTION

0

PART I

Fundamental Considerations v First Principles

v First Considerations and v First Impression

INTRODUCTION

1

Introduction One of the greatest fallacious assumptions of this century is the assumption that we all know what leadership is. But the simple fact is that we all do not.

Some show that they do not know what leadership is, by their inability to define what they believe leadership to be. Some others reveal their lack of understanding by their failure in leadership roles. While some others expose their vulnerability by their success in it.

Those of the first description may find reason for their inability to define leadership in lack of communicative powers, or may blame the limitations of vocabulary for the paucity of words available to define the various nuances and concepts that come to mind when leadership is being discussed. Those of the second order may excuse themselves by resorting to mysticism; calling what they may term “forces beyond their control” as reasons for their failure.

While such reasons or others may be acceptable in some instances, in others, it reveals a deeper malaise that has afflicted mankind for centuries: The inability of a part of mankind to understand leadership - such a fundamental aspect of his existence and survival.

What is Leadership? That is the question. We are made to believe by most social scientists that leadership can be defined by watching what leaders do. Nothing can be far from the complete truth than this. It would be as false as to believe that an engineer or what engineering is can be divined from watching the engineer.

An engineer is a man, and a human being is a multifaceted personality. The engineer may brush his teeth, take his bath, drive to the beach, have a quarrel, fast for a week, play with his children, engage in national politicking, dance at a ball or engage in any activity that is predominantly a human activity. But such activity does not make him an engineer. He is an Engineer because he is

INTRODUCTION

2

trained to practice or engage in engineering activities, or makes use of engineering skills and principles. Engineering is a field of human endeavor that is defined and has specific components. So is leadership.

Segregating human activity from leadership activity and discriminating organizational activity from leadership conduct is crucial to an understanding of leadership. When this is done, the persistent problems that have been encountered in the attempts to abstract leadership would fade out.

Over the years, what leadership is or should do or be doing has become crystallized. It is this understanding that has defined social expectation from their leaders and hence, it could be said that leadership is already a defined activity just as engineering is. This is because we can safely assume that what leadership is not, has already entrenched itself in social consciousness and organizational ethos.

We know that leadership is not singing even if a leader may sing, or may be required to do so in choir leadership or for the amusement of his followers.

Leadership is the law of nature, and like nature it is not dependent on what definitions you and I may give it. It does not depend on whether our definitions are right or wrong. Just as the clouds does not become trees or cotton wool because someone says it is, even the poet, leadership does not become what it is not because an intellectual guru postulates that it should be what it is not.

This fact therefore, puts the responsibility of articulating what leadership is in essence, (rather than the predominant tendency to dwell on the illusory or mythical), on those of us, who take upon ourselves, the self-imposed responsibility of defining leadership for the benefit of man and institutions inspired by man; as getting this definition right will only serve the purpose of educating mankind and those who value such information, as well as make the performance of the role of leadership more effective.

INTRODUCTION

3

Leadership is what leadership is and our duty here will be to define what it is, and not what we wish it to be.

While our generation boasts about carrying out a more rigorous, persistent and varying study of the subject of organization, its leadership and management, it is evident that leadership is a prehistoric tradition.

Problems of organizations and of leadership have been with man, and have been encountered and studied since creation of man and did not start nor will it end with our generation.

All great businesses, nations and empire builders from Nimrod’s Babel, the Medici of Renaissance Florence, the Babylonian Empire, all great discoveries and discoverers, decolonialists and empire builders, and great soldiers throughout history, in one form or the other, had leadership.

Most commentaries on leadership and management today have left the realm of reality into the espousal of folklore.

While we congratulate ourselves on the growing complexity of modern organizations, it is equally worth noting that complex organizations are not a peculiar phenomenon of our age. The pyramids of Egypt, the Biblical Tower of Babel, the ancient cities of Jericho and Jerusalem, the walls of China represent concrete evidences of complex organizations, even when judged on the criteria of our times; although our generation may claim to be more sophisticated and of a more superior civilization and technology.

The question of pace can be judged at per, as each age seeks all it can do to cope with the ever-increasing pace of events, designing in the process, faster means of communication and technology to overcome the obstacles, and thereby, finds as it uses these technologies and communication systems, that time has further disintegrated and he/she has to move even faster. Man therefore, is caught in the time capsule. Man and mankind is entrapped in the time-trap and no amount of time-loop resulting from developments and technological breakthroughs that temporarily

INTRODUCTION

4

enables him to triumph over the limitations of true and space can permanently ensure his deliverance.

Conceding the fact that we have a superior civilization, the concrete processes of leadership, management, entrepreneurship and organization – elements of the thing we call “administration” when it suits us – is not a modern creation, nor was it suddenly discovered by social theorists in the 20th century as some would have us believe. Rather, these elements of organizational effectiveness are as old as man, are prehistoric, ancient, as they equally are modern and contemporary.

“ The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun. The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is done is that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun. Is there any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new? it hath been already of old time, which was before us.” (Eccl 1:9-11KJV) says the Holy Bible.3

What we can claim to have, is a more superior civilization with instruments and systems that are more sophisticated. What we can claim to have done is adapting old concretes to our civilization and its prevailing technologies; to developing conceptual schemes in the language of our times.

However, if we can, so can the ages before us lay solace in the same claims. Even the claim that Management as a subject for scholarship is a modern affair is highly contestable. The literary works of every age attest to attention given these subjects. Evidences we ignore to gratify the level of advancement our generation has attained. We quote Aristotle, Plato, Abraham Lincoln, Sun Yat Sen, King Solomon, Napoleon, Confucius, Cicero, Sun Tsu and others with approval in one line, while castigating their generation in the very next, even while evidences abound about their views about organizational matters. We take their concepts of leadership and couch it in the language of the intellectual world, using jargons to cover the source or where the

3 Ecclesiastes 1:9-11 of the King James Version of the Holy Bible

INTRODUCTION

5

inspiration was obtained in the first place, except for people like Dr. Wess Roberts in “Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun” (Transworld, London), revelations and reasons for which we should become humble.

There is no new secret. What we may have is a discovery of what leadership has always been and will always be. And unless this truth and experience is passed across by men and women of practical experience, the next generation will still walk blind and find leadership as elusive as ever.

THE BLIND FORCES OF HISTORY

The fundamental question that has confronted mankind through time from Adam, the ancient Greeks to contemporary scholarship - social theory, economic theory and all political theory - has been “how the human race - selfish or more cosmopolitan ends - can understand and control the seemingly blind forces of history” (Gilpin 1981).4

What are these blind forces of history? Can they be discerned, discriminated and abstracted? The answer is an equivocal yes.

FORCE NO. 1: LEADERS

“Universal history, the history of what man has accomplished in this world,” wrote Thomas Carlyle in “On Heroes, Hero Worship and The Heroic In History” (1841). “is at the bottom the history of great men who worked here They were the leaders of men, these great ones, the modellers, patterns and in a wide sense creators of whatever the general mass of men contrived to do or attain. All that we see standing accomplished in the world are properly the outward material result of the practical realization and embodiments of thoughts that dwelt in the great men sent into the world; the soul of the whole world’s history, it may justly be considered, were the history of these.”5

4 Blind Forces Of History”. (Gilpin 1981) p. 205 5 Thomas Carlyle in “On Heroes, Hero Worship and The Heroic In History” (1841).

INTRODUCTION

6

Writing on “Sick men who ruled the world” Pierre Accoce in L’Express wrote that “Politics, economic decision-making and ideology have contributed to the catastrophes which cram history. However, leaders with strong personalities have a weighty effect on events. It is at such times that the mental and physical qualities of leaders become fundamental.”6

FORCE NO. 2: PEOPLE IN THE MASS OR SOCIETY According to Vladimir Lenin in his treatise “Materialism

Conception of History (1914)” “People make their own history; but what determines their motives; that is the motives of the people in the mass.7 Mao Tse Tung in his Quotations(1966) states that “the people and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world history”.8

FORCE NO. 3: TIME OR SITUATION

“No mortal legislates anything, but … in human affairs chance is almost everything”9 wrote Plato in “Laws”. “Time” wrote Carl Von Clautwitz(1832) “is the great element between weight and force.”10

These three forces of history: Leaders, society and situation have been proved conclusively by various researches to be the concrete factors of leadership as can be abstracted from the conclusions of the following researches and from appraisal of historical and contemporary experience and evidence.

“Leadership goes with the time and society. Time changes the society, and leaders emerge out of society and their conduct is dictated by the circumstances of the time…for all these reasons it is difficult to make very general statements about how a leader should or should not be” observed Nur Alkali, ex-Director General of the Nigeria Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies at a book

6 Pierre Accoce (1999) Sick men who ruled the world” in L’Express 7 Vladimir Lenin “Materialism Conception of History (1914)” 8 Mao Tse Tung Quotations(1966) 9 Plato “Laws 10 Carl Von Clautwitz(1832) On Wars

INTRODUCTION

7

lunch on General Mohammadu Buhari, Nigerian Head of State (1984-85).)11

In 1952 C. A. Gibb concluded an extensive survey of research into the subject of leadership stating that “any comprehensive theory of leadership must incorporate and integrate all the major variables which are now known to be involved namely (1) the personality of the leader (2) the followers with their attitudes, needs and problems (3) the group itself (4) the situations determined by physical settings, nature of tasks etc. “12

Writing in The functions of the Executive, Barnard(1938, p.66) states that “the variations in concrete cooperative situations may be assigned to four preliminary classes: (a) those that relate to aspects of the physical environment; (b) those that relate to the social environment; (c) those that relate to individuals; (d) other variables.13

Stogdill Ralph M (1948) in his acclaimed “Personal Factors Associated With Leadership: A Survey of the Literature. Journal of Psychology p.15, “The evidence suggest that leadership is a relation that exist between persons in a social situation and the persons who are leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situations. Must it then be assumed that leadership is entirely haphazard and unpredictable? Not at all. The very studies that provide the strongest arguments for the situational nature of leadership, also supply the strongest evidence indicating that leadership patterns of behaviour are persistent and relatively stable.”14

Stogdill in his 1948 review concluded that “a person does not

become a leader by virtue of the possession of combination of

11 Nur Alkali, Director General of the Nigeria Institute of Policy and Strategic Studies Quoted in Weekly Trust Newspaper Jan 1 1999) 12 Gibb C. A. (1954) Leadership Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2ed G. Lindsey 13 Barnard, C. I. (1938) The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge, Massachussettes, Havard University Press p.66 14 Stogdill Ralph M (1948) “Personal Factors Associated With Leadership: A Survey of the Literature. Journal of Psychology p.15

INTRODUCTION

8

traits… the pattern of personal characteristics of the leader bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics, activities and goals of the followers.” (p.64)15

W. O Jenkins in his historical conclusion stated that “Leadership is specific to the particular situation under investigation. Who becomes the leader of a given group engaging in a particular activity and what leadership characteristics are in a given case are a function of the specific situation including the measuring instruments employed. Related to this conclusion is the general finding of wide variations in the characteristics of individuals who become leaders in similar situations, and even greater divergence in leadership behaviour in different situations.”16

Tannenbeum and Schmidt (1958) noted that a leader’s choice of decision procedures reflect in the forces in the leader, forces in the subordinates, and forces in the situation.17

Mier(1950) believes that “leadership is a factor of the leader, the society and the situation18 while John Keegan(1987) states that “a leader is a factor of his time and place.”19

Douglas McGregor of the Theory X and Y fame in his book “The Human Side of Enterprise” wrote that “There are four major variables now known to be involved in leadership: (1) the characteristics of the leader; (2) the attitudes, needs and other personal characteristics of the followers; (3) the characteristics of the organization, such as its purpose, its structure, the nature of the tasks performed; and (4) the socio-economic and political milieu. The personal characteristics required for effective performance as a leader vary, depending on the other factors. This is an important

15 Stogdill Ralph M (1948) “Personal Factors Associated With Leadership: A Survey of the Literature. Journal of Psychology p.15 16 W.O Jenkins (1947) “A Review Of Leadership Studies With Particular Reference To Military Problems” Psychology Bulletin, 1947 Vol. 44(1), p.54-79 17 Tannenbaum, R & Schmidt, W.H. (1958) How To Choose a Leadership Patterm: Havard Business Review, 36, March – April (p.95-101) 18 Mier (1950) Quoted in Yukl, A. Gary Leadership In Organisations 2nd Editions, Eaglewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall 19 Keegan, J. (1987) The Mask of Command. London: Penguin Books

INTRODUCTION

9

research finding. It means that leadership is not a property of the individual, but a complex relationship among the variables (1960 p.182).20

Helmut Schmidt(1993), Former Chancellor of West Germany in an interview with Geoffrey Stein of BBC said that “(the qualities necessary for leadership) depends on the specific situation… on the environment of his society, nation and international environment which may change,... also on the time.”21

Alex Comfort in his study into “Authority and Delinquency” states that “The individual who possesses concrete leadership attributes expresses them in fields (societies) where only the reality (situation) is adequate…. In relatively simple groupings, the forms of leadership associated with political activity are indistinguishable from those which occur in other fields. They are the stuff of all human relationships in which individuals drawing upon their experience and self estimate, adopt attitudes of dominance or subservience to one another.”22

Admiral Sir Richard Clayton, who has served as Admiral of The British Naval Home Command has this to say about leadership: “…leadership – any form of leadership – must adapt its methods to suit its personalities and the circumstances in which they find themselves,”23

“Now that it is feasible to probe and debate the multiplicity of meanings which lie behind the official story of organisational activities, a wealth of possibilities has been opened up” says Barry Turner(1990) in The Rise of Organizational Symbolism. 20 Douglas McGregor “The Human Side of Enterprise” (1960) New York: McGraw Hill p.182). 21 Helmut Schmidt (1993) Former Chancellor of Western Germany. Quoted in Geoffrey Stein (1993) Leadership and Leaders: BBC Books London. 22 Comfort, A. (1988) Authority and Delinquency.. London: Zwan p.33 23 Admiral Sir Richard Clayton (1984) “Leadership In the Armed Services”: Speech read posthumously on November 1984 by Sir Raymond Lygo, Chairman of British Aerospace, at the National Conference on Leadership organized by the Society of Strategic & Long Term Planning, Royal Society of Arts. Quoted in Adair, John (1988) Developing Leaders: The Ten Key Principles. McGraw-Hill Maidenhead, Berkshire p. 103

INTRODUCTION

10

The findings and conclusions of these conceptualists can be summarized as shown in Summary of research consensus on three factors of leadership.

This consensus in these researches has led me to define leadership in line with its principal factors: The Leader, the society and the situation. Hence, the incorporation of these forces, these forces of history which I call the leadership triad, in a definition of leadership, integrating and incorporating what C. A. Gibbs calls “all the known variables which are now known to be involved (in leadership).24

While it has been common knowledge for centuries that leadership is a function of the leader’s characteristics, the social characteristics and the situational characteristics, no attempt has been made to provide a paradigmatic definition of leadership that integrates the three critical variables, concretes and constants. Principally because while they are mechanic, they are equally dynamic. While they are constant features, they are equally variabic in nature, presenting in the process, a problem in conceptualization.

This has resulted in a situation where definitions that are biased on the leader or society or situational aspects or even that emphasize macro-variables of these factors have been commonplace. There is no gainsaying that researchers find it easier to conceptualize on that level, sacrificing relevance for the sake of convenience.

Consequently, leadership that is not ambiguous, which every one agrees to that “we know it when we see it” has become fragmented and obscure, to such an extent that a lot of leaders wonder if leadership is really what it is; or if the theories of leadership being bandied around have anything to do with their work. Some write off theoretical exercises as efforts of mere intellectualization, while other practitioners deride social scientists as providing convenient but impractical theories. Even social scientists such as Miner, despondently give up hope on achieving 24 Gibb C. A. (1954) Leadership Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 2 ed G. Lindsey

INTRODUCTION

11

any meaningful leadership research and as such assert that “the concept of leadership has outlived its usefulness” (1975 p.200)

While many social scientists recognize the need to incorporate and integrate these concrete factors many like Gibbs (1952) and Yukl(1989) see no possibility of achieving that in the light of the various conceptions available on the subject. “It is neither feasible”, wrote Gary Yukl(1989) “at this point in the development of the discipline to attempt to resolve the controversy over the appropriate definition of leadership. For the time being, it is better to use the various conceptions of leadership as a source of different perspectives on a complex, multifaceted phenomenon…. Wherever feasible, leadership research should be designed to provide information relevant to the entire range of definitions, so that over time it will be possible to compare the utility of different conceptualization and arrive at some consensus over the matter.”25

The Three Forces And Needs Theory of Leadership as expounded in this book, seeks to provide an integrating theoretical formulation for leadership practice based on the three factors of leadership: The Leader/Man, the society and the situation. It erects an entire philosophy on the basis that these are the principal and only elements of leadership and social organization, with micro and macro variables; and that any factor at work in any social situation is a unit or variable of any of the three elements of the leadership triad, hence it will seek to define leadership, its functions, its principles, patterns as well as factors vital for its effective performance based on the relationship that exists between the three leadership factors.

25 Yukl, A. Gary Leadership In Organisations 2nd Editions, Eaglewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

15

1

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

Up to this point, we have taken it for given that we all know what leadership is all about in an intuitive sense. But at this juncture, it is important that we define what leadership is and clarify what it is not.

Let us consider the following representative definitions of leadership.

Definitions

Leadership

“is the guidance of energies and the binding power of intelligence.”26 (Bulow, H. D. 1806)

“is the power of individuals to inspire cooperative personal decision by creating faith in common understanding; faith in the probability of success; faith in the ultimate satisfaction of personal motives, faith in the integrity of objective authority, faith in the superiority of common purpose as a personal aim of all who partake in it.”27 (Barnard, C. I. 1938 p.259)

26 Bulow, H. D. 1806 Historie de la Campaigne de 1800 en der Feldzug Von 1805. Militarisch Politisch betrachld 2 Vol. (Auf Kosten) Quoted in Paret, Peter (ed) (1986) “Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age: Princeton: Princeton University Press (1989) 27 Barnard, C. I. (1938) The Functions of the Executive, Cambridge, Massachussettes, Havard University Press p.259

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

16

“is the behaviour of an individual when he is directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal.”28 (Hemphill & Coons, 1957 p.7)

“is the task of building special values and distinctive competence into the organization.” (Selznick, P. 1957)29

is “ a particular type of power relationship characterized by a group member’s perception that another group member has the right to prescribe behaviour patterns for the former regarding his activity as a group member.” (Janda, 1960 p.358)30

is “one who can be looked up to, whose personal judgment is trusted, who can inspire and warm the hearts of those he leads, gaining their trust and confidence and explaining what is needed in language which can be understood.” (Lord Montgomery of Alamein 1961)31

is “ the task of taking the initiative in the adaptation of organization resources and process to clearly understood and attractive objectives.” (Kenneth R. Andrews 1968)32

is “an interaction between persons in which one presents information of a sort and in such a manner that the other becomes convinced that his outcomes… will be improved if he behaves in the manner suggested or desired. (Jacobs 1970 p. 232)33

28 Hemphill, J. K.; & Coons, A. E (1957) Development of the Leader Behavior description questionnaire. In R. M. Stogdill & A. E. Coons (Eds), Leader Behaviour: Its description & Measurements. Columbus, Ohio: Bureau of Business Research, Ohio State University p.7 29 Selznick, P. (1957) Leadership In Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. Barkeley, California: University of California Press 30 Janda, 1960 Towards the explication of the concept of leadership in terms of the concept of power p.358 31 Field Marshal Lord Montgomery(1961) .The Path To Leadership London. Collins 32 Andrews, K. R. (1968) In Introduction to the Thirtieth Edition of Barnard, C. I, Functions of the Executive. Massachussettes: Harvard Press p.xx-xxi 33 Jacobs 1970 p. 232)

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

17

is “the initiation and maintenance of structure in expectation and interaction.” (Stogdill, 1974 p.411)34

“is a stream of evolving relationships in which leaders are continually evolving motivational responses from followers and modifying their behaviour as they meet responsiveness or resistance in a ceaseless process of flow and counterflow.” (Burns, 1978 p.440)35

is “the exertion of influence on organizationally relevant matters by any member of the organization.” (Katz & Kahn, 1978)36

is “the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with routine activities of the organization.” (Katz & Kahn, 1980 p. 528)

is “the process of influencing activities of an organized group towards goal achievement.” (Rauch & Behling, 1984 p.46)37

“is the ability to create a compelling vision and translate it into action and sustain it.” (Bennis W. & Nanus B, 1985)38

“is the key way of creating and redirecting energy within the change process.”(Roberts 1985).

“is having a set of beliefs, of values, and then seeking to further those beliefs and values, gathering together a group of people who

34 Stogdill, R. M.(1974) Handbook of Leadership: A survey of the literature. New York: Free Press p.411 35 Burns, J. M.(1978) Leadership. New York: Harper & Row p.440 36 Katz, D & Kahn, R. L. (1978) The Social Psychology of Organisations (2ed) New York: John Wiley 37 Roach, C. F. & Behling, O. (1984) Functionalism: Basis for an alternate approach to the study of leadership. In J. G. Hunt, & D. M. Hosking, C. A. Schrieshiem, A. R. Stewart (eds), Leaders & Managers: International perspectives in Managerial behavior and leadership. Elmsform, NY. Pergamon Press. 38 Bennis, W. G. & Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

18

believe in those values and then sitting and arriving at consensus decisions.” (Bhutto B., 1993)39

“involves diagnosing situations, determining what needs to be done and marshalling collective effort sufficient to achieve a desired future or avert significant problems.” (Lenz T. R. 1993)40

“is about doing one’s best to envisage the probable trend of future pressures, and then charting a course which maximizes the opportunities and minimizes risk.” (Sir John Harvey-Jones 1993)41

“is the ability to utilize privileged access to and unusual skill with the diverse material and symbolic resources, ideal and codes supplied by their complex positions in society as a whole.” (Whittleton, 1993)42

“is a transaction that occurs within (and between) the minds of leaders and followers. A leader is an individual who creates a story – a mental representation – that significally affects the thoughts, behaviors and feelings – the mental representation of a significant number of persons.” (Gardner H. 1995 p.15)43

“is the ability to use, mobilize or symbolize the use of the forces of the man/individual, the forces or resources of the society, and the forces or resources of the situation, to pursue and/or to meet the needs of the man/individual, the needs of the society and the needs of the situation in which he/she is a member or is considered a member.” (Dele Israel, IKEORHA 1995 p.24)44

39 Bhutto, B. (1993) President of Pakistan in an interview recorded in Geoffrey Stern (1993) ed Leaders & Leadership. London BBC 40 Lenz, T. R. (1993) Strategic Management and Organisational Learning: A meta theory of Executive Leadership. In Chapter 7 of Hendry, J; Johnson, G. & Newton, J. (1993) Strategic Thinking: Leadership & the Management of Change. New York: John Wiley 41 Harvey-Jones, J. (1993) Managing To Survive: London: Heinemann p.150 42 Whittleton, (1993) Social Structures and Strategic Leadership. In Hendry J., Johnson G., & Newton G., (1993) Eds Strategic Thinking: Leadership & The Management of Change: N.Y. John Wiley 43 Gardner H. (1995) Self Raising Power. Article in the Times Higher, July 28, 1995 p.15 44 Dele Israel, IKEORHA(1995) Forces of Effective Leadership. Network Press p.24

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

19

You must be breathing heavily and thinking hard now, at the various aspects emphasized by one or more of the definitions and trying to find a way of unifying them.

The truth is that each of these definitions has its merit. While some emphasize spiritual aspects such as values, faith, motives, purpose, vision, beliefs, symbols, codes etc., others emphasize structural aspects such as goals, shared goals, distinctive competence or skills, power relationships, structure, goal achievement, consensus decisions, social positions etc.

As has been observed by Barnard C. I. (1938 p.261) “The elements and processes of leadership are observed and abstracted with great difficulty. In the present attempt to elucidate the subject, it is first necessary to consider what we mean by moral character of persons and the nature of personal responsibility. Thus we must briefly indulge in some speculative description of internal processes, which are only surmised – with the aid of subjective experience – from external phenomena, though the later are matters of common experience”45

Common sense knows and shows that reality proves the point that the spiritual aspects require the structural aspects of leadership to work.

Therefore, we will not put the cart before the horse by expecting a leader to achieve results before he is recognized as a leader.

Leadership is the character of the individual and/or sub-group that exercises the social, moral and/or political capacity and will to dominate and/or the acceptance of responsibility; and or the ability to obtain knowledge about/intelligence, absorbing and deploying strategic changes in self, in the society/environment and in situations; applying, adapting, exploiting, manipulating, integrating, internalizing and socializing the possibilities thereof through (structures, values, codes and faith), and the possibilities

45 Barnard, C. I, Functions of the Executive. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press p. 261

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

20

provided by prevailing and/or emerging technologies, potentials and social resources, in the exercise of initiatives employed to tackle (responsibly, decisively and successfully if possible), the complexities of executing many varied tasks (successfully) in a changing environment, through a process that involves the exploitation and deployment of one or more predominant and other average traits available to oneself, in different patterns and various combinations and in varying degrees; interacting them together with social and environmental influences and resources, to inspire faith, confidence, vision, dynamism, discipline, courage, gallantry, innovation, initiative and or creativity (in oneself, in the society), desirable and sufficient in successfully eliciting and liberating sufficient collective and co-operative effort, intellect and spirit; (necessary) to face and overcome the evolving and/or deliberate or unconsciously created tasks affecting their common destiny in varying ways; varied as they may be from time to time and from place to place, and from situation to situation.

In that sense collectively, the common notion of “leadership being the individual or sub group directing and/or influencing the activities of a formal or informal group” would be sustained to enable us accommodate the spiritual and structural aspects that must exist for leadership to be effective; eventuating in its complexity and diversity.

Hence, leadership, whether by virtue of position, such as that of a football captain or coach; or informal leadership such as that of a team player who is highly motivational in a particular match or instrumental in the winning or averting a grave loss, are considered leaders.

Leadership is a complex relationship among variables of the leadership triad, even though historically, mankind has attributed it to the personality or qualities or character of an individual in a social situation.

There are many things individuals do to qualify them as leaders in a particular context. It may be the occupation of a formal role or position; ability to analyze a situation and or proffer solution to problems. It may be the ability to communicate a vision; to

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

21

heighten morale, to display unusual courage, to accept responsibility, to design, pursue and attain group goals or personal goals.

LEADERSHIP FORMS

There are basically two forms of leadership. Leadership may be

1. Spontaneous or

2. Structural

Spontaneous leadership usually operates in informal set-ups, while structured leadership occurs usually in formal organizations where roles, responsibilities and authorities are defined.

SPONTANEOUS LEADERSHIP

Spontaneous leadership are accidental, bursts of emergent leadership in moments of need by individuals in a situation. Spontaneous leadership usually operates in the informal, is usually short in duration and relies on other influence/power such as influence power, conceptual power etc. than on positional power.

Within the short life of its duration, the individual exhibits one or more quality of leadership in a practical situation. He or she, either because the duration of the opportunity is short, acts as if he or she is under a spell or divinely gifted, or inspired or endued at that material moment; enabling the individual to exhibit behaviors usually attributed to leadership briefly.

Spontaneous leadership manifests commonly in crisis situations where or when the formal or structured leader is absent or momentarily indisposed, absent or incapable of leadership or of effectively meeting the demands of the leadership role and responsibility or where structure is absent or badly designed. For example, when a defender in a football team equalizes a goal or a striker scores a number of goals to give his team victory; or averts certain defeat; or when a leader betrays or is seen to be pursuing purposes not in the interest of his followers; resulting in a temporal vacuum, or when leadership responsibilities are temporarily

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

22

performed by an alternative person, who may have a position or may lack it.

STRUCTURED LEADERSHIP

Structured leadership is leadership that exists in formal organizations; pursuing structured goals and tasks, with structured responsibilities, roles and purpose. It is the kind of leadership that exists in institutionalized and organized set ups; such as nations, companies or corporate bodies; where the individual carrying out leadership responsibilities is equipped with defined roles, responsibilities, tasks, and authority.

Acceptance of responsibility is EXPECTED and taken as given in a structured leadership setting, while in spontaneous leaderships, it is a matter of choice, and leadership becomes RECOGNIZED when manifested by the individual.

In practice, the demonstration of spontaneous leadership usually reveals the existence of leadership potential in an individual and results in consequent recognition of same that will lead to his or her becoming a leader in a structured setting.

When a leadership is analyzed, spontaneous and structured leadership patterns may be seen to occur with varying frequency. Leaders in structured settings at times fail in leadership required at a particular time and in a particular situation. When they demonstrate leadership at times when it is not expected it could be explained as spontaneous leadership at that material time.

For the purpose of this book

Leadership is the ability (and process involved) to mobilize or attempt to mobilize the forces of the man/leader, the forces of the society and the forces of the situation, to meet or attempt to meet the needs of the man/leader, the needs of the society and the needs of the situation in any social context as they evolve over time.” (1990)

LEADERSHIP DEFINED

23

These leadership factors are not only vital in determining social direction, but also leadership and social situation. The laws governing these historical forces which double as the concrete factors of leadership will be dealt with latter in Part II of this book. Suffice it to say at this point that leadership goes with the time and the society.

Leadership, human leadership deals with man. What is man? Who is man? Various philosophies have been conceptualized to define who man is. But what is man and what role has the human factor got to do with leadership? That is the subject of the next chapter.

LEADERSHIP AND THE HUMAN FACTOR

24

2 Leadership &

The Human Factor

The human being is both the instrument and beneficiary of all

social effort. Any treatment of the subject of leadership would be incomplete without an analysis of the human factor.

On my part, an extensive research into leadership institutions and personas has confirmed the fact that the leadership factor is affected by the human factor in human organizations.

Conclusions from various researches over the years, especially the Hawthorn Works research has rendered obsolete the concept of economic man and given proof for the revision of the scientific and rational models of man and organizations.

Despite this, social scientists, imprisoned by scientific methods, still propagate the view of the economic man as a scientific being, showing the degree of intellectual stubbornness that is prevalent with most scholars who deny the obvious and maintain the truism of the contrary because of the convenience to do so. “Without a global revolution in the sphere of human consciousness, nothing will change in our being as humans and the catastrophe towards which the world is headed… will be unavoidable”46 says Václav Havel, President of the Czech Republic (1997). According to Selznick (1957) “ a theory of leadership is dependent on a theory of social organization.”47

Effective leadership requires and presupposes an understanding of man, an appreciation of human limitations and tendencies; of the potentials of the human spirit, of the inner motives; of man’s 46 Václav Havel, Quoted in Awake Magazine Jan(1997). 47 Selznick P. (1957) Leadership in Administration: A sociological interpretation. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press


25

capacity to exhibit dispersive tendencies; of the capacity for choice and free will; of the ability to cooperate or uncooperate, integrate or disintegrate; to organize or disorganize; of interests that are complex and morals that conflict.

“Equity” said Aristotle in Rhetoric 1374b, “ bids us be merciful to the weakness of human nature; to think less about the laws than about the man who framed them, and less about what he said than about what he meant; not to consider the actions of the accused so much as his intentions, nor this or that detail so much as the whole story; to ask not what a man is now but what he has always or usually been. It bids us remember benefits rather than injuries and benefits received rather than benefits conferred; to be patient when wronged; to settle dispute by negotiation and not by force….”48

Whether we deny it or not, leadership has to take man as he is; and who man is and what he represents includes the various cultural tendencies that influence human characteristics and make us different one from another. Man has conflicts of feelings; he is controlled by paradoxes; he is limited and yet unlimited; free yet unfree; is a free moral being and yet controlled by principles that limit his actions and freedom; evolving, encountering changes in social processes in one instance and inertia in others; personalized and yet depersonalized; alienated and yet acquiring vicarious responsibilities; wanting and seeking the ideal yet living by the optimal, desiring the best yet enduring the mediocre, seeking success and yet achieving failure; desiring to dominate and being dominated; these are characteristic facts of human history.

The observable actions of human beings, their speeches, activities, movements and the unobservable actions of man - thought, interests, motives, biological and psychological drives, lead to conflicting interpretations of the perceived meaning to the actions of men. “A community is always considerably more than a polity; so a man is always considerably more than a citizen. If man is a political animal, he is certainly an apolitical one. He leads both kinds of existence daily during the same life span. We can

48 Aristotle Rhetoric 1374b


26

never be comprehended wholly in our citizenship or committed entirely to any political allegiance. Divide us through as often as you will and by what institutional divisors you choose; we never come out quite finished and even,”49 wrote Edmund Cahn in The Predicament of Democratic Man (1961, p.193)

The nature of man, of human beings therefore is complex. It involves the physical aspects we see (the body, its organs, the biological), the mental and psychological (the thought and rational faculties) and the Spiritual (the instinctive and intuitive aspects etc.)

“The problem is that too many executives consider the human element irrelevant when they are in the corporate suite. That the human element is there is not the issue; we see it in the roles played by executives in their communities or on behalf of charities. But for too many, all other consideration pale beside corporate goals, public relation work can not change that” wrote Edward E. Pollack(1981), in the Harvard Business Review.50

Generally, it is assumed by most social scientists that all things being equal, all three aspects - body, soul/mental and spiritual coincide. But that is hardly true. Conflict between the body and the mind and between the mind and the spirit is common. For example: Covetousness, the desire to possess what belongs to others, may be unacceptable to an individual’s mind. A battle goes on in the individual in the form of thought. At other times, the body has drives - biological and psychological - such as hunger, which though not undesirable, but denied because of the decision of the spirit man to fast.

The history of mankind shows sufficient proof of the fact that human institutions change in responses to human conditions and human experience. In response to this change, organizations and human beings learn from the change and historic process

49 Edmund Cahn(1961) The Predicament of Democratic Man: New York: Feffer & Simon p.193 50 Edward E Pollack, Director, Computing Services Indiana University. Quoted in Harvard business Review March –April 1981 pg. 238


27

“Humanity is menaced by a general crisis. No single ideology is capable of resolving our present problems. Neither socialism nor liberalism nor anything else can solve the problem on which the survival of humanity depends” writes Mikhail Gorbachev(1998) former and last leader of the Soviet Union51 highlight the predicament of leaders and of human situation in the present era.

Absence of consideration for the real nature of man in social theory, and even modern science today, prompted Ayn Rand in her essay “What is Capitalism?” to write thus. “… In the field of scientific theory, unable to integrate or interpret their own data, scientists are abetting the resurgence of a primitive mysticism. In the humanities, however, the crash is past, the depression has set in and the collapse of sciences is all but complete. The clearest evidence of it may be seen in such comparative young sciences as psychology and political economies. In psychology, one may observe the attempt to study human behavior without references to the fact that man is conscious. …In political economy, one may observe the attempt to study and device social systems without reference to man…” a clear evidence of what she called “the tribal view of man.”52

“Mankind is not an entity, an organism or a coral bush. The entity involved in production and trade is Man. It is with study of man – not of the loose aggregate known as a “community”- that any science of the humanities has to begin.”53

The individual has potentials for inner conflict and for outer conflict; for inner motives and for outer motives; for inner harmony and outer harmony. Man therefore is a bunch of paradoxes.

Organizations by virtue of their formation are considered conscious, deliberate and purposeful. Successful organizations are those whose elements and leadership have succeeded in

51 Mikhail Gorbachev (1998) Look To The People: An Essay in Index On Censorship Magazine Vol. 1 1998 p. 117 Writers & Scholars, London. 52 Ayn Rand (1966) Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. Pg 11 and The Objectionist Newsletter Nov – Dec 1965. 53 Ayn Rand (1966) Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. Pg 11 and The Objectionist Newsletter Nov – Dec 1965.


28

maintaining this consciousness, deliberate actions, common spirit and purposefulness in the face of change; adapting itself by acquiring new identity and purposes over time.

Although there are various competing concepts of the ideal man, society and even ideal situation, it is evident that although man and organizations have freedom to choose, “they sometimes exercise that freedom in ways that society finds unpleasant and undesirable. There are many literary works to celebrate the unruliness of man, and unpredictability of his choices, and his difficulty as a raw material of a social system. They underline the potential and often realized, contradiction between human freedom and social requirement”54 wrote Herbert Simon in “What is Industrial Democracy: An Essay.”

It is easy to accuse one of having a high or low view of man as evident in Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y or theories dependent on a comparative view of man. Nevertheless, human history is on the side of both perceptions and sufficient proofs exist to support both approaches.

There are a lot to recommend both the “be nice” and the “be mean” characters of leadership. There are some who recommend the “be nice” character of leadership for all situations. It will not do. It simply reveals that either the individual has mistaken “humanness” for niceness or mistake niceness for good naturedness – which is what is vital in leadership -, or is playing to the gallery to avoid charges of cruelty which has been levelled on Machiavelli or called machiavellian, or lack the courage of self conviction or absence of the scientific temper sufficient to overcome the culture of social deprecation of certain concepts, or maybe such an individual has not been a leader of men, or has been fortunate to lead a wonderful set of human beings like Moore’s Utopia or Plato’s unrealistic secluded community – which over-extends the ability of environment to change human nature.

54 Simon Herbert (1983) “What is Industrial Democracy: An Essay” CHALLENGE, and TOPIC Magazine (1983) p.76


29

Man is man and no amount of technological development or advancement can change his make even though we agree that environment does influence human beings. According to Oliver Sheldon, “Into every branch of industry the human factor enters, and where that factor exists, there must always remain a field outside the province of science.”55

You will recognize that “…leadership – any form of leadership – must adapt its methods to suit its personalities and the circumstances in which they find themselves…. Leadership does not have to be goody-goody and dull to be effective – in fact… the needs of task, team and individual can often best be met – sometimes, only be met – with a bit of robustness, panache, iconoclasm, and even eccentricity. This is very much a matter of personal style,”56 wrote Admiral Sir Dick Clayton (1984).

Human nature is perverse and pervasive. It is capable of egoism, of crime, of the worst evil, of selfishness, of theft, of murder, of lack of responsibility, of incapacity for judgment, of insanity, treachery, incompetence, subversion, destruction, jealousy, laziness, duplicity, conspiracy and rebellion; of unstableness, unpredictability and the mischievous and also of the best of intentions and actions; of the most commendable good. These are characteristic facts of human history.

The function of leadership therefore requires the capacity in individuals having acquired positive morals, to avoid the pervasive tendencies of human beings, overcome human frailties to substantial extent, and then promoting same in an atmosphere of cooperation, exercising responsibility for upholding same in atmospheres of conflict.

Leadership is about maintaining equilibrium between the constantly changing environmental and external forces or 55 Sheldon, Oliver (19 ) The Philosophy of Management: London, Pitman. P.35 56 Admiral Sir Richard Clayton (1984) “Leadership In the Armed Services”: Speech read posthumously on November 1984 by Sir Raymond Lygo, Chairman of British Aerospace, at the National Conference on Leadership organized by the Society of Strategic & Long Term Planning, Royal Society of Arts. Quoted in Adair, John (1988) Developing Leaders: The Ten Key Principles. McGraw-Hill Maidenhead, Berkshire p. 103


30

elements, by the adjustment of internal processes of the organization or society. It is ensuring that creative purposive forces are more than the destructive forces; that the perverting elements are lesser than the productive ones.

Simple as it is to state, it is a complex thing to achieve in practice. It involves the understanding of the social characteristics inherent in a total situation and the operation of a hierarchy of factors to guide behavior suitable to achieve long and short-term objectives. At such a time, processes would be maintained, communications would be made, goals would be designed; conflicts would arise and decisions would be made; strategic factors would change and leadership has to adapt to them.

Maintaining organizational cooperation is the greatest challenge of leadership and this is so because of the human factor. A society on the aggregate may show a balance of integrity, but when the morals of the individuals are carefully examined in isolation, we see conflict of motives, of choices and of actions.

When therefore individuals engage in cooperation in any form of organization, it is to satisfy physical, mental, moral, spiritual, material, psychological and social motives of value to their value systems. But the initial motivation to participate in any organization by an individual is not constant but evolve and change over time and with experience.

While individuals have capacity to be pervasive, they also possess the capacity to be productive and creative, to cooperate, for positive action; for love, to contribute energy, for virtue, selflessness, to be innovative and enterprising, the willingness to cooperate, integrate, organize etc. This characteristic is also demonstrated by organizations.

Leadership therefore acquires and requires the complex dynamics, which the human factor gives, and when this is kept in perspective, it enhances the ability of the leadership to effectively size up the situation and respond adequately to the need of the moment. It must recognize that people - employees, followers, customers, board members, suppliers, managers, and unions may


31

sometimes be irrational, unpredictable, uncontrollable etc. It equally recognizes that these same people are capable of cooperation, rationality, reason, control, and predictability, making relativity, a common factor of human experience.

Leadership therefore seeks to achieve congruence in a wide variety of circumstances, between organizational goals and those of the individuals or competing groups to which the individuals belong; integrating people to a unifying purpose. Usually this is done through the projection of a broader vision and direction of attention to common factors, or to clear or vague or diversionary issues.

There are those who believe that there are no bad followers only bad leaders. That there are no bad employees only bad managers. That view presupposes a very high view of man. If the moral is to instill a sense of responsibility in leaders and managers for organizational effectiveness and for what happens to their organizations, it is commendable. But as an absolute, it is dangerous. There are bad employees as much as there are bad managers. There are bad followers as much as there are bad leaders.

The denial of the perverseness of the human factor and its capacity for the contradictory is at the bottom of the soap-opera management thinking that has become preponderous in the nineteen nineties; a development which has made practitioners to view latest social inventions with considerable suspicion.

On the other hand, leaders must divorce themselves from the persecution complex - the tendency to blame followers and employees, stakeholders, market forces etc. for failures whose responsible address is at their doorsteps.

You cannot eliminate the human factor either in the followers or in the leader. Rather we must develop ingenious ways to exploit them. We must recognize human and social tendencies and then motivate them to exploit their possibilities and not accept them as inevitables.


32

In Psalms 8:4-7, King David queried: “What is man, that thou art mindful of him? and the son of man, that thou visitest him? For thou hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast crowned him with glory and honour. Thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands; thou hast put all things under his feet: All sheep and oxen, yea, and the beasts of the field.” (KJV)

As weak, inadequate, unpredictable and prone to abuse of freedom as man is, God himself still uses man as he is, with all man’s weaknesses and imperfections, to the point of giving man dominion over all creatures on earth. According to Peter Drucker “we must work with man as he is.”57 We should recognize the creative and destructive potentialities of man and create enough intelligent and exciting schemes to divert men from destructive tendencies towards constructive purposes; engaging their time and energies positively. This is done through persuasion, education and training, by promoting a higher and more attractive concept of the individual/society and situation if all cooperate in pursuing and attaining an attractive vision; through the sharing of benefits that arise from such cooperation in acceptable terms; through building an environment of trust, care, love, team-manship, excellence; by promoting a system of cooperation, communication and information; building consciousness about what is going on; promoting a sense of value - personal and social, among all through new schemes, programs and projects.

Leadership has become the omnipotent screen with which to hide away inexplicables, imponderables, irrational and hard-to-find evidences in the running of enterprises. It has become synonymous with the mysterious. It does no one any good to argue away the human factor by either denying it or avoiding it.

Organizations today as ever must contend with the realities of the human factor - The desire in people for change, for direction, for moral reinforcement, for the satisfaction of self-interest and motives; the desire in customers to explore the new and better; the enthusiasm for the excellent, stylistic, beneficial and cost effective;

57 Drucker P. F. (1966) The Effective Executive: London, Heinemann


33

the quest by employees to find meaning and sense of value in their work beyond material incentives; the need for the satisfaction of social and psychological drives etc. - These are so because expectations and experience influence the conduct of man. Man has motives for which motives lack motives for.

The subject of human factor is all embracing. It does not only highlight the possibility and potentiality for human tendencies in the society; but for the manifestation of same in the leader and the character of the situation as well. Leaders too are usually susceptible to egoism, the tendency to avoid blame, to seek scapegoats, to deny responsibility, to abuse power, to resort to coercion, to impose their will, to persecute opponents, to be vindictive etc.. The capacity to keep such tendencies in check in atmosphere of pressure and moral complexity is vital to the success of any leadership.

There are so many theories of cooperation from Barnard to Axelrod. Robert Axelrod in his book “The Evolution of Cooperation”58 recommended a theory of cooperation in agreement with the winner of a computer prisoner’s dilemma tournament TIT FOR TAT. This recommends an initial and unilateral cooperation then subsequently to respond in line with the last behavior of the interacting pattern.

While a lot has to be learnt from the exposition, it must be said that beneath his theory of cooperation lie a lot of false premises about the nature of man. These include; the equality in values obtained in/from mutual co-operation [3=3], in/from mutual defection [1-1], in/from unilateral cooperation [0] and unilateral reflection [5] etc. It is a fallacy to assume equality of payoffs/benefits or detriments of cooperation, as this flies wrongly in the face of reality. Another faulty assumption is that of consistent rationality: a common mistake of all who seek to explain human activities through linear based scientific methods, rational or purposive formulations and models.

58 Robert Axelrod(1984) “The Evolution of Cooperation” London: Pengium


34

Thirdly, rather than be a theory of cooperation, it is effectively a theory of defection or uncooperation as the percentage of cooperation to defection even in the first biased 100 moves is heavily biased towards defection than cooperation. Instances of cooperation are very small compared to the degree of occurrence of defection. In fact the theory is a recipe for conflict rather than cooperation.

The faulty basic premise that there is equality of values and that defection always pays more than cooperation is not backed up by reality. Cooperation may sometimes pay more than defection; defection may sometimes pay more than cooperation and sometimes benefits are relatively the same. Hence the static values of payoffs are unrealistic.

Fifthly, one defection can generate a cycle of defections, and one cooperation is equally likely to lead to cooperation; and more likely towards defection.

The case for evolution made is not a new one. But one of its weaknesses is the inability to explain why man has not evolved into something else and why those so-called ancestors of man are yet to provide sufficient proof for evolution.

Axelrod express this when he commented that ‘a realistic understanding of these [human problems] would have to take into account many factors not incorporated into the simple prisoner’s dilemma formulation, such as ideology, bureaucratic politics, commitments, coalitions, mediation, and leadership. Nevertheless, we can use all the insights we can get’.59

Robert Gilpin [1981 p.205] points out that from the ancient Greeks to contemporary scholarship all political theory addresses one fundamental question: “How can the human race, whether selfish or more cosmopolitan ends, can understand and control the seemingly blind forces of history?” In the contemporary world this question has become especially acute.

59 Robert Axelrod(1984) “The Evolution of Cooperation” London: Pengiun


35

Organizations that have a bias towards the practical and real, and adapt theoretical approaches with the reality of the world in the pursuit of organizational objectives, prove more effective. How these theories are used, how effective they are, is dependent on the ability of the human factor to introduce subjective elements into the equations in ways that will enable realistic outcomes rather than scientific ones.

There are times when reality confounds science, and times when science confounds reality. When businessmen against their instincts are blinded by science to apply textbook formulas without making allowance for the complexity and variations as well as the potential to be misleading inherent in such methods. Qualitative leadership methods must serve as controls to the quantitative systematic management methods. “Spirit must balance the mind’s designs, or as Chester Barnard in The Functions of the Executive insists to succeed we must consider the impact of moral factors on material forces. In his words (p.122) “the needs of balanced minds is real… Brains without minds seem a futile imbalance.” 60

The human factor is usually discounted in the computation of most analytical methods or when considered, is buried in very mysteriously determined percentages or formulas apparently linear in effect but random in real life.

The human factor is revealed in leadership methods, choices of management systems and methods, their tendency towards either the systemic or analytic, the factor of ambition, personal interests, motivations, complacency, greed fear, pride, ignorance, delay, emotional attachments, rational and irrational influences in the social and leadership processes. “There is no alternative, in logic between behaviorism, mechanism and the personal God who is the soul of beauty, love and truth.” wrote novelist Joyce Cary.

60 Chester Barnard (1936) Mind In Every Day Affairs; A Cyrus Fogg Lecture Before The Engineering Faculty Of Princeton University March 10, 1936. Included as Appendix In Chester Barnard (1968) The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press p.322


36

According to William Prentice, President & Vice Chairman Bryant & Stratton Business Institute. “Leadership is the accomplishment of a goal through the direction of human assistants. The person who successfully marshals human collaborators to achieve particular ends is a leader. A great leader is one who can do so day after day and year after year in a wide variety of circumstances… The leader’s unique achievement is a human and social one which stems from understanding fellow workers and the relationship of their individual goals to the groups goals that must be carried out.”61

Motivation therefore is a social imperative and is essential in every society if goals are to be reached and objectives attained. “Coming together,” says Henry Ford, “is a beginning. Keeping together and working together is success.”62

The recognition of the human factor and its potent for cooperation and conflict is essential. Sufficient motivation to liberate the energies necessary to attain objectives over time is the quest of every leadership, and this can only come about by having a realistic view of the values of men, women and people that constitute the organization or society. Recognizing their limitations and capabilities and acting in ways that will elicit those capabilities for social advantage is what leadership is all about - using forces of leader, society and situation to effectively meet the needs of the moment and of the future.

Human beings are creatures of choice and freewill and despite the possible limitations imposed by physical, psychological, social, organization and moral factors, retain the unusual capacity to respond rationally or irrationally and act in a negative way based on emotional arguments or reasons of personal pique, ego, blind ambition and fascination.

A lot of techniques and theories recommended by social scientists “are convenient but not a practical technique in a world where many factors in addition to stake and reward will influence 61 William Prentice, President & Vice Chairman Bryant & Stratton Business Institute 62 Ford, H. Quoted in Dele-Israel, I. (1999) How To Make Money If you Really Mean It. Kaduna: Network Press.


37

the decision taking process and the individual’s perception.” p.11 wrote Jonathan Andrews in Upside Downside;63 theories, models and techniques which J. H. Folger, President of Folger & Company Inc. Boston Massachusetts believes “…may be of interest in the academic community, but I feel that they are not particularly enlightening or helpful out in the world of commerce and industry.”64

Understanding leadership therefore, requires a broader understanding of the broader concrete forces of the factors of the leadership triad. This is because wide variations in individual characteristics of leaders in arguably similar situations and greater variations in the divergent leaderships in different situations present a unique challenge.

Effective leadership therefore lies in the acknowledgement of these variations and divergences; and the practical search for forces that will lead to creative cooperation and results.

While we must concede the fact that the capacity for the paradoxical – the right and the wrong, the good and the evil – exist in man, we must also, (as evident in any analysis of human history or social organization) realize that paradox does not discount resolution; failure does not discount success, nor does inefficiency foreclose the possibility of efficiency.

Human beings do what they like, not necessary what is right. Human beings exercise their choices based on psychological, social and moral logics and not necessary on their self-interest. Human beings can take decisions and actions that are irrational and injurious to their self-interest. The acknowledgement of this fact, will clear a lot of haze that has clouded leadership and social theory in the 1980’s and 90’s. As was evident in apartheid and Vorster’s South Africa, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s War, man can do his damnest, but we also know that he can do his best.

63 Jonathan Andrews Upside Downside, London Hutchinson. p.11 64 Folger, J.H. (1981) Quoted in Harvard Business Review March – April 1981 p.212


38

Effective leadership more often than not, instill value by pointing at the ideal; by emphasizing the positive; by bringing to light and recognizing the true worth in men and people; accepting a man as he is but helping him to be better, to be as he ought to be; by communicating and holding high expectations of the people; by inspiring men and women to transcend limitations and weaknesses and by alternation of objectives which they believe to be beneficial at a material time.

“The man who is worthy of being a leader of men” says William Boetcker, “will never complain about the stupidity of his helpers, the ingratitude of mankind, nor the inappreciation of the public. To meet and overcome them, and not go down before them in disgust, discouragement or defeat – that is the final proof of power.” 65

Social science demonstrates an obsessive tilt and bias towards the humanist view of man as a rational, materialistic force guided by evolutionary ethics; hence a superficial image of the ideal - especially the ideal man - and the inability to reckon with the facts about human nature. And the leading social scientists being members of the new aristocracy of intellect or merit, were susceptible to underestimating man’s folly and selfishness.

While the capabilities and possibilities of man are great, the reduction of everything to blind faith in reason and in the reliability of tested evidence and in experimental science does injustice to the human spirit.

At the other extreme are the existentialists who question the optimism of man because of violence that has remained a persistent theme of human history; and the impossibility to prove by reason that reason has an absolute validity; nor was existentialism sufficient to explain man’s profound experiences, loves, hopes, fears and anguish. According to Paschal “The heart has reasons for which reasons knows nothing.” The existentialists who believe that there are no principles to follow, as there are

65 William Boetcker,


39

none, deify selfishness and seek self-actualization and meaning in extreme subjectivity.

While torrents of existentialist thought can be found in social theory, humanistic concepts are prevalent and predominant. Neither view - pure objectivism nor pure subjectivism - in humanist and existentialist thought will provide a true view of man. Principally, man is a spirit with a soul and a body.

Even though many deny it, as Doestoevsky aptly wrote “The essential condition of human existence is that man should always bow down before something infinitely great. If men are deprived of the infinitely great, they will not go on living and die of despair.” This fact is essential to human nature. - Our aspiration to God - is denied by both humanists and existentialists and by extension, social theory and science.

Organizational theory from superstructuralism, Giden’s theory of structuration, Quinns concept of logical incrementalism and Burrel and Morgan’s paradigmic closures are instances of man’s pursuit of approaches where the spiritual aspect of man are completely ignored and discounted in some cases.

While it is arguably right that God as a factor in the study of organizations and human destiny will be unsettling in social theory and even limited and diverse as human understanding of the spiritual dimension is, its mere acknowledgement as Plato did will be enough to encourage balance in social scientific views about man and organizations. Man is complex and attempting to reduce him to a simple specimen will not do.

“Anyone who sees all this” wrote Plato in “Laws”, “naturally rushes to the conclusion of which I was speaking, that no mortal legislates in anything, but that in human affairs chance is almost everything. And this may be said of the arts of the sailor, and the pilot, and the physician, and the General, and may seem to be well said with equal truth of all of them. What is it? That God governs all things, and that chance and opportunity cooperate with Him in the government of human affairs. There is, however, a third and less extreme view, that art should be there also; for I should


40

say that in a storm there must surely be a great advantage in having the aid of the pilot’s art. You would agree,”

The art of leadership therefore is the subject of this writ and an analysis of the leadership anatomy will enable easier appreciation of the subject and acquisition of skills that must surely be a great advantage in having the aid of the pilot’s art. You would agree.

As Chester Barnard (1938) recognized in Functions of the Executive, “… the expansion of cooperation and the development of the individual are mutually dependent realities and that a due proportion or balance between them is a necessary condition of human welfare. Because it is subjective with respect both to a society as a whole and to the individual, what this proportion is I believe science cannot say. It is a question for philosophy and religion.” (p.296)66

Spiritual forces are stronger than material forces and rules the world. Leadership is the recognition of the roles the spiritual and material play in human affairs, and the adaptation and guidance of these forces plus the resultant energies liberated, to serve objective purposes. This can only be possible by a proper understanding of the human nature and the values at work at a particular moment in a society’s life.

It is failure to make this recognition or connection or distinction that is the primary cause of, not only failures in leadership, but of organizations, leadership, social and motivational theories, and of nations in the 20th Century on a global scale. The only way these mistakes will not be repeated in the 21st century and centuries from now, is if there is a major revolution in human conduct, a possibility which is remote. Man will never cease to be man and experience is not only social. It is predominantly personal.

Leadership is not headship, although leadership is a quality expected from those who have headship positions in formal organizations. The human factor largely influences the result of headship and by extension of leadership in so many societies. 66 Barnard, C. I. (1938) Functions of the Executive, Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press p.296


41

The human factor plays a strategic role in the selection and identification of leaders. Ifepariola, S. (1982) in his treatise “Management Accountancy As a Profession In Nigeria: Problems, Politics and Prospects“ observes that “In Nigeria (and I believe in many organizations, if not all nations, companies and empires) today, there are several factors that may decide the winner of a race to the top. Among these are the Almighty constitution, club and other society memberships, god-fatherism, mentorship, partisan politics, tribalism, geography, and even more mean are the specialist acts of lobbying, boot-licking, cringing, crawling, idol worshipping, eye-service, arse-kissing and more generally in the Nigerian way of getting what you want by using what you have. Hence, some are strategically placed so that they can still successfully crawl across the winning line into the Boardroom without sweat. The manager or leader is a normal human being and cannot escape the influence of these features of the Nigerian society, but I believe these times will change. As soon as the naked realities of corporate insolvency begins to ravage many otherwise successful companies (and organizations), much more honorable criteria will be applied in determining who gets to the top” (Ifepariola S. p.13)67

67 Ifepariola, Samuel (1982) Management Accountancy As a Profession In Nigeria: Problems, Politics and Prospects. Eds. Ifepariola Z. Management Accounting and Management of the National Economy Vol. 1 January 1982

MOTIVATION REVISITED

42

3 Motivation Revisited

Cyclical Value Theory of Motivation

One of the recurring factors of significance in human affairs is that of motivation. It is a pervasive force. Men are either motivated to work or to strike (not to work). The reasons for this is not just what can be explained away by Theory X and Theory Y assumptions but present the reality of the existence of conflicting and competing possibilities and attitudes that can be a reality not only in the life of an individual, but also in that of the group as a whole.

Work is not an absolute force. It is an activity, which humans and non-humans undertake to do being compelled by motivations, and forces both within and beyond their control.

The capacity to do in man equally implies and also involves the capacity to refrain from doing or be unable to do.

This capacity for the paradoxical, for the conflicting is a factor usually discounted by most motivational theories that thrive on cause and effect assumptions of human beings based on rational terms.

One of the widely known motivational theories is that of Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist who argued that man has seven innate needs:

1) Psychological needs – for food, shelter etc.

2) Safety needs (freedom from threat, but also security and predictability

3) Love needs (relationships, affection, sense of belonging


43

4) Esteem needs (for competence, achievement, autonomy, independence and their reflection in perception of others in recognition, appreciation, respect and status

5) Self actualization needs (for fulfillment of personal potential to become everything one is capable of becoming

6) Freedom of inquiry and expression (for social conditions permitting free speech and encouraging justice, fairness and honesty) and

7) Knowledge (Cognitive) and understanding needs (the philosophical, theological value and system building explanation needs

Based on the preposition that

(a) Man’s needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of relative potency (b) Each level of need is dominant until satisfied, only then does

the next level become a motivating factor (c) A need, which has been satisfied no longer, motivates an

individual’s behavior. The need for self-actualization can never be satisfied.

He erected a hierarchy of needs which places physiological needs on the first level, safety needs on the second level, social needs on the third, esteem needs on the fourth and self-actualization/realization on the topmost level.

The Value Theory of Motivation

Intuitively appealing as it has been since it was first propounded, its impractical application and its erroneous notion about the motivations of human nature have not been sufficiently challenged.

It is proper to mention here certain fundamental flaws about Maslow’s concept of human needs and human motivation. These


44

are the basis for the cyclical theory of motivation, which is based on the following premises.

It baffles me how such a theory was tolerated for nearly three decades without an affirmative intellectual action against it.

Maslowian theory is not only an apologia for the aristocracy of society, it is an apologia for the emergent aristocracy of the intellect we are creating in intellectual institutions worldwide – a clear evidence of “the paralysis that has gripped the affluent world” (Freda Laski 1998)68. But in the end does injustice to human nature.

Scattered throughout Maslow’s book, “Motivation and Personality” (1970), one finds concrete assertions with presumed empirical evidence that even a simple observation betrays their fallacy or fictional quality. Statements that fly in the face of practical and historical evidence such as, “people living at the level of self-actualization are, in fact, found simultaneously to love mankind most, and to be the most developed idiosyncratically,”69 a statement that run counter to historical evidence of the past 2,000 years that reflects the truism of the very opposite.

At the centre of wars, human conflicts and oppression have always been men and women of aristocracy, monarchy, feudals, men of power of high standing and wealth. The problem of history has been hegemonies, leaders rather than peoples. Very few among the affluent class have demonstrated the “phileo” – that Greek quality for true love for one’s fellow man, for mankind. That true love Jesus Christ says we should have for our neighbor. The so-called self-actualized men have demonstrated a very obvious deficiency in this score. They give money, not to serve humanity, although some definitely not for the sake of love for mankind, but many philanthropies are motivated by desire to keep appearances, maintain social graces, self-gratification and indulgence; although some do philanthropic acts from purer motives than self-interest.

68 Freda, Laski, In the introduction to her husband’s book Laski, G. (1998) A Grammar of Politics. 69 Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, 3rd edn New York, Harper & Row


45

The pressure on companies in the twentieth century led by such men, the economic motives of corporations, the need to remind them of their statutory and social responsibilities, and the histories of human conflict such as the Nigerian civil war - fought on questions of religion and tribalism as well as political power- or the American civil wars as a result of the question of freedom from the slavery controlled by such men, bring to the fore the fact that self actualization is not just as Maslow, puts it “to become more and more what one idiosyncratically is, to become everything one is capable of” because man is man, and cannot escape the influence of his environment. A man is what his environment makes of him and how he makes his environment. An individual can be both a rogue and a saint if he chooses to be. The powers of choice, capability and value system are vital aspects of human behavior.

Self-actualization is a state of mind, is an attitude, a spiritual state and is a dynamic element. It has nothing to do with status. It is a human element; the feeling of satisfactory exploitation of potential. It is achieved in a feeling of success or achievement. It is not limited to men of status or obvious achievement. The poor may have it in congratulating themselves that they are not thieves, the rich that he is not poor.

Maslow states that “the higher the need, the less imperative for sheer survival, the longer gratification can be postponed, and the easier it is for the need to disappear permanently.” The impact and value of a need is determined by the value system of the individual, which he has adopted as having authority over him; his thoughts and mental processes and state. All needs are imperative for sheer survival and higher and lower needs are determined by the individual. Safety need may occupy a higher position in the hierarchy than self-actualization at a material time and change the next moment.

Needs are interwoven. The preposition may be taken as true if we adopt a flexible hierarchy of need rather than Maslow’s fixed hierarchy. In the dynamic hierarchy of need, the various needs are arranged in order of relative potency by the equilibrium of the individual’s other needs, his thought process and value system.


46

“Living at the higher need level means greater biological efficiency, greater longevity, less disease, better sleep, appetite etc.”70 This is another objectionable statement. What does gratification of higher need imply? Try and ignore eating for one year, and definitely you will have longevity in the grave. Evidence abound in our hospitals today to the fact that men and women on top strata of society are so sick, sleep less, eat less and are prone to psychological stress as a result of the “worry syndrome” caused by the need to scan the internal and external environments, reach decisions, and bear personal responsibility for success and failures. Living at the higher need level is not synonymous with personal hygiene, positive mental attitude or competence.

Preposition 11 is equally false. The circular and cyclical theory of motivation implies a moving nucleus or equilibrium of needs. Maslow’s list of repercussions includes the fact that “human nature carries within itself, the answer to the questions: how can I be good? How can I be happy” how can I be fruitful?” a message that bellies the spiritual nature of man.

Human nature by itself has not got the answer to what is good or how he can be good as individuals. This humanist view of man has been unable to solve man’s predicament for centuries and cannot do this now. Man holds capacity for choice to accept what is good and what is bad.

Social values, historical and cultural precedence have internalized what is good and what is bad. Wars have been fought over questions of goodness and evil, but mankind knows that these forces are outside his ability to determine. A man chooses to be good and to be bad. To be happy is a function of so many things of which achievement may be one, even though it could bring about dissatisfaction.

Social history, to give a very liberal approach, has internalized within social ethos standards of righteousness or rightness and of evil. Religions have emphasized on these variants, but the central theme remains that individuals imbibe spiritual qualities from 70 Maslow, Abraham H. (1970) Motivation and Personality, 3rd edn Chapter 7, New York, Harper & Row


47

spiritual influences on them and in their environments, from the larger society and the various social institutions to which they belong or subscribe; various moral codes and value systems which he internalizes and operationalizes in moments of need. Man is man, and “Because it is subjective with respect both to a society as a whole and to the individual, what this proportion is I believe science cannot say. It is a question for philosophy and religion.” (Barnard C. p.296)71

In view of the above, we substitute the above prepositions:

1. Human needs are random, and/or cyclical and/or hierarchical. In the life of every human being on a daily basis, all the needs coexist.

2. The relative predominance of a particular fraction of a

concrete type of need changes over time 3. Need, value system and thought process determine the

‘dominant motivators’ and their behavior i.e. whether they are random, cyclical and hierarchical

4. All human needs coexist, are interrelated, interdependent

and constant in concrete terms 5. The satisfaction of a need can only be so in relative terms

as needs cyclical in behavior can only be satisfied in cycles.

6. A need which has been satisfied may motivate or de-

motivate an individual’s behavior 7. The hierarchy of need of an individual or group is

individualistic and self determined and determined by the value system of the group, the prevailing and predominant thought process, the social and power relationship existing

71 Barnard, C. I. (1938) Functions of the Executive, Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press p.296


48

within an individual or group that is the spirit, soul and body faculties of a group and or the individual.

8. The cyclical nature of needs means that need are recurrent

at random, but are dominant in various times and variation of patterns and ways.

9. Need may be both a motivating and/or de-motivating

factor at various times and situations and to various persons or groups.

10. The need for self-actualization can be satisfied from the

individual’s attitude or context. But practically, self-actualization is a moving target.

11. There is a spiritual dimension to man, which motivates

men to altruistic, selfless and higher values; for the search of meanings.

The dual capacity of man and even human organizations to do or not to do; to be or not to be; connotes a complex tendency that reveals itself in a lot of unpredictable character exhibited by man and groups.

Abraham Maslow’s glossing over of this, for reason of creating a convenient motivation theory has left his hierarchy of needs to be based on a false paradigm of human motivation.

Human needs are Cyclical. Taking Maslow’s list of needs as a basis, while recognizing that

other need-lists exist such as that of Sigmund Freud, Roethlisberger and Dickson, it is easy to note that in the life of every human being on a daily basis, all the needs coexist.

The relative predominance of a particular fraction of a concrete type of need changes over time.

The notion that self-actualized man will never be motivated by hunger, safety, social needs or esteem needs is a very impractical,


49

unrealistic and unromantic view of man. According to Sophocles “All generation of mortal man add up to nothing! Show me the man whose happiness was anything more than an illusion followed by delusion.”

Also the notion that a need will always motivate is illogical and not supported by practical evidence and experience. The very existence of a need may be a factor for de-motivation; even the very satisfaction of such needs could be as well. Different needs cause different behaviors not only in the same individual or group but in different individuals and groups and in different circumstances.

Rather than a Need theory, it is important to substitute it with a

“Value Theory of Motivation”

What Is Motivation?

“Motivation is the energy realized by virtue of the value placed on or generated by a need or objective or process in the individual or group in its interaction with internal and external forces.

6 KINDS OF MOTIVATION

There are basically six types of motivation. They are:

1. Ascriptive Motivation:

Motivation that can be ascribed to concrete environment or need - belonging to a group, class, family, profession, country, tribe, gender, age, firm, club, team, status, need, change, politics, technology etc.

2. Aspirative Motivation

Motivation that comes by virtue of what an individual or group aspires to be or achieve. E.g. a doctor, a profit of N1 billion, to set a new world record, to gain a 25% market share, to be famous etc..


50

3. Perspirative Motivation

Motivation that comes as a result of love for work, a particular activity, job or kind of work, by both individuals or groups as a result of excitement, interest or anything whether reasonable or not.

4. Prescriptive Motivation

Motivation that are induced by prescriptions such as through the use of drugs, wine-drinking, incentives, money, social exchanges, sex, sanction, coercion, reward, technological systems or equipment or delegation

5. Inspirative Motivation

This is motivation induced by an inspiring group or personality, ideology, message, speech, book such as the Bible, by an idea, spiritual forces, leadership example, achievement, goal, emotions, opportunity etc.

6. Charismatic Motivation

This is motivation that can be attributed to a gift, a flare for a particular activity; inborn talent or potential inherent in a society, an individual or in a culture.

MOTIVATION: Implications For Leadership

These six kinds of motivation above have implications for leadership.

1. Leadership must exploit the potential for all motivational types as they are interrelated.

2. Opportunities for channeling such motivation must be created

and stimulated 3. Motivation must be made adequate and should not be excited

beyond the organization’s capacity to fulfil (as it leads to demonstration or strikes caused by resultant de-motivation.)


51

4 Motivation requires innovation and innovation requires

imagination and enterprise. 5 A motivated leadership sustains a motivated organization and

vice visa.

Motivation is important to the leader of men and institutions. “The leader must understand,” said Lord Montgomery, “that bottled up in men are great emotional forces and these must have an outlet in a way which is positive and constructive, and which will warm their hearts and excite their imagination. If this can be done, and the forces can be harnessed, and directed towards a common purpose, the greatest achievement become possible,”72 Or as Anwar Ibrahim, Ex-Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia affirms, “I believe the will of man is stronger than the iron bars of prison. Its spirit, winged, shall rise to fly across space and time. It shall meet and converse with the great minds and noble souls of the past, to lay down the golden path for the future.”73

72 Montgomery, Field Marshall Lord: Quoted in Peter Benton “Leading Lights” Management Today January 1989 p.5 (Journal of the British Institute of Management.) 73 Anwar Ibrahim. Malaysia’s Former Deputy Prime Minister after receiving a six year sentence for corruption - in a letter from Prison: Malaysia’s Truncated Democracy. Text in Daily Champion, Tuesday, May 4, 1999 p.9

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: A THEORY

S

52

PART II

The Science

of Organization


S

53

“It is evident that many lack an interest in the science of organization because they are oblivious to the arts of organizing, not perceiving the significant elements. They miss the structure of the symphony, the art of its composition, and the skill of its execution, because they cannot hear the tones”74

Chester I. Barnard(1938) Authors Preface to The Functions of the Executive

(1968 p.xxxiv)

74 Chester I. Barnard(1938) Authors Preface to The Functions of the Executive (1968 p.xxxiv) Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press


S

54

4 Social Organization

– A Theory

According to Selznick P (1957), “a theory of leadership is dependent on a theory of social organization.”75

Leadership is a function of Social organization.

Social organization is characterized, by three factors: the Man/leader, individual, the society, and the situation. These three concrete factors represent the concrete elements active in all situation in all social organization.

Figure 1: Three Circle Universe Figure 2: The Social Prism

The relationship between these factors can be depicted by three circles drawn as shown in figure 1. or by a triangular prism as in figure 2 75 Selznick, Philip, (1957) Leadership in Administration: A Sociological interpretation. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press

Man/Individual

Situation Society

Man/Individual

Society Situation


S

55

The Man/individual/Leader: is a concrete factor and is a motive force in his own merit. The leader can make things happen, and does make things to happen. There are those like Thomas Carlyle (1841) who assert that “All that we see accomplished in the world are properly the outward material result of the practical realization and embodiment of thoughts that dwelt in the great men sent into the world.”

John Keegan believes that “it is nonsensical indifferentism to suppose that individual qualities count for nothing in the way the world is run” (1988 p5); or as Pierre Acoce wrote in “Sick Men Who Rule The World,” “leaders with strong personalities have a weighty effect on events."

Historical evidence supports the view that leaders are a motive force; that they are determinants of events in nation states, societies, organization institutions etc. and it is this belief that has spurred many researches into finding the essentials of leadership and the techniques that guarantee effectiveness in its performance. Although the individual/leader is a member of society, the second factor of leadership, in himself, the leader is a catalyst, a motive force in his own right and does have a weighty effect on events.

Social organization starts with man and therefore must start with man. Man is an entity of social organization and as such can function as a catalyst in the social process.

THE SOCIETY

The second concrete factor or element of social organization is the society, of people in the mass.

What is society?

Society refers to institutions, organizations and with reference to humans, can be defined in Lenin's words as “people in the mass.” Whenever more than one individual man is involved, a society exists and by extension, a social organization can be said to exist.


S

56

According to Mary Parker Follet(1920), “There is no “Society” thought of vaguely as the mass of people we see around us. I am always in relation not to “society” but to some concrete group. When do we ever as a matter of fact think of “Society”? Are we not always thinking of our part in our board of directors, or college faculty… in our football team, our Club, our political party, or trade union, our church? Practically “Society” is for every one of us a number of groups…. The vital relation of the individual is through his groups; they are the potent factors in shaping our lives.” (p.20)76

“People make their own history, but what determines their motives. That is the motives of the people in the mass”77 wrote Vladimir Ilich Lenin in the teachings of Karl Marx: Materialism Conception of History (1914). Mao Tse Tung asserts that ”the people, and the people alone, are the motive force in the making of world history.”

TIME, EVENT, SITUATION

The last concrete factor and forces at work in social organization are events themselves. Events, circumstances, situation, time, place and other situational factors surrounding a material time play a critical role in social organization. One event leads to another, supersedes or surpasses another, compounds another event, and as such, events and situations play a pivotal role in social organizations.

“Time is the great element between weight and force,”78 wrote Carl Von Clautwitz (1831) nearly two centuries ago.

In view of the above, social organization has three elements

v The man/individual/leader

76 Follett, M.P. (1920) The New State: London, Longman p.20 77 Vladimir Ilich Lenin The teachings of Karl Marx (1914 English edition, London 1931 Materialism Conception Of History.

78 Von Clautwitz (1831) On Wars


S

57

v The society and v Events/situation/time

The above assertion is made in the light of the growing debate about what constitutes the motive force of history at work in social situations. According to Carlyle, “the history of what man has accomplished in this world is at the bottom the history of great men who worked here,” aggrandizing in the process the belief that leaders and individuals are the only motive force in history.

On the other extreme are Marxists and socialists who assert that, “the people ALONE are the motive force in the making of world history.”(Mao Tse Tung 1966); while others believe that “No mortal legislates anything. In human affairs, chance is almost everything“ (Plato) or as King Solomon puts it “I returned, and saw under the sun, that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favour to men of skill; but time and chance happeneth to them all. (KJV)79

All these extremities have created a situation where achieving consensus in abstracting the quality and character of social organization have become elusive, laden with conflicting opinions and unnecessary mud slinging in some instances.

Try as we may, we cannot divorce any of these elements from any concrete social organization, and any instance where you divorce the individual or the society or the leader, social organization cannot be said to exist. Chester Barnard in an analogy highlighted the interdependent relationship of these factors in determining the results of cooperation. ‘Six men and a boss are set to dig a ditch. They may do as much work as seven men individually or they may do more or they may do less. Probably in most cases it is or they may do more, otherwise there should be no gain by organization – because six men and a boss working together as a group are what we mean by organization. But, in fact, such an organization not infrequently does less. Perhaps the boss is a poor one, perhaps the men cannot work together,

79 Ecclesiastes 9:11 of the King James Version of the Holy Bible


S

58

perhaps the organization is too big for the space in which it works.” Barnard C. 1938 p.316)

After viewing all these, Geoffrey Stein queried in leadership and leaders (1993) ”what is the motive force of history? Is it men (and women) or, movements, personalities or processes?”

The motive forces are man, society (movements, processes etc.) and situation, element of social organization, the factors at work in leadership situations. The motive forces are three – man as an entity, society as an entity and situation/event as an entity. It is when this fact is understood; that the various conflict in social theory can be resolved.

According to Berger & Luckman (1966), “Society is an objective reality. Man is a social product. Any analysis that leaves any of these three moments (society, man and objective reality) will be distortive.”80

It is nonsensical argumentation to continue to hold the opinion that each of these elements of social organization is the only element of social organization. They are distinct and united forces in operation. They have capacity for separate and unifying action and relationship.

While many see the leader and personality factor as the vital moment in human affairs, and others see the society or situational forces as the significant factor in history and social organizations; others with equal conviction deny that these motive forces or moments do not exist. For example, Lady Thatcher (Prime Minister of Britain for 11 years) once stated that “society does not exist.” The Marxists aver that man, as an entity is not an important factor. But as Gordon Wood points out “It is not that men’s motives are unimportant; they indeed make events, including revolution. But the purpose of men; especially in a revolution, are so numerous, so varied, and so contradictory that their complex interaction produces results that no one intended or could even foresee. It is this interaction and the results that recent historians are referring to 80 Berger, P. L. & Luckman, T. (1966) The Social Constructions of Reality. Garden City, New York: Doubleday. P.27


S

59

when they speak so disparagingly of these ‘underlying determinants’ bringing on the revolution. Historical explanation which does not account for these ‘forces,’ which, in other words relies simply on understanding the conscious Intention of the actors, will thus be limited”81 (1973 p.129)

The historical forces of man /individual/leader, society and situation/events double as the elements of social organization and factors of leadership. For this reason, history is essentially the study of social forces at work at a historical time. It is the study and analysis of men and leaders of society, outcomes of human relationships, and conduct, the outcomes of intervening events at material time or period of time. Without any of these moments, history will become extinct, and social organization will only be absurd.

As clearly stated in Metaphysics by Aristotle, “All things, both fishes and birds and plants, are ordered together in some way, but not in the same way; and the system is not such that there is no relation between one thing and another. There is a definite connexion. Everything is ordered together to one end; but the arrangement is like that in a household, where the free persons have the least liberty to act at random, and have all or most of their actions preordained for them, whereas the slaves and animals have little common responsibility and act for the most part at random.”

The intuitive and experiential fact that there must be characteristics common to all social organizations despite their disparate qualities cannot been denied. There must be similarities between the Leadership Thrust Organization and a nation state like

81 Gordon Wood, “The America Revolution, “ in Revolutions: A Comparative Study, Ed. Lawrence Kaplan, (New York: Vintage Books 1973) p.129


S

60

Nigeria or the United States, between modern corporations and ancient organizations, between empires and families. This brings us to the need to examine the characteristics and laws of social organizations.

THE LAWS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

S

61

5 THE LAWS OF

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

The elements of social organization (or motive forces of history or factors of leadership or leadership triad) are governed by fourteen laws as follows:

How do these three factors, their forces and needs relate despite constant flux, contextual differences, change, trait patterns, power patterns, segmentation of patterns and situational variables, despite the overwhelming evidence of variety of rapidly changing complex situations, and the seemingly individuality inherent in these factors?

We have to turn to the laws that govern leadership factors interactions as well as social organization to find an explanation to this fundamental question.

THE LAWS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP FACTORS’ INTERACTION

The factors of leadership are the “Man/Leader”, the “Society” and the “Situation”. These three factors exhibit interactive tendencies and relationships that form a unique part of the context and process of every leadership. These laws are as follows:

Law 1: Leadership is a unique phenomenon and the factors of leadership: Leader, Society and Situation, operate in context, interact in patterns and are never in isolation.

Law 2: It is possible for one, more, or all of the factors to be defective.

Law 3: It is probable and possible for one or more factors to be dominant.

Law 4: None of the leadership factors is absolute. All are relatives.


S

62

Law 5: Each of the factors can be the “leader” or “governing factor” dictating, directing and initiating (forces and needs).

Law 6: For each of the factors, there is an IDEAL. This means that there are three ideals. The “Ideal Leader”, the “Ideal Society”, and the “Ideal Situation”.

Law 7: Conflict between factors (their forces, needs, and ideals) is possible, if not inevitable, leading to internal and external contradictions. The three factors are complementary, competitive and reconcilable.

Law 8: Each factor can be the principal (but not only) determinant of leadership, leadership behavior and performance of one another

Law 9: The three-factor relationship and interaction patterns, imposes styles and patterns. Matching the right and/or appropriate style or pattern to the right time, society and situation is a leadership responsibility.

Law 10: The three factors are in constant interaction and are dynamic and mechanic in interactions.

(a) By and large, one factor remains the pragmatic mechanism that determines the dynamism of the other two and two factors remain the pragmatic dynamism that determines the mechanisms of the other one factor.

(b) The interactions and relationship of the three factors to each other are contextual: i.e. relative to time, place, culture and function.

(c) When one factor is a numerator, the other two are denominators, and when the two are numerators, one is the denominator. They are inseparable in operation. Their interactions determine and affect leadership outcomes.

(d) Each factor has an internal dynamism of variables, competing, and/or contradicting and complementing one another, which it uses in interaction with one another, resulting in a dynamic equilibrium with which it interacts with the other two concrete factors.


S

63

Law 11: The forces and needs are infinite within the three factors. And the variables and probabilities of interaction between the sub-variables and constants, are infinite. But at a material time, a moving strategic factor exists.

Law 12: The factor triangle, spheres and prism depict the three forces and needs theory of leadership.

Law 13: Though there is a scientific tendency, and possibly a mathematical explanation to some aspects of leadership, the variables and infinite possibility of interaction patterns, make it virtually impossible within the framework of learning abilities to determine mathematically, but explicable contingently and historically. This objective explanation to objective aspects does not provide objective answers to subjective aspects. Certain elements of social organization and leadership are outside the province of science or of scientific determinism.

Law 14: The forces of the Leader, Society and Situation, can MEET and can be harnessed to meet the needs of the Leader, society and situation.

Law 15: The processual and elemental functions of leadership within the context of the three forces and needs theory are: to map, to mobilize, to direct, to align, to synchronize and to consolidate.

It is the interaction of these laws in any leadership context that create the results of any leadership efforts.

Much scientific thought have been given to the study of the leader aspect of the leadership triad - Leader, society and situation in the pursuit of an understanding of the phenomenon.

A more effective strategy will require the incorporation of analysis of the society via sociological and history media, which have to date been treated with little emphasis. Some researchers on discovering the impact of the situational arm of the triad have laid so much emphasis that it has earned for itself a name: The situational or contingency approach.


S

64

Neither the pursuit of a study of the leader’s characteristics, (the trait approach) - traits and pattern of behavior, nor overemphasis on the situational aspect (the situational approach) will yield results. A complete concept of the leadership phenomenon demands the collective study, inter-relational and interdisciplinary study of the three arms of the leadership triad: man, society and situation will promote a complete understanding of the nature of leadership.

It is this lack, which is in breach of the first Law of leadership factor interactions which states that “factors of leadership: Leader, Society and situations - operate in context interact in patterns and are never in isolation”; is responsible for so much confusion, divergence and controversies in the field of leadership both among the common citizen and social scientists.

The forces interact, exert influence, the needs interact, counteract, act and react as the case may be, based on the variables that are at play.

The second Law states that “It is probable and possible for one or more or all the factors to be defective.

This implies that it is possible for the leader, the society and the situation to be defective, i.e. have characteristics that are counter productive to the whole leadership effort. The forces available might be channeled defectively in the pursuit of the solution of society’s needs by the leader, which as a result does not create the desirable result.

The possibility of any or all of the factors being defective, either in its forces or needs or variables is there, and usually this defect is what creates problems for leadership. The interactive forces tend towards giving attention to the most apparent defects or the most obvious.

The third Law states that “it is probable and possible for one or more factors to be dominant”

In the factors, in their forces or variables the tendency towards dominance by one of the factor is high. The Leader tends to


S

65

dominate the society and situation. The situation tends at dominating the leader and society. In addition, the society tends towards dominating the leader and situation. And within each, are dominating variables. These tendencies create conflict, making conflict a constant feature of the nature of leadership.

In every leadership the “dominance tendency” is an integral past of the phenomenon and the pattern of these dominance and the relationship between the factors, their forces and needs is a crucial part of the success or failure of any leadership.

The fourth Law states that: “None of the leadership factors is absolute. All are relatives.”

To be absolute means to be unlimited, unqualified, complete, perfect. In my study of leadership, absolutism, can only be countenanced in the case of God as a leader, the concept of absolute leader can be accommodated.

With that exception which I believe in, because of my own personal convictions as a Christian, none of the leadership factors is absolute. Be it forces or needs they are relative to the context to which we addressing them to. They are limited, are never complete in themselves and are never perfect. These, from experience, are occasioned by defects within the factors themselves, the forces that drive them and in the manner with which meeting needs are pursued. That is why in every leadership situation there is always something to do, to correct, and to supplement.

None of the factors can exist alone, none of the forces can function alone, and none of the needs can be met alone. The forces may be prioritized but they have effects one on another: they require themselves to bring out the best in any leadership situation. The factors are relative in the sense that it is not possible to divest any leadership analysis from its known peculiar context, time, place, and culture.


S

66

The fifth law of leadership factor interaction states that: “Each of the factor can be the leader or governing factor (dictating, directing and initiating forces and needs).

As earlier stated, there is an in-built tendency or mechanism - resulting from its internal competition and the internal equilibrium within each of the factors - that propels it towards dominance of other two factors. (Law 3) This tendency usually results in dominance of one factor over others over a period of time. This dominating factor acts as a governing factor. When it is said that the situation is out of control, it means that the situation have become the governing factor. The Leader finds himself reacting solely to the forces generated by the needs of the situation. Initiative or initiation of action becomes absent. Actions become reactive rather than proactive - when the society becomes the governing factor, the leader becomes like Pontius Pilate, at the mercy of social forces and unable to stop social regression or regressive behavior.

The sixth Law states that:

“For each of the factors there is an ideal. This means that there are three ideals. The ideal man or leader, the ideal society and the ideal situation”.

As the sixth Law is self explanatory, I will further state that idealism is a relative term and should be taken in context of time, place and culture.

Society and situation collectively determine leadership existence, behavior, performance and constitution.

Responsive leaders are those who give attention to the real, as opposed to the apparent need of the society and situation. The need in the society and situation determine the leader’s response.

A better-qualified leader in an instance can fail in another instance. When in a society, the need for a leader exists; the forces of the society and situation interact with those of the aspirants to leadership to determine the leader. Political and social forces go


S

67

into play. The forces in conflict and in harmony in society now counteract, interact, react and then determines who leads, hence the saying that “every society deserves the leader it gets and gets the leaders in deserves.”

In democratic societies, those who would have perhaps been better leaders of society fail because the forces of society (language, trust, race, law, values etc.) are discriminative or are superseded or does not favor their candidacy. Social equilibrium is not rational. Though discriminative, it usually throws up strange leaders to the fore.

A good leader in one occasion can perform dismally in another if the society is not responsive to his forces and needs and if the situation is not equally responsive to society’s and leader’s forces. History is replete with great leaders who failed in conditions similar to ones in which they succeeded in the past and vice versa.

Leadership performances at times are indices of interactive forces, that at times are beyond the leader’s sole control, nor can personal competence guarantee organizational effectiveness and success. This is why leaders need fortune or luck to survive.

The ninth law of leadership states that:

“relationship and interaction patterns impose styles. Matching the right and appropriate style to the right time, society and situation is a leadership responsibility.”

Leaders have a central tendency towards a particular style: democratic, manipulative, autocratic, consultative, sell, tell styles of leadership. Also within the society and situation has equally a predominant central style/tendency. Some societies have a tendency towards democracy, while others are autocratic.

There are autocratic situations and there are democratic situations. A commander in the center of a fire line does not have the time for discussion, election, consultation etc. He makes his selections, decisions and uses very few monosyllabic words to convey actions necessary such as ‘move’, ‘fire’, ‘retreat’, ‘attack.


S

68

Autocratic styles at least a measure of it, are vital to the success of a leader in an autocratic situation. And democratic styles are what is needed in democratic situations and society. Usually because it is possible to have a democratic society facing an autocratic situation like war, economic crisis, epidemic etc., a mixture of the styles becomes the likely effective style that the leader should adopt.

Determining therefore, what style matches the leadership context is the leader's responsibility. Abdicating this role or reacting inappropriately being democratic where an autocratic style is needed at least in a measure, will only create inefficiency.

In certain cases, sub-leaders see the need to supplement the defective leadership in the main leader, responding adequately in style that suites the needs of the leader, society and situation. This requires good judgment. Sub-leaders represent forces of the society at such instances when they supplement main leader's forces.

It is pertinent to mention here that the nature of the style/tendencies between the leader, society and situation makes it to have a spectrum of behavior and styles leaders can adopt. But the dominant style must be dictated by the situation and society interacting. The Leader must respond in style.

The tenth law states that:

“That the three factors are in constant interaction. And are dynamic and mechanic.”

The ability of one factor is moderated by the other two factors. Every leader’s dynamism is moderated by the mechanisms and systems, and by the forces of the society and situation; society by the leader and situation; and situation by the leader and society. They represent in-built check and balance mechanism and have dynamism, ability to create change in every leadership context. Hence, leadership is important, but not the only significant factor for organizational effectiveness.


S

69

In essence, no leader can do what he or she likes all the time. No society can do or be what it likes all the time and no situation can be what it is all the time. The forces in all are working towards change: Change in/ of the leader, change in/ of society and change in/ of the situation. That is why change is fundamental to every analysis of human society.

The eleventh law of leadership interaction states that:

“The variables and probabilities of interaction between the sub-variables and constants are infinite.”

The variables, forces and tendencies within a man or leader are numerous. The trait characteristics of a man are numerous. The forces of the society are equally numerous. Laws, culture, politics, geography, people, race, languages, technology, love, communication, popularity, brand name, news, sports etc. The forces of the situation and needs are equally numerous. When the forces and needs interact, their possibilities and probabilities of such interactions are infinite.

It is this infinite possibilities that determines that a leader’s actions are never the same, that the society, though the same in one form or the other, exhibit some differences in its dynamic elements. In different contexts, different forces come into play and require different mechanisms to meet even same or different needs. Consequently, a person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of combination of traits but as a result of patterns of personal characteristics activated in social situations.

Every individual has the potentials for leadership. Indeed every product. But such leadership is determined by the relationship between the three factors. Those who use these factors or symbolize their use, personal characteristics, social forces and goals and situational relevance are said to have leadership.

It is the high level possibilities in leadership patterns that is responsible for leadership being a highly intuitive process as the leader subjects his intuitive and analytical mind to the forces and needs at play and the relationships the factors possess in particular


S

70

context. Products exhibit the spirit and characteristics of the society that made them. They combine product characteristics, with social characteristics and in market situation, these forces interact to determine the leadership position of the product.

This infinite relationship patterns between the factor forces and needs, their variables and constants, and their ability to confuse the leader are responsible for changes in leadership, conflicts in leadership in the recent past, especially in business organizations.

The twelfth law states that

“The factor triangle, spheres and prism depict the three forces and needs theory.”

This is a diagrammatic representation of the leadership triad; of the patterns of relationship that exist between the three factors.

The factor triangle relationship conveys the co-ordinate relationship between the leadership triad. The various dimensions of the factors may vary, the variables may vary, the constants may vary but the triangular relationship remains. This is in obedience or agreement with law 10 that two determines one and vice versa.

The sphere pattern of relationship shows that the three factors relate to one another either as potential or kinetic force; centrifugal in character. There is a planetary relationship between them, each with its own ecosystem, its own unique planetary character but in the same planetary system, having a central relationship as the planets Plato, Mars and Earth has to the sun and the earth to the moon.

Leadership factors exhibit the unique character of a planetary system in their interactions. Even chemical analysis can be adapted in the explanation of the leadership phenomenon. Each chemical can combine with various others with varying proportions to produce various compounds. The same is applicable to leadership, except that leadership has a moral element and infinite possibilities of combination.


S

71

The thirteenth law of leadership factors interaction states that:

“Although there is a scientific tendency and possibly a mathematical explanation to some aspects of leadership, the variables and infinite interaction patterns make it virtually impossible to determine mathematically but explainable intuitively or historically.”

This means that we can say that m x s x is = L where “m” represents the leader, “s” represents the society factor and “is” the situation. “L” represents the result of leadership. Using algebra, we can affix quantities to represent variables – both micro and macro variables. But it will be virtually impossible to represent mathematically, the infinite change potentials and equally infinite patterns of leadership interaction.

This is because we are not only dealing with a scientific tendency. We are dealing with moral elements also. The scientific tendency exists but the data regarding it cannot be completely gathered because of the qualitative indices. And even when such data is gathered, interpreting it will require not only the application of the scientific method to make sense, but also will require judgment to be made on certain moral aspects. “… the expansion of cooperation and the development of the individual are mutually dependent realities and that a due proportion or balance between them is a necessary condition of human welfare. Because it is subjective with respect both to a society as a whole and to the individual, what this proportion is I believe science cannot say. It is a question for philosophy and religion.” (Barnard C. p.296)82

What facts and forces will one attribute to determine why a particular brand of car suddenly takes over leadership in sales numbers in a particular market?

82 Barnard, C. I. (1938) Functions of the Executive, Cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press p.296

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

S

87


S

88

6 CHARACTERISTICS OF

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION SOCIAL INTERFACES

In any analysis of the three factors, interfaces exist. The man/Leader is a member of society or a micro-society, the society experiences concrete events and situations. The Leader enacts concrete events through policies he/she originates in response to objective reality or in a bid to anticipate the future or serve policies that will be adequate to any situation.

In that regard, the three elements are active and interactive forces and have dynamic influences on one another. Decisions taken by the leader influences the society and events; while events affect society and the individual leader; no matter how remote they may be.

The complex dynamics of social structures therefore requires an understanding of the complex interactions and the social interfaces inherent in them. As well as the resulting equilibrium.

The forces at work in society, in historical situations aggregate towards a moving equilibrium as observed by Adam Smith in the wealth of Nations but such forces are not totally material as Adam Smith or Marx may want us to believe. Such equilibrium may result in social transformation or revolutionary or social disintegration of an existing social structure and the emergence of new ones. This has been a characteristic fact of a social organizations as the working social matrix or prism determines its history.

Any analysis of history, or organizations must therefore analyze the social matrix relationship, the elements with a bid of reading whatever conclusions are obtained in finding answers to the analyst’s questions. Such analysis must be made in relation to broad factors that go beyond the micro –society being analyzed to the broader – larger society, as every society is a sub-set of a larger one which demonstrates a reciprocal influence relationship in their social interaction,


S

89

It is in the analysis of social variables as it affects the man, society and situation under study and their broader- impact that proper explanations can be made about social organization.

Organizations are social entities and processes designed deliberately or that emerge accidentally because of the interaction of motive forces.

All organizations interact with other organizations, social systems and societies “as organizations is fundamentally interdependent.”

As civilization becomes more pronounced, as technology becomes more advanced, as political structure becomes institutionalized, and as economic structure becomes more geographically dispersed or dispersive, as communication systems become global and rapid; social systems become more open; the interaction of social forces and variables become more frequent; And because these characteristics have become persistent features since the 1990’s and into the 21st century, Social revolution - characterized by rapid, basic transformation of a society’s state and class structures, accompanied by class-based revolt; coincidences of political and social transformation - has become a common feature of modern organization; bringing the need for the study of social revolutionary forces as it goes beyond nation states to affect corporations, corporate entities, and societies of the micro-level.

This impact of revolutionary and revolutionizing forces on modern corporation, societies, institution industries and organization has become pronounced and as articulated by Alvin Toffler in Third Wave “A powerful tide is surging across much of the world today, creating a new, bizarre environment in which to work, play, marry, raise children, or retire in this bewildering context, businessmen swim against highly erratic currents. Politicians see rating bob widely up and down; universities, hospital, and other institution battle desperately against inflation value system splinter and crash, while lifeboat of family, church and state are hurled madly about.


S

90

“Looking at these violent changes, we can regard them as isolated evidences of instability, breakdown and disaster. Yet if we stand back for a longer view, several things become apparent that otherwise go unnoticed”.

Many of today’s changes are not independent of one another nor are they random’’.

But these forces are not new or modern in any way even though they are more rapid and persistent in degree in this age. Commentators on organizations since Adam have noted this phenomenon. Chester Barnard in 1938 states that, “Men are now dismayed by the evidences of world disorganization, as if it represented a radical change from world integration.”83

The complex relationship between the three elements of social organization, the reciprocal relationships between their variables and micro-variables, the complex relationship between the changing products of their interactions, and the persistence of imponderable universal forces have hunted every generation.

Every generation since the creation of man, have sought to overcome this confinement in what I choose to call “time capsule” by inventing faster modes of transportation, faster modes and means of communication, better technologies and seek better combination of organizational factors. While achieving much, his achievement heightens the pace of time and their revolutionary potentials.

Man is still in the “Time shuttle” and no amount of technological breakthrough can salvage him.

Although Alvin Toffler in Third Wave or in Future Shock did not explain this revolutionary phenomenon in social revolutionary terms, this approach has become imperative as this holds the only promise of resolving the conflict, contradiction and paradox inherent in social theory. This by implication means that

83 Chester I. Barnard(1938) Authors Preface to The Functions of the Executive (1968) Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press p.294


S

91

evolutionary situation will require evolutionary explanation in any analysis of social forces.

While past revolutionary theorists have analyzed revolution from state perspectives and influence of the broader international world, social theorists must extend these to analyzing social organization, corporation and institution at micro-levels and the state and global impacts inherent in that approach.

Historic forces at work in any leadership situation – leadership forces, social forces and situational forces – are interdependent and concrete forces of social organization.

Although Philip Selznick seeks to distinguish between social organizations and institutions, - even while saying that “this distinction is a matter of analysis, not of direct description. It does not mean that any given enterprise must be either one or the other”84 - he emphasized on the institutional character of some social organizations, it is pertinent to state here that all institutions are social organizations, but not all social organizations are institutions, as institutionalization is a progressive state of social organization where it has acquired capacity for entrenching and embodying social values, meaning and achieved stamina in self identity. This is the same argument engaged in by political scientists in seeking distinction between a state and a country.

Any relevant analysis of social organization must include separate and integrated abstraction and explanation of social phenomenon using the relevant micro variables at work in a social situation.

It is the resilience, persistence and constancy in these factors of social organization in leadership that is responsible for the current demand of situational approaches in leadership thought - while at the same time it provides an explanation for certain observable phenomenon, situation theories are yet to explain some gray areas - the impersonal and inexorable forces, and underlying determinants of certain critical situation. 84 Selznick, P. (1957) Leadership In Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. Barkeley, California: University of California Press


S

92

Social organization therefore, must be analyzed from a total perspective. The element of social organization-man/leader society and situations/ event - will require critical analysis that will involve independent and integrated abstraction with a bid to desire the general and specific variable inherent and operational in that leader situation.

When this is done, with:

v a conscious appreciation of the competitive nature of historical forces;

v Of the domination tendency inherent in the factors of leadership;

v Of the hierarchy of factors, that influences leaders behavior at various situations;

v The revolutionary character, forces and processes at work in modern social Organizations;

v The possibility of defectiveness in all historical forces at work at a critical time;

v The relative and variegated character of the factors;

v The multiple ideals in competition;

v Multiple concepts of the ideal leader of the ideal society and of the ideal ‘situation’;

v The potential for conflict between factors – leader, society and situations - within cells of each factor

v Determinative nature of each element;

v and their tendency for constant interaction in variegated patterns and infinite probabilities of the interaction of variables - micro and macro


S

93

v the need to carefully understand the inherent interfaces at work; and the fact that these historical forces /leadership triad can be harnessed to meet the needs evolve in the social organization in any age; and

v The fact that micro-variables of the leader, society and situation are in conflict, in competition and contradict one another; and these variables acquire dynamic elements of the social organization as a whole in its internal and external relationships.

That leadership and the forces at work in leadership situations are variegated is no longer argued. That situational forces at work in event are equally variegated is no longer an issue of debate.

The truism is that despite the fact that general characteristics common to social organizations are manifest in every analysis of societies, that specific variables become obvious and demonstrate varying influence in social situation is no longer an issue.

The onus now lies on researchers into social organization to adopt this integrated total approach that will seek to describe and explain leadership phenomenon and social organization by analyzing the major and minor variables and forces at work in the individual who exercise the leadership function as leaders, in the character of the societies and of social forces, and the weight of events and situational forces.

Leaders themselves must recognize this interactive and interdependent nature inherent in elements of social organization, harness the beneficial possibilities, and see the woods from the trees.

The pace of today’s world is fast. Companies, leaders and nations find themselves in the situation as in Through The Looking Glass When Alice asks the Red Queen the reason why all the people are running around unlike her homeland where every one walked and lived leisurely. “Now here” said the Red Queen, “it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place. If


S

94

you want to get somewhere else, you must run twice as fast as that!”

The world is changing. Time and events have acquired revolutionary tendencies which individuals/ man/leaders and society must contend with. It was the inability to recognize the changing nature of the world and the social, political and technological forces at work in it that was responsible for the traumatic changes in General Motors Inc. and IBM in the 1990s and African nations and corporations in the 20th century. And it is largely because they have found it so difficult to adapt on the run; an imperative criteria for success in these times.

Success in the leadership and management of social organizations in this age, will come to those who recognize the change in revolutionary and evolutionary terms, and adapt new ideas and old strategies to new demands and circumstances. Leaders and organizations would have to keep pace with time and events. This goes without forgetting the fact that in view of the complex relationship of forces at work in social situations “luck is a valuable addition to a leader’s reputation.”(J.M. Scott 1935)85

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION 1. Social organizations have three concrete elements:

Man/individuals/leader, society and situations

2. They have a competitive tendency – competitive (and their elements as well as cellular organization)

3. They have a dominating tendency – dominative

4. They have a defective tendency – defective

5. They have the potential to combine their variable – combinative in infinite ways, and combine with the variable of other two factors in infinite ways

6. Multiple ideals of each factor are in competitions - multiplicative.

85 J.M. Scott (1935) Gino Watkins: A Biography: London: Hodder & Stoughton.


S

95

7. Conflict is a common denominator – conflictive

8. Ability to be progressive or regressive.

9. They are determinative. They have – determinative weighty impact on one another

10. They are dynamic and change their nature constantly – dynamic and mechanic.

11. They are reproductive and disintegrative i.e. mortal, transient.

12. They are reproductive and disintegrative – transient, and mortal.

13. Social organizations are impersonal but acquire a personal identity.

14. Social organizations have both material and spiritual forces at work.

15. They have interfaces which harmonizes their interaction with others or heightens the conflicts.

16. The strategic factors change over time.

17. It is cellular in nature – cellular

18. It is transactive. The elements partake in an exchange process of values and utilities.

19. It can expand and contact – expensive, contractive and collapsive

20. The internal equilibrium of each element is dynamic and changes over time and by extension the total equilibrium of their collective interaction.

21. They are mechanic and dynamic. Static and changing variables are constantly in interaction.

22. They are anthromorphic to an extent. I.e. they demonstrate human characteristics but exhibit non-human characteristics. Organizations can think, act, die, coerce, learn and unlearn etc..


S

96

23. It is purposive in its formal nature and purposive in its motive when looked in totality even for a rabble group where the motive exists in the mass.

24. It is processual and systemic.

25. They have boundaries and are bounded.

26. They have reciprocal interaction and complex relationships of reciprocal interaction and equilibrium.

27. Are influenced by Time Capsule and time loop.

28. Social organizations are economic

29. Social organizations are political and thrive in ordering political relations.

30. Social organizations are open and closed systems – open to some, closed to some.

31. Are selective and are selectable.

32. The three elements of social organization have the same characteristics as their product – social organization.

‘Organizational cells’ - regiments, compartments - are held like

the baby by a fallopian tube of values, economy and politics, and these may be severed at any time by revolutionary or historic process.

The function of leaders is to ensure that the forces of the

cellular social organization(s), its internal equilibrium and its interaction with the forces of the total organization and the broader external environments or world, are beneficial to the extent of enabling it perform, providing and receiving forces and resources to meet the needs of the leader, society/cell and of events/situation.

When cell leaders or compartmental leaders and their followers

do not see any beneficial effect of further cooperation with other cell leaders or another/other cellular organization(s), social disintegration occurs; agitation for correction of perceived anomalies in social organization and distribution of its wealth and


S

97

resources become heightened and the forces for separate existence becomes liberated or mobilized.

LEADERSHIP SYSTEM

The interaction between these inherent natural characteristic of

Leadership result in making leadership to appear haphazard as well as be systemic. These systems such as hierarchy of factor, the various structure of Leadership – such as the Mafia structure, the Junta structure, the Carnival structure, the Ring structure, the system of delegation etc.; the imperative of strategizing and prioritizing functions, roles, factors, purposes etc.; decentralization of powers and responsibility are easily seen in any analysis of leadership and social organization, no matter how rudimentary.

What can we say then? Why have these simple aspects of Leadership become obscure? The answer can be found in their simplicity as according to Edward R. Murrow, “the obscure we eventually see”. The completely obvious, it seems takes longer” This fact is true both for the law of gravity as discovered by Galileo at the Tower of Pisa, Achimedes law of floatation as discovered by Achimedes in his bathroom and for leadership as explicated here.

Secondly, the muddling caused by social theorists cannot equally be overlooked.

While commendation has to go to all those who have in the face of ambiguity, sought to explicate leadership, the obscure character it has acquired is also our making.

Much more than these “our logical methods and our endless analysis of things has often blinded us to an appreciation of structure and organization. Yet both physical and social world are full of structures, organizations and organisms. It seems slowly to be recognized even in pure physics, that organization is a new entity. You cannot get organization by adding up the parts. They are only one aspect of it. To understand the society you live in, you must FEEL organization – which is exactly what you do with your non—logical minds about your nation, the state, your


S

98

University, your Church, your community, your family,” (Barnard C. 1938 p 327).86

All these bring us to the question of what constitutes the anatomy and nature of leadership and consequently determines the scheme of leadership.

86 Chester I. Barnard(1938) The Functions of the Executive (1968) Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press p 327).

PARADIGM OF LEADERSHIP

PART IV: FUNCTIONS OF LEADERSHIP S

99

PART III

The

Nature Of

Leadership

7 Paradigm of Leadership



100

Leadership can be abstracted. That is a fact. The paradigm of leadership, although abstracted with difficulty, is there for all to see.

“It is evident that many lack an interest in the science of organization because they are oblivious to the arts of organizing, not perceiving the significant elements. They miss the structure of the symphony, the art of its composition, and the skill of its execution, because they cannot hear the tones”87 wrote Chester I. Barnard in the Authors Preface to his widely acclaimed book, The Functions of the Executive in 1938.

It is the inherent difficulty involved in abstracting a common ground in leadership before now, that has prompted the need for leaders to appreciate the central paradoxes in the practice of leadership, the call for moratorium on leadership research by Miner(1960), and Peter Drucker’s comment that “…leadership cannot be created or promoted. It cannot be taught or learned.” (1955 p.137)88

In this section, we are going to examine the structure of the leadership symphony to enable us hear clearly the tones that leadership play; to enable us perceive the significant elements which have been examined and re-examined to the extent that divergent conceptualizations have become the norm, healthy as that may be.

The acute need to adopt mechanisms of perceptions and comprehension and supplement them with those that will permit organizations to be compatible with community expectations; has raised the importance of leadership to the center stage at organizational, individual, national, global and indeed all levels. 87 Chester I. Barnard(1938) Authors Preface to The Functions of the Executive (1968 p.xxxiv) Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press 88 Drucker, P. F. (1955) The Functions of Management. Heinemann: London. P. 137



101

It is this acute need for leaders to cope with the challenges resulting from changing structures and social, technological, global and communication imperatives, that has raised the need for a comprehensive paradigm and theory.

In this chapter, we shall attempt to provide a unifying paradigm that will not only incorporate the divergent conceptions, but will sufficiently provide a proper structure for the abstraction, explanation and understanding of the leadership phenomena.

THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership can be abstracted at various levels because of the structural characteristic inherent in it. The leadership phenomenon has a structure that is easily missed although acknowledged by many to exist.

Leadership can be explicated in terms of a system made up of ten levels of abstraction with each component of the system having its own sub-levels of abstraction as follows:

1. Leadership

2. Factors of Leadership

3. Shades of Leadership

4. Planes of Leadership

5. Levels and status of Leadership

6. Poles of Leadership

7. Modes of Leadership

8. Leadership Systems, Elements and Processes

9. Leadership Configurations

10. Leadership Results and Measuring Instruments.



102

The first level is leadership itself. At this level, the various

common factors and elements are discussed and analyzed. Leadership is analyzed as a science and art like engineering and looked at as a unit rather than in parts. Like Engineering whose parts are analyzed into Civil Engineering, Nuclear Engineering, Electronics etc. where specific principles are emphasized, leadership can also be analyzed in parts such as national leadership, market leadership, managerial leadership, informal leadership etc.

In the analysis of leadership as a unit, only factors that are common to the whole spectrum of leadership are discussed or stated. Specific leadership variables become the exception than the rule. Leadership is looked at on a broad scale. Here the argument of John Keegan that “…heroic leadership – any leadership – is like priesthood, statesmanship, even genius, a matter of externals as much as internalities.”89 becomes relevant or a subject of argument.

Most questions and disagreement in the leadership field have been made and fought in this area – of what the common factors and denominators of leadership really are.

THE FACTORS OF LEADERSHIP

A careful analysis of the various leadership conceptions have brought to fore three common factors: The leader/man/individual, the society -whether a group or sub-group – and the situation or time. Whatever leadership is being discussed or investigated, these three factors are a constant, although the variables may differ.

THE SHADES OF LEADERSHIP

89 Keegan, J. (1987) The Mask of Command. London: Penguin Books



103

Shades of leadership refer to the descriptive quality of leadership. Adjectives, appellations can be given to leadership to qualify the phenomenon in billions of ways

Leadership can take various shades and colours. Leadership can be analyzed in contexts. As Alex Comfort puts it, “leadership is exercised in fields where the reality is adequate.” These fields are infinite.

We can talk of market leadership, party leadership, political leadership, national leadership, union leadership, business leadership, corporate leadership, Board leadership, family leadership, moral leadership or even managerial leadership.

Shades are used to describe the particular state of leadership and the context of leadership that is being analyzed. It reveals the amorphous nature of leadership and its ability to mutate and develop new strains in a world characterized by change, civilization and increasing complexity. As social organizations become more complex and pronounced, leadership becomes more diverse and dispersed.

There is no limit to the probable number of shades as the number that could be available for analysis, can only be limited by the ingenuity of human beings to find ingenious names and labels for particular character of leadership of their fancy; and by the ability of societies and their thinkers, to find ingenious ways of combination of words with leadership to codify a leadership shade.

It is on the identification of the shades of leadership being studied or analyzed at a material time that better analysis and quicker understanding of the variables at work in that context could be made.

Shades themselves have scope. The subject of business leadership, for example, is so broad that further specialization into



104

business leadership in different parts of the globe and in different industries could be made in view of the broad spectrum of business and the cultural diversities of leadership around the globe.

Identifying the “what kind of leadership” under review will provide an answer to what shade of leadership is being investigated. It is what makes leadership study practicable.

Many an analysis of leadership are made without a mention of the pervasiveness of the shade characteristic of leadership. It is assumed as given, intuitively accepted, but analysis of leadership concretes ignorant of or ignoring the levels of abstractions involved and in the process obscure its elements, this is the root of the difficulty involved in leadership abstraction.

Leadership shade is artificial, but represent a pervasive characterization tendency inherent in things to which the human factor can be identified with, or which identifies with the human factor; as this shading characteristics, pervades every social context and ensures that no intelligible analysis or evaluation of leadership is practicable or possible without an elementary determination of what shade of leadership is being studied and what scope.

Contextual differences exist and even differences at a shade level can compound the misunderstanding that has characterized leadership.

Shade of leadership therefore must be defined (a) in terms, (b) in scope and (c) in context in line with any abstraction of social organization.

The shades of leadership are limitless or limited only by man’s ability to find adjectives to observable phenomena and for a particular leadership. Like everything human, “in matters of social constitution, the fields of possibilities is much more extensive than



105

men living in their various societies are ready to imagine,”90 wrote Alexis de Touqueville in Democracy in America.

PLANES OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is planetary in nature and has the following four planes. Plane 1. Charismatic and Acharismatic/non-charismatic

Plane Plane 2. Transformational and Transactional Plane Plane 3. Revolutionary and Evolutionary Plane Plane 4. Executive and Non-Executive Plane.

Firstly, a leadership is either charismatic or acharismatic.

Secondly, a leadership is either transformational or transactional.

Thirdly, a leadership is either revolutionary or evolutionary.

Fourthly, a leadership is either Executive or non-Executive.

This will result in sixteen leadership frames/types irrespective of the shade or leadership style being adopted. If the fourth plane is treated as Poles of Leadership because of its unique characteristics and for the purpose of analysis, we have eight leadership frames. When various shades are considered, the number becomes infinite within the limits of the frames.

What type or frame of leadership we are dealing with can be known not only by answering the shade of leadership it is, but by practically answering the following questionnaire:

90 Alexis de Touqueville “Democracy in America.”



106

1. Is this leadership (a) Charismatic r or (b) Acharismatic/non-charismatic r?

2. Is this leadership (a) Transactional r or (b) Transformationalr?

3. Is this leadership (a) Evolutionary r or (b) Revolutionary r?

4. Is this leadership (a) Executive r or (b) Non-Executiver

From this exercise, eight frames/types of leadership emerge if

Planes 1 to 3 are considered and 16 frames/types if plane 4 is included. The eight frames are as follows: 1. Revolutionary Transformational; Charismatic Leadership

2. Evolutionary Transformational Charismatic Leadership

3. Revolutionary Transactional Charismatic Leadership

4. Evolutionary Transactional Charismatic Leadership

5. Revolutionary Transformational non-Charismatic Leadership

6. Evolutionary Transformational non-Charismatic Leadership

7. Revolutionary Transactional non-Charismatic Leadership

8. Evolutionary Transactional non-Charismatic Leadership

In summary, we have v 4 charismatic frames/types of leadership and



107

v 4 acharismatic/non-charismatic frames/types of leadership. These can be extended into: v four(4) transactional leadership frames/types, v four(4) transformational leadership frames, v four(4) evolutionary leadership frames and v four(4) revolutionary leadership types/frames.

When leadership is looked at from these four comparative perspectives, abstraction of the leadership phenomenon becomes simplified and abstraction across unequal planetary levels and the resultant confusion inherent becomes apparent whenever it occurs.

Proper leadership abstraction must follow the following planetary tree. Leadership occupies the first plane, characteristic quality or its absence occupies the second plane. Transactionality or transformational nature becomes a quality for consideration at the fourth plane. Evolutionary and revolutionary character at the fifth and leadership polarity in terms of executive and non-executive characteristics becomes of considerable importance at the next plane as the tree below depicts.

Leadership

Charismatic

Acharismat

Transactional Transformational

Rev

olut

iona

ry

Evol

utio

nary

Rev

olut

iona

ry

Evol

utio

nary

Rev

olut

iona

ry

Evol

utio

nary

Rev

olut

iona

ry

Evol

utio

nary

Transactional Transformational



108

At the first plane, leadership is looked at as an entity, as a general and worldly phenomenon. At the second plane, leadership is abstracted to discover the degree of charismaticity or non-charismaticity in the leadership. At the third plane of abstraction, leadership is analyzed with respect to finding the degree of transformationality or transactionality. At the fourth plane of abstraction, analysis is made of its executive or non-executive quality. The fourth planetary level of abstraction contains a unique quality that demonstrates the polar nature of leadership and are identified in this paradigm as poles of leadership.

Abstraction of leadership must be made in a systematic way that takes cognizance of the integrity of our comparison or analysis in line with the planetary nature and character of leadership. Any analysis that infringes on the planetary integrity necessary for its effective abstraction, will not only be confusing, but will inhibit a better explanation and understanding of the leadership phenomena as well as compound the existing fragmentary and chaotic state of the discipline crying for urgent integration as contained in this abstraction.

A leadership may be both charismatic and transformational. It may be charismatic without being transformational.

Comparing leadership while infringing on planetary integrity necessary to effective abstraction and explanation of the phenomenon has been the cause of the fragmented state of the discipline and of the leadership subject in the eyes of men.



109

Comparing Charismatic leadership with transformational leadership amounts to an infringement of planetary integrity necessary for an authentic abstraction and analysis of the phenomena. This does not mean paradigmic closure. Rather it means that we should not mistake the concrete with the abstract in any analysis of leadership or its parts. According to Sivermann(1970 p.27) “Organizations are composed of a set of interdependent parts; organizations have needs for survival; and organizations as systems behave and take actions.” In his view, to consider an organization merely in terms of goal attainment is to confuse objects that are not in the same level of analysis. An organization is a social system while a goal is a cultural entity (a symbol.)91

Proper leadership abstraction must follow the planetary tree as levels of abstraction and planes across which analysis and comparisons could be made are very clear.

It would be untenable to compare Charismatic leadership with transformational leadership. This is because leadership can be both transformational and charismatic; and it could be transformational without being charismatic.

Comparison across unequal levels of abstraction, violating in the process the sacred planetary integrity inherent in leadership is evident in any analysis of leadership theories of authors since the 1960’s to 1990’s.

Even a leadership frame/type where charismatic and transformational leadership can be said to be compatible – transformational charismatic leadership – is of two frames/types: the evolutionary and revolutionary.

Only Burns among the numerous writers on leadership was able to explicate a plane and successfully compared transactional

91 Silvermann, David (1970) Theory of Organisations: London Heinemann, p.27



110

and transformational leaderships even though, for want of time, space or other reasons, the two frames(or 4 or 8 frames) of transformational and transactional leaderships were not abstracted nor even mentioned by him.

The morals of all these is that an effective abstraction of leadership can only be made by staying true or making comparisons or analysis at equal levels of abstraction. Charismaticity should be compared with acharismaticity or non-charismaticity; transformationality should be compared with transactionality; revolutionarity should be compared with evolutionarity and executivity with non-executivity. There are sufficient number of each frame of leadership; enough to fill the time and genius of any interested in obtaining a mere specialized and productive explication of the leadership phenomenon.

LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is structural and the levels of leadership is determined by: 1. size of organization 2. complexity of operation 3. Time frames 4. Technical diversity 5. Geographical dispersion 6. Nature of missions, strategies and structures 7. Levels of economic development 8. Levels of political development 9. Organizational work and processes 10. Competing social structures 11. Competing leadership personalities 12. Competing events and environmental factors.

Mankind has learnt the usefulness of certain systems. This learning has been internalized into social ethos and taken for



111

granted the way Fredrick Taylor’s theory has become internalized in manufacturing processes even while social scientist deride him and his contribution without an appreciation of the absorption of his theories into modern corporations today to a point where it is no longer recognized that it was his concept. Henri Fayol’s principles has suffered the same fate in the face of high sounding theoretical concepts that managers and leaders see as having no practical relevance to their work, even though it may give intellectuals in the academic community a sense of self-congratulation.

Nonetheless, mankind appears to has learnt from experience – social experience – the importance of systems such as (1) compartmentalization; (2) decentralization (3) organization/specialization (4) common goals (5) hierarchy (6) centralization (7) delegation (8) purpose (9) institutions especially political and economic institutions (10) leadership etc. and internalized them into social ethos and reality.

Enacting these systems requires and results in giving leadership a structural character. Every leadership must as a matter of course exhibit certain structural characteristics commensurate with its nature; and variations between leadership of the same frames/type will exist when judged with the twelve determinants of leadership level.

This structural character results in the status nature inherent in leadership.

STATUS OF LEADERSHIP Two status of leadership exists. 1. Superordinate leaders and leadership 2. Subordinate leaders and leadership.



112

Superordinate leaders perform: (a) Superordinate leadership functions or leadership functions of

superordinate character or origin (b) their functions and actions have superordinate effects (c) are superordinate in situations – environments of decisions

and actions (d) have superordinate authority, responsibility, personality,

morality and position (e) deals with superordinate forces in the three factors. While Subordinate leaders perform (a) subordinate leadership functions or leadership functions of

subordinate character or origin (b) their functions and actions have subordinate effects (c) are subordinate in situations – environments of decisions and

actions (d) have subordinate authority, responsibility, personality,

morality and position (e) deals with subordinate forces in the three factors.

Superordinate leadership is always superior to subordinate leadership in power, authority, position, activity, morality, responsibility, and integrity. Its purposes, visions, decisions, goals are overriding and overrides or is superior to that of the subordinate leadership at all times. Superordination and subordination are status principles of leadership and of organization.

Superordinate leadership deals with superordinate goals, performs superordinate functions, bear superordinate responsibilities, occupy superordinate positions, executes and make superordinate decisions; are expected to possess superordinate integrity to exercise superordinate authority, and to



113

use their superordinate power to make things happen for the overall good and benefit of their organization.

Subordinate leadership is always inferior to superordinate leadership in power, authority, position, activity, morality, responsibility, and integrity. Its purposes, visions, decisions, goals are overriding and overrides or is superior to that of the subordinate leadership at all times. Superordination and subordination are status principles of leadership and of organization.

Subordinate leadership deals with subordinate goals, performs subordinate functions, bear subordinate responsibilities, occupy subordinate positions, executes and make superordinate decisions; are expected to possess subordinate integrity to exercise subordinate authority, and to use their superordinate power to make things happen for the overall good and benefit of their organization.

Leadership status has great implications for leadership actions and situations and an understanding of this fact is vital to effective leadership conduct.

POLES OF LEADERSHIP

There are two poles of leadership. Executive leadership and non-executive leadership.

A leadership can either be one or the other. It cannot be both in any particular context, even though the character of a leadership may demonstrate shifting roles in the leadership over time with characteristics of both polarity of leadership.

Executive leadership is equipped and furnished with formal authority, responsibility, role and structure in which to function; while the reverse is the case for non-executive leadership in which



114

leadership is demonstrated by acquiring authority, roles and structure of moral character.

The earth is tragically blessed with poles. North poles and south poles at its extremes. These poles demonstrate unique characteristics as well as similarities, which anyone interested in geography is free to investigate.

Leadership likewise has its own poles. Which to an extent determines the various degrees at which the function of leadership (concrete) are performed and their patterns.

They are executive leadership and non-Executive leaderships.

EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP

Executive leadership is one with the power and position, a responsibility to carry out leadership function by the exercise of executive capacity to decide as an individual or unit and have positional and moral responsibility over a product, a process, a location, a function, a technology or an event.

Executive leadership is a combination of the executive capacity and functions and the leadership capacity and functions in an individual or unit of organization.

To be an executive is not defined by conventional titles or appellation of the word “executive”. It means the capacity, authority, position to act or decide on a particular issue as an individual or unit functions exercised not by high officials only, but by all in positions of control within an organization, even in low echelons of the organization.

Hence, all executive are executives in some respects and are not in others where they have no control, responsibility or power



115

over and hence, it is possible for those with high position to lack the power to decide or the responsibility for.

The executive leader combines position responsibility power and processional control over all or part of the organization.

For example, some directors of a company have high positions, but lack the power to act or exercise control over functions, events, or aspect of the organization. They are called Non-executive Directors or just directors and are different from other directors who combine positions in the board and management with the power and authority to control aspects of the organization and are referred to as executive directors.

Leadership is the ability to mobilize the forces of the man/leaders the forces of the society and the situation.

Non-executive directors are not executives but perform the role and functions of leaders and leadership to ensure that the organization achieves its objectives by mobilizing the forces (strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats, characteristics, features, process, nature, problems, prospects of the individual, society and situation to serve organizational ends.

It is possible therefore, for this ability to be lacking in men and women of high positions and authority in an organization – be they executives or otherwise.

The ceremonial Head of State or President of any country e.g. France, Britain, Israel is not executives in the strict sense of the word, but are leaders. Therefore, it is very important to understand that not all leaders are executives and not all executives are leaders.

When an individual and/or unit of organization or group exercises the executive capacity in combination, the individual or



116

unit are exercising the resultant amalgam of their collective processes - Executive leadership and involves;

1. The use of position, power and persuasion to determine and define the character of organizational forces.

2. The changing constellation of its multiple problems, processes and opportunities.

3. Providing solutions, exploiting changing solutions and tackling decisions and actions within constraints and choices about organizational agenda and purpose imposed by internal and environmental processes and issues.

NON- EXECUTIVE LEADERSHIP

Non-executive leadership is leadership embellished with position or without position either formal or informal, but lacking in or not supplied with sufficient positional power and or responsibility to act in an executive capacity – taking decisions, exercising individual or unit control over process(es), functions, units of organization events, operation or organization.

The board of directors as a unit is an executive (organization or an institution). But its members may not be. All directors are expected to demonstrate leadership. But not all are equipped with sufficient positional power to control processes and functions i.e. not all have the executive capacity.

Leadership poles therefore highlight the differences between the requirement of various leadership in various situations, and success in its performance is a function of an understanding of one‘s role in a particular dispensation and the capacity to improve and maintain favourable interactions among the variables in the performance of the leadership function; and among the constraints that influence them.



117

The non-executive leader can improvise with possibility, ability and position he/she currently has, to acquire sufficient authority to become an executive. But with the acquisition of the executive capacity comes the factor of executive responsibility.

The non-executive responsibility is different from the executive responsibility. Executive responsibility combines positional with moral responsibilities. Non executive leadership does not possess executive position or responsibility, but moral responsibility.

The differences in the poles of leadership is fundamental in any analysis of the leadership phenomenon. It goes deeper than a mere difference in shades or nomenclature.

There are many variants of executive and non-executive leadership but each variants shares common features.

Executive leadership involves:

1. the combination of executive capacity and that of leadership

2. Positions are vested with reasonable (mot necessarily sufficient) power and authority (because of politics) to control, decide, define functions, processes, units, events, items etc.

3. The exercise of positional and moral responsibility over, with and for the areas of control.

Non-Executive Leadership involves:

1. The segregation of leadership from executive capacity; and the specialization of leadership



118

2. May be vested with or without position (formal or informal)

3. Are lacking in sufficient power to exercise control over processes, functions, units or events, except in isolated cases or situations (usually critical or crisis) or in concert as a team – executive organization or institution.

4. Are not expected to possess executive positional responsibility, but non-executive positional responsibility and moral responsibility over and for part or the organization as a whole.

Most studies of leadership have been biased towards the study of the executive leadership pole while treating the non-leadership extreme as a perverse variant or a corruption/bastardization of it.

Each polar type has many variants and combination of position with moral responsibility, authority and leadership expectation depending on the three factors of the leadership imperative and the forces at work in the social equilibrium or disequilibrium.

The differences in the poles of leadership is a factor is a factor in the differences in their natures, processes and degrees of control and responsibility.

The executive leader depends on positional as well as moral power if he so chooses, to act. The non-executive depends more on personal, institutional and referent power. The executive leader bears responsibility for failures in processes and “areas of executive responsibility.” This is in line with the principle of the “Scapegoat executive principle and “scapegoat subordinate principle.”

Usually, the non-executive leader ensures that the executive bears the full weight of his responsibility commensurate with authority his position bequeath on him. While acting in his



119

executive capacity, the non-executive such as the ceremonial head of state, must find the executive leader or Prime Minister to run the affairs of State after dissolving the old one, or dismissing the executive leader.

The non-executive leader can avoid the exercise of authority (or even has little or no power). But the executive leader, as McGregor observed in his own experience, cannot avoid the exercise of authority nor the responsibility for whatever happens for/to their organization – be it a part or the whole. According to Alfred Sloan, “Power to act must reside with the CEO.”92 Otherwise, the executive would be a victim of the forces of history.

The non-executive leader exists to ensure the integrity of the executive leadership in the performance of leadership functions, the integrity of social processes and of the social organization as a whole.

Both the executive leadership and non-executive leadership perform leadership functions of maintaining and creating/enacting the organization. Non-executive leaders err/tilt towards the stability maintenance pole; while executives are expected to create or enact the organization erring on the creativity pole.

Any understanding of leadership is impossible without an appreciation of these polar manifestation and differences in leadership capacity and polarity.

As an extension of the planes of leadership, 16 frames/types of leadership emerge.

What is important is that each individual or group recognizes its role in any society and exercise the moral and positional responsibility necessary to face the changing constellation of 92 Sloan, Alfred (1993) Quoted in David Clutterbuck et al “Developments In Management Thought.” Heinemann: London



120

situations by exploiting their different social endowments supplied by their complex positions in society as a whole, in the pursuit of organizational goals within practicable, reasonable and responsible limits.

Executive leaders have positional powers, responsibility and motivation to pursue and enact visions. “The art of leadership is being able to turn advantages to disadvantage. It is the art, if you can do it, if you have the ability and the possibility. Sometimes you either haven’t the ability or you haven’t the possibility”93 said Garrett Fitzgerald (Prime Minister of Northern Ireland for 14 years in an interview with G. Stein (1993).

The factors responsible are myriad and could be as a result of a deficiency in and/or constraints of any one or more of the three concrete leadership factors and social elements at work in any social situation and organization.

Usually, where the capabilities are there in the individual leader, the constraints are usually social or situational. Where it is absent in the individual, the possibility may exist in the society and situation but the leader is unable to function if neither is present.

Tradition, politics and organizational complexity are contributory and are usually the most critical causes of lack of possibility. Warren Bennis once commented: “My theory disappointed me in practice. My theory was based on an interpersonal model, but leading a very large organization, I found it very difficult to connect on the interpersonal level. It was difficult to create and orchestrate a vision in a fragmented organization held together by a central heating system.”

93 Garrett Fitzgerald (Prime Minister of Northern Ireland for 14 years Quoted in Geoffrey Stein (1993) Leadership and Leaders: BBC Books London.



121

Each leader (executive or non-executive) functions in a society unique in its composition, its constellation of interaction patterns and change, its social structure and in the choices, constraints which they provide for both the leadership actor and/or spectator.

The freedom to operate is sometimes greater than the public understands. In most instances, it is much narrower than the public believes. It involves a unique situation where the power to advance values; the values to be advanced, the responsibility, position, possibility and ability are available or lacking in a variety or ways, or their combinations are not sufficient to ensure sufficient leadership.

No single individual can predict or even control these forces. They are more than market forces. They are the motive forces of history – the individual/leader, the society and the situation. The best anyone can do is to attempt to be the dominant force by being proactive, by promoting intellectual and psychological communion with the people and over the situation.

No matter how compelling the constraints are, the range of possible and alternative options and behaviour patterns available, provide wide scope of freedom within which leaders – be they executive leader or not – can act and explore in pursuing the opportunities of choice.

“Good leadership may preceed failure,” says Robert M. Fulmer, “but bad leadership never preceeds success.” What it means is that good leadership is one of the critical organizational factors, but is only the significant factor among other factors and elements of consequence. More than leadership is required for a successful organization, but the place of leadership is pivotal in providing impetus to the others: Management, Organization and Entrepreneurship.



122

The factors of leadership – the man/individual/ leader, the society and the situations – contribute to this uniqueness in both singular and collective sense.

Individuals have different social endowment, unequal leadership potential and a repertoire of various leadership styles.

The society provides different social advantages and disadvantages which each individual possess in addition to individual character or characteristics, enabling or disabling their leadership stakes.

Situations are processual and undergo both concrete changes in wide constellations and cycles – radical and incremental; providing different energies, possibilities, sources, means of leadership, its sustenance and its decimation.

These have implications for both the executive leader and the non-executive. Both can find aspects of their individual, social and situational characteristics to turn to advantage in the performance of their leadership roles.

MODES OF LEADERSHIP

Because leadership is influenced by the forces of the individual, the forces of the society and forces of events/situation, the influence profile of a leader in any situation is two folds. 1. A leader has a “region of direct influence” in which his

discretionary behaviors are high if not total, where his capacity to dominate and change things is near absolute and where members of the organization or its cells believe that the leader has rights to prescribe patterns of behavior for them.



123

2. A leader also has a “region of indirect influence” outside the region of his direct influence, authority or direct supervision or vision.

As a result of the above two factors, two modes of leadership

emerge: 1. Leadership by Direct/Proximate Control 2. Leadership By Remote Control or by proxy

LEADERSHIP BY DIRECT OR PROXIMATE CONTROL

This is characterized by proximate presence or nearness of leader to the center of operation or action. His physical presence is felt; he sees, hears, observes and acts based on his own physical observation and conclusions on a particular issue. Here the leader is aware, exercises a high level of discretion; he acts in areas within his scope of vision or direct supervision.

Leadership by direct control is exercised through formal structures, formal codes, informal activities and through the performance of functional imperatives imposed by the concrete and elemental functions of leadership.

LEADERSHIP BY REMOTE CONTROL

This is characterized by distance – strategic distance; and is outside a leader’s region of direct supervision; were events – environmental and operational are local and remote in respect to the leaders physical position; where remote factors are at play.

Leadership by remote control is exercised by the power inherent in personal example; by the creation of a compelling vision; by a strong organizational culture, a strong and effective structure and task relationship; a moral code. By this, a General of an Army in a chateau can lead a Captain or Sergeant in the center



124

of action or operation: Battle; a chief executive can exercise control over a subsidiary, department or unit of his organization that is not within his region of physical observation and supervision. Leadership by direct control is exercised by proxy or when time allows, by Leadership by Touring (LBT).

Effective leadership by remote control relies on proxies who are low-level leaders or rather leaders lower in the leadership hierarchy.

Leadership by proxy is still leadership. It is the leadership necessary to respond adequately to local factors timely and adequately. Adolf Hitler during the World War II paid dearly when he took direct control of military actions in the field thereby limiting the discretion of the on-the-spot leader who should be assumed to have the experience and powers to act in line with certain criteria and objectives predetermined by the supreme or higher leader.

Every leader switches from one mode to another – from leadership by direct/proximate control to leadership by remote control or proxy; as dictated by subjective evaluations, necessity, interests, motives of the moment, social forces; practical circumstance or judgment of the leader based on analytical or instinctive reasons. But the intensity or degree of each varies with each leader and at various times. For example: Ho Chi Minh exercised leadership mainly by remote control than by direct control because Truong Ching and Vo Nguyen Giap, young leaders who founded the Vietnamese underground movement chose to exploit Mihn’s international contacts, accepted him as mentor and overall leader of the struggle, while maintaining actual and direct control of their fighting organization.

Nelson Mandela led by Leadership by Remote Control or Proxy during his period of imprisonment in Robbin Islands, South Africa because he had by past examples and leadership and commitment



125

given the people faith, trust and became a symbol of hope; of the struggle against apartheid and white minority domination; had shown himself as an example of sacrifice and tenacity necessary to achieve the freedom of the black South Africa from apartheid, white domination and social and psychological oppression of the black man.

Every leader practices leadership by direct/proximate control and leadership by remote control of proxy in line with the forces, imperatives and peculiarities of the elements of social organizations at work at a material time.

In the final analysis, the ultimate test of leadership is SUCCESS, attainment of goal, is the psychological communion and goodwill the leader –has, and the verdict of history.

FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE


126

8

From Theory To Practice

Leadership is an action science where collaboration process

with theory, and the interpersonal and methodical norms and rules are distinctively required, where transformational and developmental conceptualizing have to be undertaken before any theory on it can be practical.

Usually, acquired theory of the accumulated and imbibed influences accepted over time based on personal abasement or inspiratory influence of mentors and heroes etceteras.

The transformation from theory to practice is usually intermediated by three laws:

1. Laws of the individual - principles priorities, pragma and praxis

2. Laws of the society (social regulations demography)

3. Law of the situations

4. By the internalization process

5. By the complex interaction of 1-4 above.

These laws are usually not homogeneous. Within the

man/leader are classes of laws, principles through which by will, emotion spirit or psychology could be invoked, a made operational.

These laws and principles are conflicting opposed, so much that an individual's action is guided not only by the emotions and smiles that he has mastered, but by emotion and skills that have mastered him. Hence, the dilemma Chester Barnard sees in the exercise of the moral capacity.



127

The laws of the society themselves are equally afflicted with that imperfection that is a common feature of creating human. Conflicts of basic and subsidiary laws, institutions and personalities are common place.

Conflict and differing interpretation of these laws which individuals, organizations, lawyers export to their own advantage.

The law of the situation equally is a conundrum of conflict, of opposed facts and realities; of constancy and change; of possibilities and impossibilities; of constraints and choices.

With these tree laws and their intent conflicts, interrelated facts and interdependence, the leader in practice must content.

To lead in the face of this, a leader must be Proactive and to be proactive the leader must be in constant touch (informed) with

(1) Pragma’ (the reality of what the past was, what the present is, and what the future would and/or could be) apply himself and those of the society and situation.

(2) With “Praxis” (reflection and action directed at the structure to be transformed) and

(3) Apply “Principles” which motives the conscious utilization and application of knowledge acquired through practical experience, continual absorption of the theoretical basis of the arts, of innovative integration of creative varieties and attitude of mind open to the continual and essential evolutionary development of new ideas” and intuitive aspiration.

(1) Pragma, (2) Praxis and (3) Principles are necessary, not only in translating theory to practice but in applying successfully their habit of attention and proactivity to achieve the purpose of leadership.

They require creative adaptation man’s destiny is in his own hands and no tyranny of circumstance can permanently subvert his



128

purposes if educated and determined wills are resolute to make even nature to serve him and to appropriate all the mighty forces of the universe by creating circumstances they want, where and if they can find them; men who define destiny not as a matter of chance but a matter of choice; not as a thing to be waited for, but as a thing to be achieved; not as a right to be expected, but as a privileged to be created.

A leader must not only take his destiny into his own hands by proactivity and the exercise of the will to dominate events and people; but must take responsibility for the destiny of the society and the situation.

Field Marshall Montgomery in a speech at Harvard said that “in civilian circles it seems to be considered that leadership descends on men like dew from heaven; it does not. There are principles of leadership, and these have to be studied.”94

The function of leadership, of a leader as enumerated in the chapter by that description, were unveiled in the light that “The forces of the leader, society and situation can meet and can be harnessed to meet the needs of the leader, society and situation “(Law of leadership factor interaction No 14) this implies that leadership objectives can be achieved if the leader demonstrate sufficient wills, inspire enough faith and harnesses enough possibility in the social situation and therefore leaves the leader without an excuse for non-performance, failure or incompetence.

SUCCESS is the only test for management and/or leadership and measures for measuring such success go beyond the achievement of Drucker's eight areas of objectives; to include metaphysical, moral and beneficial indices.

How do you enact the executive organization? How do you maintain the intensity of the political process in the face of conflicting and opposing facts? how do you obtain the means to reach strategic and immediate ends? How do you establish a moral

94 Montgomery, Field Marshall Lord Lecture at Harvard University Quoted in Peter Benton “Leading Lights” Management Today January 1989 p.5 (Journal of the British Institute of Management.)



129

code and maintain the effectiveness of the organizational morality and culture? How do you separate the purpose and strategic factors? How do you focus on strengths? These questions are the same as how do you perform the leadership function?

There is no one answer on how to enact leadership just as there is no one way to make ammonia or make a car. There are creative varieties and approaches; creative processes. All that matters is that the leaders must understand that the forces exist either in him/her self, in the society and in the situation, and therefore must exert himself to locate them and utilize/apply them in the most creative ratio to achieve the result before it. That is why leadership is the guiding power of intelligence; that is why competent executive organization set the pace and quality of leadership throughout the organization. What is required is for the leaders to have faith in the availability of the answer and maintain responsible behaviors “in the context of his society” to mobilize the necessary ideas and energy to bring about results.

Telling you not to be autocratic is nonsense; even though I can tell you to be strong in your leadership which may mean roughly the same thing. This is because I have observed that autocratic situations require a level of autocratic leadership. Societies recognize this. That is why nations are willing to empower an individual with exceptional powers and authority in war times and in periods of crisis.

Leadership require creative imagination, creative praxis; a combination of pragmatism and principle, of theory of practice, of reflection and action.

In “Pedagogy of the Oppressed” Paulo Freire (1970) wrote that “men’s activity consist of action and reflection. It is praxis; it is transformation of the world. And as praxis, it requires theory to illuminate it. Men’s activities is theory and practice; it is reflection and action.”

This fact, first highlighted by Lenin agrees with the observation by McGregor Douglas in his theory X and Y, that men act on assumptions they hold. “As a man thinks so he is, and acts,” says



130

the Holy Bible. In this regards, this theory may have reinforced or modified your personal principles, and if so, will definitely affect your praxis; your reflection on leadership and your action in that activity.

Principles, it must be understood, are not absolutes, but adaptable guidelines, negotiable options that can be applied to various situations with some common factors.

Substantial body of theory together with a rich body of practice provides the possibility of creative varieties and combinations limited only by the capacity for innovation and imagination.

Mahatma K. Gandhi (1927) in his autobiography wrote that “A writer almost always presents one aspect of a case whereas every case can be seen from no less than seven points of view, all of which are probably correct by themselves, but not correct at the same time and in the same circumstance. And many books are written with a view to gaining customers and earning name and fame. Let those, therefore, who read such books as these do so with discernment and take advice of some experienced man before trying any of the experiments set forth, or let them read the books with patience and digest them thoroughly before acting on them.”(p.226)

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


131

PART IV The

Functions

Of Leadership

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


132

9

The Functions of Leadership Part I

Public perception of what leaders actually do is often far from mundane reality. Historic accounts and attributes to and about leaders, is also colored with a disregard for the social and situational dimensions and contexts of such leadership. Too much is attributed to the capacity and the personality of the leader, and as stated by Keegan J (1988), “It is however nonsensical indifferentism to suppose that individual qualities count for nothing in the way the world is run. Commonalities of traits and behaviour I certainly see in leadership of all ages, but much more, a leader is a factor of his time and place.”95

While public perception of leaders is at times fiction and far from mundane reality, leaders themselves, who do the work of leadership, perpetuate such myths for their own self-satisfaction, amusement and preservation.

The functions of leadership are dependent on the nature of such leadership, its shade, and on the major elements or forces of the factors of leadership and their interaction.

The functions of leadership are not divined merely by observing what leaders do, what activities they engage in, what motions they go through, what behaviors they exhibit, or what idiosyncrasies they possess. This is because leadership is a function of the forces and factors of 95 Keegan J (1988), The Mask of Command. Jonathan Cape

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


133

the leadership triad, namely the leader/man, the society and the situation and these forces and needs are guided by fourteen natural laws.

Leadership functions or in its purest form, the executive function, involves both concrete and elemental aspects, executive and non-executive activities, and being able to distinguish one from the other is instrumental to an understanding of leadership.

Leaders engage in quite a number of functions. Some are organization related; others are personality related; while others are environment related. These relationships are equal to the influence of the forces of the three factors of leadership in a leader’s function. Hence, not all functions performed by them are concrete leadership functions. When a chairman of a board engages in marketing and/or product selling activities or production work or contribute to product design, when a World Boxing Champion decides to promote boxing glove for a commercial company; when a musical star engages in advertising activities; when a president of a nation acts as a special guest of honor at a foot ball cup finals; these are not leader’s work.

Executive or a leader’s work is not the totality of work done by a leader for the organization. All leaders as a matter of course, necessity, convenience, economy, scarcity of abilities, limitation in time, resource and people; personal inclination or expertise; sense of responsibilities and other reasons, engage in an intermixture of leadership and non leadership functions and activities and in some instances for political,

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


134

moral, personal, social, economic and/or psychological reasons, these non-leadership activities engaged in by leaders may be more imperative, most essential and invaluable. But ultimately, failure in leadership is inevitable if concrete/core leadership functions are neglected.

Abstracting core leadership functions and discriminating them from non-leadership functions that characterize leadership realities requires considerable observation and powers of discrimination and abstraction. This is because in any analysis of leadership, according to Stogdill (1948 p.650 “…leadership patterns as well as non-leadership patterns of behavior are persistent and relatively stable. ”96

Understanding the nature of work done by leadership involves not just a study of leader’s at work, as is the norm, but an appreciation of the society and social situation they face; an understanding of the main type of groups and recurrent problems they encounter; of the executive organization; an understanding of the broader social process; a discrimination between concrete and routine activities undertaken by the leaders; and the impact of general activities characteristic of all human groups such as communication facilitation. It becomes therefore imperative as a result, to state that significant leadership activities and concrete leadership functions are relatively few. These form the spirit behind elemental and processual leadership functions that manifest themselves in any observation and analysis of leadership activities. 96 Stogdill 1974 Handbook of Leadership: A survey of the Literature. New York: Free Press p.650

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


135

Leadership is functional, as evidenced by documented history. But what is or are the functions of leadership? What do leaders do? That is the question. In answering this question, it is important to differentiate the elements from the concrete. As rightly observed by Barnard C. (1938), “when we mistake the elements for the concrete, we destroy the usefulness of our analysis (p.239).97 The elemental functions represent the processual (liquid and gaseous) states of the concrete (ore solid state) functions of leadership.

What Is Leadership?

Providing a definition for leadership has become an issue of great debate for centuries as the representative definitions in the next chapter may signify. After a research into leadership I have come to a conclusion that

“Leadership is the ability to use and mobilize the forces (resources, power, skills, habits, attitudes, inheritance, character, personality) the man/leader has, the forces society has and the forces at work in the situations the man/leader and society operate - in an attempt to meet and to actually meet the man/leader’s needs, society’s needs and the need of the situation, conscious of the fact that they vary over time and place.”

This will serve as our working definition for the purpose of this book. All others anywhere will be explanatory notes to this definition.

97 Barnard C. (1938), Functions of the Executive: Cambridge Massachusetts. Harvard University Press (p.239).

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


136

Effective leadership therefore comes by asking basic questions such as:

1. What are the elements of leadership?

2. What are the concrete constituents of leadership?

3. What pattern of relationship exists between the elemental and the concrete aspects of leadership?

4. What do I have to give to the society?

5. What can I aim to give to society?

6. What resources are available in the society?

7. Where are we and where are we heading to? And where can we head to?

8. What is going on? Is it right? Can it be changed or bettered?

9. What are the problems facing this society?

10. How can such problems be solved?

11. Who has the forces (skills, resources, atti-tudes etc) needed to solve the problem(s)?

It is in the process of locating answers to these questions that a basic vision of what the organization should look like is understood.

Leaders should not only ask these questions, they should encourage and/or ask members of the

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


137

organization as a whole to ask these questions of themselves. This is where leadership starts but not where it stops.

Functions of Leadership

Leadership has functions, which are peculiar to them. I will like to say here that leadership is not the same as management and should not be seen as the same even though Managers are expected like everyone else including the security person-nel to demonstrate the leadership commensurate with their responsibilities.

Leadership functions can be divided into concrete functions and Elemental functions.

The Concrete Functions Of Leadership

The concrete functions of leadership are

without any fanfare as follows: The 1. Establishing and/or maintaining the executive

organization,

2. Creating, maintaining and discrimination/ determination of purpose and strategic/ key factors in any situation,

3. Establishing and creating means and ends,

4. Distributing, creating and maintaining utility and value in a creative economy,

5. Maintaining and/or establishing a workable moral code and organizational morality,

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


138

6. Maintaining and/or establishing the integrity of the communication and political process,

7. Creation and maintenance of organizational effectiveness,

8. Maintaining and sustaining the pressure and enthusiasm for responsibility throughout the organization,

9. Focusing on the forces and area(s) of strength,

10. Maintaining a readiness to, and demonstration of show of command.

11. Ensuring, maintaining and protecting the overall welfare of the total followership

12. Creating and Maintaining the right atmosphere.

There are also six elemental functions of leadership: (1) Mapping, (2) Mobilizing, (3) Directing, (4) Aligning, (5) Synchronizing, and (6) Consolidating.

It would be right at this point to clearly state what these functions mean or imply in the performance of leadership.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


139

10

Function of Leadership No. 1 Establishment and/or Maintenance Of The

Executive Organization/Leadership Institutions.

“The establishment” – creation and/or consolidation, and/or the maintenance – upkeep, change, restructure, reengineering – of the executive organization is a prime function of leadership.

The “Executive organization” is that body either formal or informal who has the power and occupies the decision-making positions or influence. It includes Board of Directors and Board of Management of any organization.

This function of leadership involves the willingness to locate “areas of responsibility” and to invest energy – political, social, personal; moral, material, economic, technological etc – in building a supportive organization.

It is a known fact that the very first act of every institutional leader is to interact, compose, appoint or reconfigure the executive organization. This is because success in leadership is determined to a great extent by the character, quality and content of the leadership or the executive organization. Even though in the view of Karl Marx “the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the interests of the whole bourgeoisie.”98

98Karl Marx & Engels, F (1964) The Communist Manifesto. New York: Modern Reader Paperbacks. Quoted in Theda

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


140

A lot of people misunderstand the way a leader emerges – which in their estimation is largely attributional to their capacity in the eyes of the people – with the way leadership is exercised.

The qualities needed for the emergence of a leader are different from the qualities needed to continue in leadership.

What is needed for emergence is to demonstrate capacity or appearance for it and having the equilibrium of competing leadership forces in your favour. What is needed to continue or perform is the capacity to remain relevant to the leadership equation as well as having the capacity to carry out concrete functions adequately to meet the needs and problems the society and situation can contrive, with the forces and means at your disposal within that equilibrium. Hence the ability to balance political and economic forces remains the challenge of leadership at any time.

In that regard, the formation, composition, constitution, maintenance of the executive organization is not just a managerial act of organizing, but rather an essential act of concrete leadership.

This is the first act of any new government or new leader. Because this will set the pattern, quality and tone of mutual leadership throughout the organization and society. It will determine the morality, the spirit of the entire leadership effort.

Skocpol !1980) States and Social Revolution: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge: Press of the University of Cambridge

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


141

Organizations are systems of cooperation that come into being as a result of the desire of its promoters to overcome individual limitations for the reason of promoting and achieving specific economies, utilities and purposes.

In the onset, the executive organization can be personalized in one individual. But as organizations become more complex, communication and economic systems become more complex. As they grow in size, the need for a control system, for a machinery of responsibility: “the executive organization” becomes more pronounced. To cope with complexity, mechanisms of management need to be established. To cope with diversity, mechanisms of leadership become imperative.

The necessary mechanisms of management are integral in the mechanisms of leadership. The combination of complexity and diversity brings to fore the limitation of the individual leader in space, skill and time, and the need therefore to complement and/or supplement the leader’s effort with intermediaries who may be geographically dispersed and technically diverse.

Such intermediaries now exert control or influence through impersonal methods who now constitute the executive organization – members of the technostructure who now perform micro-leadership functions.

The leader therefore exerts leadership by proxies who make decision on the leader’s behalf for the organization at their mandated levels. These intermediaries have delegated to them

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


142

responsibilities and powers that go with them. While in the formal executive organization, only specific individuals are invested with responsibility, power and authority, any member of the social organization could aspire and acquire leadership in the formal organization, where leadership is exercised by being a member of the network of leaders.

The fear of losing control results in indecision or unwillingness to create the executive organization or even empower it with sufficient power. But this is dangerous and affects the performance not only of the organizations as a whole, but especially that of the leader in particular.

According to J. A. Shubin, “The President or Chief Executive Officer (or leader) who personally attempts to investigate or review all business matters and pass decisions on them and who delegates only nominal or minor authority to his officers and departmental heads invariably becomes the primary bottleneck and obstacle of the firm.”

The establishment of the executive organization is necessitated by the need

a) to eliminate the leader’s limitation in space and time

b) to eliminate the limitations of the leader imposed by physical, social, technical, economic and biological factors

c) to effectively control organizational activities in geographically dispersed formations

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


143

d) to meet the growing technical expertise and technical diversity needed in today’s complex organization

e) to provide prompt response in a volatile operating environment

f) to ensure the performance of leadership functions throughout the organization.

As organizations are formed, they need an executive organization at various micro-levels commensurate and adequate with its size and scope of operation. Hence a small organization will require a simple organization and by extension a very simple executive organization made up of the leader only and/or a few executives. This is because the function of coordinating the efforts of the entire small organization is straight forward.

As the organization proper begins to grow in size and becomes more technically and geographically dispersed and diverse, erecting more complex executive organization commensurate with the dispersion and diversity becomes inevitable to the imperative of effective control.

A leader cannot be in many places at once, even in this age of instant communication, the pace of activity has heightened. This has imposed the need for the leader to attend to matters of organizational relevance in both complex and simple organizations; and such demand on his attention in is needed in many places at once. This is more profound in complex organizations.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


144

To ensure effective internal and operational control, and to eliminate the limitations of the leader imposed by space, time, physical, social, technical, economic and biological factors the following are done:

1. a set of intermediaries are constituted

2. executive organizations are formulated

3. executive personnel are constituted or created

4. informal leaderships begin to emerge

5. para-executive organizations begin to form

These collectively manifest to enable the leader control the organization and the organization to control the leader. A practical example of the reciprocal and interdependent relationship between the factors of leadership: The leader, the society and the situation.

As already stated, the executive organization, the executive personnel, para-executive organization form in parallel to the executive organization proper. They include personal assistants, clerks and others that are not executives in the ordinary sense, but perform executive functions and all those who work with departmental heads, Board Chairmen, presidents and managers, enabling the maintenance of a system of cooperative effort. It may be debatable to include them in the executive organization, but it will be enough here to recognizes them as belonging to the para-executive organization.

Complex organizations and complexity in organization, the dispersion and diversity that

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


145

accompany them, has made power, autonomy in decision making and indeed the function of leadership to be disintegrated, to be not just that of the leader, but of the executive organization and by extension the organization as a whole.

Every leadership operates an executive organization no matter how simple or rudimentary. The leading athlete with a string of world records is likely to have a manager, a managing or supportive organization or club to manage his or her professional affairs. This is his executive organization. A head of state has a cabinet or in their absence, a para-executive organization made up of civil servants in an interregnum or period of transition between two governments.

The constitution of the executive membership of an organization depends on basically the constitution guiding the organization, both written and unwritten; the various forces at play within the leadership equilibrium.

“Years ago, it was simple to select people. You just look at results. Anybody who could bring home the bacon was by definition a terrific person. Today we go through an elaborate selection process that goes beyond bottom line numbers. It focuses on soft skills, on communication and the ability to work as a team player. All these skills are necessary if you are going to oversee or participate in cross functional processes. And there are intangibles that don’t show up on a resume – things like intelligence,

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


146

judgement, a sense of humor”99 says Jan Leschly of Smithkline Beecham In Havard Business Review of September – October 1995 pg. 85.

In any cross functional situation, selecting or emergence of members of the executive organization is primarily determined by the equilibrium of the forces of leadership: i.e. the forces of the leader, society and situation and how they interact in determining the constituents of the leadership executive organization.

Hence a leader must understand the forces at work and within that reality acquire or select the membership of this vital organization; ensuring in the process that its quality, character and content are of the best that can be gotten within the context.

Making do with mediocre executive personnel in the formal organization for whatever reason, when you can afford high quality, good and competent executives is a mistake that must be corrected as soon as it is discovered, or can be corrected.

An executive organization filled with person or persons incompetent in any respect: functional, technical, social, psychological or even biological – vital and central to competence in such respect is dangerous. But invariably, a leader must make the best use of resources at his or the

99 Jan Leschly of Smithkline Beecham In Havard Business Review of September – October 1995 pg. 85.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


147

organisation’s disposal; bearing in mind the possibilities.

These resources at his disposal; must not be limited to its internal resources. Resources outside the organization but within the reach of the organization by virtue of its social role and position like loan facilities, goodwill, access to information, influence on legislating bodies through lobby – are resources at its disposal.

The dangers of erecting or tolerating a bad structure is as bad as putting an oversize square peg in a round hole or the reverse. As Peter Drucker once said “a good organogram does not necessarily guarantee success, but a bad organogram makes success impossible.” In the same vein, a good executive organization does not guarantee success, but a badly constituted executive organization or a bad executive organization makes success impossible.

It is neither good leadership nor wisdom to fill executive positions with sycophants and other incompetents. Bad leadership in terms of the lack of a workable structure or the absence of a structure altogether does not precede success, it equally makes the possibility of success very remote.

A good leader therefore must within the limitation of the leadership triad ensure that: (a) structure workability, (b) structure adequacy (c)structure effectiveness, (d) structure efficiency and (e) structure suitability, exist in his and for his organization, otherwise, carrying out the necessary restructuring and structural

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


148

deconstruction, where and when relevant to ensure that these conditions are met, and are adapting to the changing situations of its peculiar present and future realities, together with ensuring that the common and peculiar conflicts that arise as a result are constructively resolved, becomes the imperative duty of the leader and/or the leadership.

With a highly motivated executive organization, that has the right incentives – social, material, political, monetary and moral in terms of example – a good spirit of leadership, commitment and dedication, promotion of values of real worth, acceptance of responsibility and innovation becomes multiplied throughout every level of leadership and by extension, the organization as a whole.

An effective executive organization is not just valuable or essential to effective leadership and organizational effectiveness. It is indispensable to them. Hence, the constitution and maintenance mechanisms and dynamisms: the selection, promotion, demotion, sanction, exclusion and discharge of members of the executive organization including executive personnel, is of greatest importance and should be treated as such, exercised with utmost sense of responsibility and vision by the institution determining these mechanism and persons which is the either the leader or an existing executive organizational arm.

Different structures and configuration of executive organizations exists. These are diverse and in proportion to social systems, cultural; diversities and organization’s peculiar

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


149

configuration. The essential thing is in developing a winning team committed to a common purpose and leading them towards the achievement of short and long term goals.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL ASPECTS OF THE EXECUTIVE ORGANISATION

Just as every organization has formal and

informal aspects, so does the executive organization.

THE FORMAL EXECUTIVE ORGANISATION

The formal executive organization is defined by organizational charts or what Lord Wilfred Brown (1960) termed the “manifest organization.”

1. It involves a defined technostructure,

2. formalized delegation patterns,

3. rules and regulations,

4. defined channels of communication,

5. incentive patterns,

6. authority dispersion and distribution patterns,

7. autonomies, territories, and the

8. establishment of impersonal methods to enable the effective exercise of the leadership functions.

THE INFORMAL EXECUTIVE ORGANISATION

The informal executive organization is the

existence of a parallel organization within and

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


150

outside the executive organization, that critically affect executive decisions by the operation of social, material and/or political powers at their disposal.

The informal executive organization is made up of the “in-group” of trusted few usually referred to variously as the “kitchen cabinet”, “the in-group”, “the Mafia”, “the inner circle”, “shadow cabinet”, “the cabal”, “favorites”, “clique”, “the inner caucus”, “the invincible government” etc. Usually the informal executive organization is self-formed, self-organizing and self-maintaining. Its role like the informal organization is to

a) facilitate communication and information effectiveness

b) maintain political and operational control

c) facilitate decision making process

d) facilitate cohesion

e) maintain personal and organizational integrity.

When the informal organization is frustrated or its larger purpose are at variance with that of the formal organization, and sufficient leadership is lacking in the formal executive organization, it leads to conflict of purpose and action which frustrates leadership praxis in the long and short run.

The leadership function of maintaining and establishing the executive organization imposes on leaders and leadership institutions the responsibility of

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


151

1. Selecting good key personnel of the highest quality

2. Ensuring that they are competent and in positions where they will be competent

3. Erecting a workable organizational structure complete with technical, social, political, financial, moral and material aspects

4. Distributing authority, delegating responsibilities which together is mandate to members of the executive organization

5. Ensuring that members of the executive organization are highly motivated

6. Providing the right incentives

7. Ensuring that members demonstrate leadership by example

8. Providing the right strategies and purpose

9. Participating and establishing oneself and the organization by getting involved in a network of leaders that is a constituent part of every social system.

Who is in charge of what, who takes responsibility for what, who decides when, where and how is a fundamental element of structure. With respect to leadership, I will call it configuration. The nature of structure and leadership configuration and the quality of people filling such positions or available to carry out the designated tasks is important to effectiveness.

One of the causes of the Somme disaster during the World War II is attributable to structure inadequacy. IBM’s present inability to cope with

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


152

the competition in the modern age is caused by defects in structure and strategy; an issue Lou Gestner took steps to correct.

The success of Alfred Sloan at General Motors in the fifties is attributable to structuring in the form of decentralization. During the Gulf War, the complex structure of the Allied Forces has been seen as the fundamental edge it had over the Iraqi Army which had a lopsided Army structure. General Schwazerkof boasted to the fact that with Iraqi’s resources, the Allies could have defeated an Iraq equipped with the Allied Resources because of effective structuring and leadership.

This may be debatable, but the importance of structure and configuration of the executive organization can never be over emphasized. A lot depends on how the leader relates with members of the executive organization; how power is shared and how the social processes of decision, communication etc are performed.

The leader’s first responsibility and function is to maintain the leadership institutions and this can be done by creating where it is absent, maintaining where it is existing, an executive organization that will enable the leader and the organization achieve set objectives. Effective self organization in terms of ensuring that there is economies in the use of the leader’s skill, space, energy and time is central to a leader’s and organization’s effectiveness.

Excessive preoccupation with routine matters or working beyond his physical and moral capacity or driving his/her body beyond

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


153

acceptable limit will usually result in waste, work-lag, sickness, nervous breakdown, irritability, overloading, neglect of strategic issues etc.

The key is to effectively place and utilize the executive organizations, form or interact with the society of elite, monitor executive/leadership institutions, with the purpose of ensuring that leadership and organizational responsibilities get the time and genius they deserve.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


154

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


155

11 Function of Leadership No. 2

Discrimination Of Purpose And Strategic Factors

The second principal leadership concrete function is the discrimination of purpose and strategic factors. The strategic factors are elements in a total situation, which if properly controlled will enable the objective to be achieved. Locating what these factors are and modifying appropriately their relationship to other contingent strategic variables to create an overall positive environment is a prime function of leadership.

Strategic factors are critical but not static. They are evolutionary. What constitute a strategic critical or key factor changes, as new variables become part of the total situation and integral aspects of the organizational or social equation.

The leader must determine the PURPOSE, which an organization must pursue. Such a leader may institutionalize this responsibility by making it the responsibility of the leadership institutions or the executive organization of his organization and or such may be imposed by the constitutional requirements. But in the final analysis, the leader more than the leadership institution has the responsibility of determining the organizational purpose.

The strategic purpose as distinct from the contingent purpose is the responsibility of leaders or the leadership institution by extension. What the organization exists for, objectives it should

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


156

pursue, goals it should attain, the “what should”, “what is” and “what will”

The leader’s responsibility is to determine the purpose from a long list of competing purposes; define the core business, the core micro businesses, short list the “strategic area(s)” of operations

The rationale for discriminating purpose is to maintain focus, provide direction or a sense of it. It is exercised by taking strategic decisions, modifying precedents, changing accepted, obsolete and/or superceded purposes to make them relevant in today’s environment and capable of meeting with present and future expectations. It includes learning to desegregate problems on a global scale and to tackle them on a community/local basis.

“Strategic factors”100 a term attributed to Professor John R Commons (1934) means limiting factors and/or key factors and/or major issues and their discrimination and determination through decision mechanisms. It involves the location of key problems, resources, key means and ends, the abstraction of key variables from the deluge of information at the leader’s disposal. It is in Harold Geneen’s words “locating the guts of the business … the meaning behind.”101 It is “locating and sustaining the co-alignment among a few factors critically important (Thompson 1967). It is determining “the problem”, the two or three

100 Commons, J.R. (1934) Institutional Economics: New York Macmillian Co. p.627-633 101 Geneen, H. (1980) The Case of Managing By Numbers. Fortune Magazine, October 1, 1980 p.80

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


157

things that are critical, that will make or break you and taking the crucial decision in a variety of different ways appropriate to the situations that confront the organization.

Discriminating and determining the strategic issue, the one issue, by exploring the full range of possible options; identifying and pursuing opportunities for choice is compelling because a leader has the twin responsibility for not only his/her good intentions but for the factual outcome.

Complex variables and happenings go on in organizations all the time. These complexities are the result of the complex interaction and interdependence of the elements of social organization. The leader and the leadership institutions are pressed to take decisions and to communicate such decisions to the other parts of the social organization and to the larger society for the purpose of function and/or purposive action or to enable it create relationships vital for the creative economy and utility it seeks to gain or satisfy. “Out of the complex happenings,” wrote Professor Commons, “man selects the limiting factors for his purposes. If he can control these, then the other factors work out the effects intended. The “cause” is volitional control of the limiting or strategic factors. …The “effects” are the operations of the complementary factors…”102

The strategic factor is discriminated through a variety of ways but may include mental

102 Commons, J.R. (1934) Institutional Economics: New York Macmillian Co. p. 632

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


158

programming, brainstorming, verbalization, quantitative and computer methods; manipulation of information systems; singularly or collectively by obtaining and or harmonizing inputs from members of the executive organization, through dependence on discussions with knowledgeable people or by intuition, inspiration or countless amalgam of these.

Discriminating the strategic factors costs a great amount of moral persistence. It involves determining the problem, ascertaining the ability and possibility available to solve them; divorcing personal emotions from issues, tossing the coin in the mind or in the physical as objective situations change and responding appropriately by doing what is best in situations a leader finds himself in.

It involves carrying out an internal scan/audit and assessment of its capabilities, environment, its potentials, strengths and weakness as well as opportunities available now and likely in the future. It involves driving through on key strategies, deciding the focus, locating opportunities concentrating resources of individuals and the organization as a whole in achieving the set objectives. But first of all, the objective has to be set. The vision has to be clear. “To do our work,” observed Winston Churchill, “we all have to read a mass of papers (or information). Nearly all of them are far too long, while energy has to be spent in looking for the essential point.”

The identification of the strategic factor is an intellectual exercise as well as an instinctive event. Leaders are known to take positions by

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


159

instinct influenced by their social development and experience, their technical expertise, or spiritual qualities of inspiration. It is both rational and intuitive depending on the leader and on the leadership institution.

The quality of the strategic factor and its determination is a function of the interaction of the forces and needs of the leadership triad or three leadership factors of Leader, society and situation. “To me,” says President Olusegun Obasanjo of Nigeria, “what makes the difference between a leader and another is how much you can see the tree from the forest of things that will uphold the nation…”103

It should be known that the term “leadership” is different from the term “leader” even though it is a derivative. Leadership is a phenomenon, a function, an institution and is a function of the three factors of the leadership triad: Leader/man, society and situation.

The leader embodies and symbolizes leadership. But is itself just a factor among the three and has the function of ensuring effectiveness of the leadership institution and a productive working of its aspects.

In this regard, leadership is much more than just the function of the leader but also that of the society and the situation. Hence the factors that influence the nature of the executive organizations are many and include:

103 Olusegun Obasanjo, President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Addressing the Elders and Youth of the Niger Delta. Broadcast on Nigeria Television Authority 15th June 1999.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


160

1. institutional framework/type of ownership

2. size of organization

3. level of technological development

4. functional diversity

5. geographical dispersion

6. executive need for success

7. prevalent internal and external cultures

8. Emerging technologies

9. Scale of industrial and service activity

10. Level of economic activity

11. Nature of their missions (voluntary organizations, trade unions, commercial enterprise, church)

12. Levels of interdependence, dependence and degree of interlocking with other organizations

All these also affect the purpose and determination of purpose. The ability therefore, of a leader to influence the relevant internal and external forces, to identify the controllable and uncontrollable factors will enhance his ability to a realize the appropriate strategic factors and purpose of and for the organization.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


161


Establishing and Maintenance of Means and Ends

The determination of means: “what to use in

the pursuit of objectives, strategies to implement, plans to be pursued, purposes to be achieved, values to be maintained, structures to be installed, processes to be organized and/or followed, functions to be operated and resources be they human, material, technological etc available; as well as ends: “mission, purposes, visions, goals, objectives is the responsibility of leadership.”

Within certain predetermined determining factors and constraints imposed by the peculiar social, political, economic and geographical constitutions and environments, a leader must form a coalition, and liberate the technical and other human skills essential to executive action and organizational effectiveness. What policies to adopt, the acquisition and use of power to achieve things; mobilization of internal resources and its polyvalent social resources for achieving its determined ends.

Field Marshall Lord Montgomery of the Second World War fame asserts that “the Commander-In-Chief must ensure that what is strategically

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


162

necessary, is technically possible with the resources at its disposal.”104

Determining the means involves locating the strategic necessity, the technical possibilities, the resources available or at the organization’s disposal. Such resources may be within or without.

Determining the ends is ensuring that resources at the organization’s disposal in terms of usefulness, access and utility; resources such as technologies, people, cash, loans, access to information and information systems, powers, social forces, economic forces etc are discovered and used to enable the organization pursue more efficiently and effectively, its goals and objectives for the purpose of attaining it such goals and objectives or ends as soon and as best as possible.

The primary function of leadership is to create, reach and sustain co-alignment among a few factors, critical to the strategic and long-term growth and development of an enterprise in a changing environment. These critical factors include means and ends; the strategy, resources, operating technology, administrative structure, constitution and maintenance of the executive institution for problem and opportunity finding capabilities, possibility location as well as problem solving, harnessing of possibilities, capabilities exploitation; observing social and market forces, competitive activities and installing and exercising the decision making central

104 Field Marshal Lord Montgomery. Quoted in Adair, John (1988) Developing Leaders:the Ten Key Principles: Maidenhead Berkshire: McGrawHill p. 19

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


163

mechanism for the impetus of the collective effort that is basic to organizational effectiveness, growth and survival.

In the determination, discrimination and maintenance of means and ends, all social advantages and disadvantages, all its privileged access to social characteristics, all the technical, social, moral, material, cultural, financial, economic, geographic and entrepreneurial resources at its disposal; all the means and ends especially the strategic ones must be determined and used over time to serve the advantage of the organization.

This function is central to leadership and many of its processual functions and activities leaders and leadership engage in can be traced to this concrete function. “The highest aim of leadership” wrote Harold Wilson (1979 p.121) Prime Minister of Britain (196 - & 1976) is to secure policies adequate to deal with any situations.”105 This can only be possible after a proper appraisal of what ends are to be pursued and what means are available to pursue and/or achieve them.

To determine what means to use will presuppose an acquaintance with the capabilities of the various factors of leadership in the leadership situation being considered.

A proper evaluation of the resources at the leader’s disposal, whether such resources exists in himself, in the society and in the situation. “Like all the art” noted Sir Havey Jones in “Managing To

105 Wilson, H. (1979) Final Term: The Labour Government 1976 London P.121

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


164

Survive” “there are creative varieties in the application … but there is also a continual and essential evolutionary development of new ideas… the only test of management or leadership and it is a tough one is SUCCESS.”106 Or as Field Marshall Lord Montgomery(1958) puts it, “No leader however great, can long continue unless he wins victories-the battle decides all.”107

So whatever means you may employ and whatever ends you may pursue, success within acceptable morality of the society in which you operate is what justifies your methods. The end may not always justify the means but it points to them. But in locating such means and ends, it is proper to appraise yourself, your society and organization and critically discern the total situation.

106 Harvey-Jones, J. (1993) Managing To Survive: London: Heinemann p.150

107 Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery(1958) Memoirs: Collins.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


165


Creating, Distributing, and Maintenance of Utilities in a Creative Economy

“Utility” means the “efficiency with which resources are used, the degree of satisfaction they provide or are derived from them, their usefulness and the economies of energy obtained.”

This utility is achieved by the organization through

(1) securing essential services from individuals and organizations, technologies and systems

(2) providing essential services, incentives to individuals and groups for such services

(3) attending to the maintenance of its authority to do (1) and (2) above to provide incentives for the organization.

These leads to the concept of the creative economy: derived from economies obtained from the social process, from the technological process, from the moral process; from the financial process; from the material process; from the spiritual process; from the educational process, the psychological process and from the change process.

These economies are controlled, stimulated and energized through persuasion, inducements, deterrence, inspiration to produce “utility” either

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


166

in the form of faith, profit, growth or productivity for the organization.

Essentially, the function of the leadership is to recognize the place of the creative economy and the mobilization of concrete and elemental functions of leadership towards creating a conducive environment for the “utility exchange process” where customers get the products that will provide better satisfaction in terms of service, cost, savings and functional economy and performance; at prices that will in turn create utility to the organization as reward for the provision of such services and products. Individual and groups that provide such services to and in the organization in terms of skill, products, participation or even belief and faith, receive relevant utilities in form of incentives - money, enthusiasm, membership, faith and solidarity. Stakeholders get one form of utility or the other. Shareholders get dividend etcetera.

The quantity and quality of effort is elicited for quality and quantity of utilities or incentives, which objectively is to secure more utility, more value than is given.

The motive is to secure a net-positive utility, even when such utility is defined in moral terms for organizations whose primary objective is not primarily economic but non-profit like movement leadership.

“Economic ideas” says Galbraith (1987) “are not important where there is no economy”(p.2).108

108 Galbraith, J. K. (1987) The History of Economics: The Past as the Present. London: Hamish Hamilton.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


167

But where there is, it is critical. That is why leadership is under pressure from political and economic demands of their immediate society, and of their extensive society.

The ability of an organization therefore to maintain its usefulness which is important to its maintaining of its utility value is determined by its ability to maintain the degree of satisfaction to individuals and groups, and to receive same in sufficient measures, in a relationship that will elicit effort and social resources that will produce satisfaction and utilities of mutual value to those involved in the social process. This is impossible over a long time without innovation, creativity and change.

Because of the importance of the utility function, the creation, distribution and maintenance of utilities in a creative economy is a prime leadership function. It is a determinant of purpose and could be argued to be the concrete purpose defined in various ways.

Companies do not acquire machines and technologies for fun; but to exchange utilities that will leave every one the better if possible, but itself especially, in a beneficial way that satisfies their basic motives for the social relationship.

Mobilizing the creative forces, obtaining economies of energies, and ensuring that creative results emerge from such cooperation and elicitation of efforts is therefore the leader’s responsibility. This was why Drucker argued that “results are obtained by exploiting opportunities”; “resources to produce results, must be allocated

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


168

to opportunities” and that “ economic results are earned only by leadership”.109

The nature of utility that accrue or is pursued by an organization must include economic, political, material, technological and social utilities if it must continue to exist, to enable the organization continue in the performance of its role, meet its objective role in periods of change; and in subjective environments and situations.

This utility function is more pronounced for organization whose purposes are predominantly transactional like business organizations and labour unions. But in every leadership, whether it is the pursuit of economic or political independence, whether in a family, church, army or business; be it in a formal or informal organization, the motivation and motives are usually supplied by the envisaging of a better future which only the maintenance of a creative economy and purpose can provide.

109 Drucker, P. F. (1964) Managing For Results. London: Heinemann (p. 3-7)

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


169


Maintenance of a Workable Moral Code and Organizational Morality

Upholding values which are important to the

three factors of leadership and of specific relevance to the organizational survival and functionality; advancing such values that promotes intellectual and psychological communion with and within the followership is a very important function of leadership.

These values may be defined as “culture”, “interests”, “objectives”, “purpose”, “philosophy” etc. The task of building special values and a distinctive competence, whether in the army, church, home, organization, club, unit, department or any group of any size or scope, is a function of leadership at that level or such values will fall and fail sharply, either through disuse, misuse, abuse, perversion or neglect.

Leaders owe the organizations they lead and society in general the responsibility of modifying, maintaining and adapting values to prevailing circumstances. Age long values that have served their purpose and have become stumbling blocks to greater organizational efficiency and effectiveness must be fine-tuned, modified or even jettisoned altogether, and new values that will enable organizations to achieve its objectives. This could be seen in what is going on in IBM where like the Japanese, the renowned value of lifetime employment was ended by Akers when he was CEO, and others by Gerstner the current CEO. Lou Gerstner shook staff to the core by

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


170

shelving the three “basic beliefs” imbued in the company by its Watson family founders. Instead of pursuing excellence, providing the best customer service and most importantly, showing employees respect as individuals, Gerstner has imposed eight goals that he used to reshape RJR Nabisco, his previous company. These stress urgency, the need for change, the importance of employees seeing themselves as “owners” rather than being preoccupied by “inner focus” while respect for the individual now comes eight.

Leadership is responsible for establishing and consolidating a moral code that will serve to limit the choices and place constraints on the dispersive tendencies as well as enable innovation and creativity to thrive out of the freedom to operate that is equally available in the moral code. This is because moral codes establish limits and horizons of responsibility; these include values about objectives, attitudes, beliefs, sanctions in breach, incentives etc. These moral codes are organizational codes and are distinct from normal codes, although individuals associated with the organizations are expected to operate or abide by them- and also possibly or usually derived from the present or past leadership history.

Organizational morality is derived from practice and exercise of organizational codes and leaders a re governed by moral codes - both those derived by its internal social process e.g. decision, culture. or those imposed by external social processes or environment e.g. laws, constitution and regulations. These all leads to what Barnard C. refers to as “moral complications of the executive functions” (1938 p.276). “The highest

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


171

aim of leadership” therefore, wrote Harold Wilson (1979 p.121) Prime Minister of Britain for nearly seven years “is to secure policies adequate to deal with any situation.”

Moral codes are manifest in attitudes, relationships, in morale, loyalties and are inculcated through the process of persuasion, establishment of a system of objective authority, establishment of standards of practice, standards of quality of workmanship, products and of respect.

Inadequate attention to the leadership function of moral creativeness, ambivalence, lack of emphasis and persistence in the face of inertia of human reluctance, lack of sincerity of purpose; lack of imagination, cynicism, lack of dedication to predicative expectations, normative expectations, inconsistencies and contradictions left unintellectualised in the face of conflict of moral codes, loss of enthusiasm for the exercise of responsibility, tolerance of moral deterioration, are not only instrumental in organizational failure, but are spiritual qualities which when existent, are the very harbinger of leadership failure as well.

Example therefore implies that whatever morality exists in the leader, becomes manifest in action or reaction.

Without a moral code, either explicit or implicit, organizational structures break down, organizational strategies becomes meaningless and sterile; organizational purpose becomes stressful; leadership becomes dysfunctional, morale disintegrates; conflicts in the absence of a

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


172

resolving force becomes pronounced, corruption acquire notorious and devastating endemic capacities and reach alarming dimensions, discouragement, lack of interest, loss of organizational loyalty, indiscipline becomes prone; organizational cohesiveness and efficiency breaks down leading ultimately to organizational sclerosis, and paralysis if not death.

The function of leadership therefore, is not only the conformance to moral codes either internal or external; but the fashioning and maintenance of moral codes for others in the face of conflicts in the codes themselves or in other factors of the social process through persuasion, reinforcement of these values, by adherence to these values or challenging values dysfunctional, by bringing attention to them, ensuring adherence to these values in system and facilities design; corporate philosophy statements and by the quality of the composition and nature of its executive organization, the organization’s sanction and incentive methods, reward allocations and responses to crisis; building a distinctive competence and vision into the social process by communicating it; by the maintenance of moral persistence and pressure for conformance to them and by the institutionalization of systems, culture and discipline to invigorate the process through leadership.

from these, it is easily denotable that to establish and ensure a functional code requires equally the insistence of the moral capacity in sub-leaders or members of the executive organization. This “moral capacity” is the ability to adapt to changing situations, to constant values

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


173

and the ability to adapt changing values to constant and changing situations. It is the ability to subscribe to and be effectively governed by public and/or professed values and standards in one’s conduct. It is manifest in that factor men call “integrity”, “dependability” or “responsibility”. It is demonstrated in the ability to identify and symbolize values of the organization and by functional integrity.

When men without this moral capacity are placed in leadership positions or are part of the executive personnel, morale and morality breaks down whether they were elected by democratic process or selected by appointment or recruiting process or impose themselves by dictatorial means.

Essentially, the identification of functional moral codes and values, the institutionalizing of the moral capacity by the leader’s moral capacity, by the emphasis of sense of responsibility, by the demand for moral capacity in all who are part of the organization, especially members of the executive organization and executive personnel, by the sanction of acts of irresponsibility, by example, by persuasion, by persistence in the face of conflict, by judgement, by sincerity of purpose; by pressure for its adherence; by symbols that will reinforce these values; by establishment of standards of practice, by maintenance of competence and objective authority, by acts of consideration and by ultimate success is a crucial function of leadership - any leadership.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


174

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


175


Maintaining and/or Establishing The Integrity Of The Communication And Political Processes

Ensuring that there is a credible

communication and political process and maintaining and sustaining its integrity is a vital concrete function of leadership.

“Business lends itself to strong leadership” wrote Steve Shirley in How to Give Reality To Vision. “Because of the simplicity of authority. As an enterprise grows in complexity, the independent power bases and the differing perspectives make it political.”110 It is this political dimension of the executive organization that posses the greatest challenge to the members and especially the overall leader.

The level of political sophistication and maturity demonstrated by leadership personality to a great expert determines the confidence and respect on it by the followers and results in effectiveness moulded with other factors of effective leadership.

A vital function of leadership in determining and maturing the communication and political process integrity includes, the development identification, communication and internalization of a workable ideology, the operationalization in good faith of agreed constitution and political and economic structure and systems and other dynamics in evolutionary circumstance. 110 Steve Shirley How to Give Reality To Vision. Management Today

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


176

Maintaining the integrity of the communication process can be achieved.

1. by designing a corporate vision.

2. By maintaining a moral posture and example.

3. By designing a workable dynamic progressive political, social and economic structure constitution, System and processes.

4. By demanding feedback and be use of responsibility.

5. By sanction, rewarding and punishing

6. By building faith in the political process by example and transparency

7. By communicating policies and acting with dispatch on decisions

8. By firmness and fair-play

9. By the maintenance of a scientific temper or and attitude or culture of inquiry.

10. An ethos of position accommodation and spirit of positive cooperation

11. The development and sustenance of a ethos of leadership by positive examples

12. By a desire to do better for all

13. Promoting evolutionary development after sporadic revolutionary developments

14. Engaging in action that will enhance the image and character of the cooperate personality be it a nation state, a state, a company, a club, a community or what have you.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


177

1. Develop a reasonable efficiency and effectiveness in the use of resources to pursue and achieve aims and objectives

2. A commitment to the total followership by the leadership

3. A development of political, social, technological, economic and human infrastructures to enhance communication within an organization’s area of influence. This goes beyond the society where the leader directly leads but extends to the wider society that has a stake in the organization, be it a nation, company, board of directors or management, followers, shareholders and stakeholders in general.

4. Leadership sophistication. The application of wisdom, doing the right thing at the right time and place; engaging in the proper scheming, timing and sequencing of moves.

It would be meaningless to expect an effective

leadership if the integrity of the political and economic process is not sustained, maintained and developed. And the integrity of these processes in turn, depends on the openness and integrity of the communication process existing at a particular time and situation.

Infrastructures for enhancing communication such as education, culture of inquiry, democracy, and communication equipment like phones, transportation facilities, social institutions and for a for interactions, correspondence infrastructure like memos, gazettes etc. constitute a fundamental and remains a force when used collectively with a

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


178

and by dynamic executive organization structure, a dynamic political and economic system.

The effective performance of the leadership function involves a vigilance to ensure that all the ten functions of leadership are given the due they deserve.

If the political and communication processes are not properly led or designed, nothing else can be properly led or designed. In point of fact, leadership cannot be leadership if a leader fails to perform any leadership function effectively. Indiscipline in the followership says Field Marshal Montgomery, is an evidence of failure in leadership somewhere in the system.

Historical personalities such as Julius Nyerere, Obafemi Awolowo, Herbert Macauley, Winston Churchill, Mahatma Gandhi, Olusegun Obasanjo, Nelson Mandela, Nnamdi Azikiwe – Zik, Margaret Thatcher, Lord Denning, Sir Ahmadu Bello, Joan d’ Arc recognized the importance of this function in their discharges of the Leadership function. This recognition includes having a historical vision about and dimension of political, social and moral events or decisions. It is this vision that enables proper conduct and encourages dynamism in Leadership behavior and social outcomes.

Absence of this historical vision of moral capacity, according to Chester Bernard, may result in antithetical and anti-moral Leadership behavior that renders him or her historically bankrupt, or a sanction by history or bad conducts. Historical vision is the ability to envision the historical

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


179

impact, the future outcome of political actions and events and decision on the social and economic in future.

It is historical vision that enables Leaders to have the moral capacity to use power to acts in the interests of the followership conscious of their beneficial out come. A miscalculation in the articulation of a historical vision may result in a different outcome but provides a rudder to Leadership behavior of it is these, like the organizational chart a historical vision dues not ensure success but it absence makes Leadership success impossible, the same can be said about the integrity of the political and communication process and whatever measures but may have historical indices represents the ultimate measures of Leaders success & effectiveness.

Ensuring the integrity of the political and communication process presumes a constant watch to identify, (a) Flaws in the political structure, (b) Flaws in the operational segment, (c) Flaws in the communicational structure, (d) Flaws in the executives organization, (e) Inadequate infrastructures - both in political, social and economic spheres, and engaging leadership resources to correct them, mobilize social resources, innovate and adapt modern ways to remove flaws and produce a more credible political and communication system or process.

This may involve a deeper look into the mini-political areas/processes; identifying micro-political policies and processes that are antiquated and needs modernization, reaffirming concrete principles of agreed political structure and making

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


180

open and practical commitment to them or to their modernization.

Absence of this not only spells danger for the whole leadership system and process, it dooms such leadership to failure and such society to dis-development.

It is the responsibility of the leader to ensure that the formal and informal executive organizations such as the Board of Directors, Board of Governors, cabinet of Ministers, the legislature and other arms of government or corporate business are carrying out their duties in line with acceptable norms, values, principles and practice; with moral courage and rectitude; that timely execution of responsibilities and a proper ideology, and social and political constitutions are developed and internalized in the social ethos and practice. This will not only ensure the historic position of the leader, it earns leadership the respect and credibility vital for effectiveness in the performance of the leadership role.

Tinkering with political and communication processes for the singular purpose of political and personal survival without a broader vision of the historic impact, social relevance and benefit of the general society, will ensure the leader an enviable position in history as a butcher.

The dustbin of history is a recycling one. It is reserved not for those who failed in leadership, but for those who succeeded in failing in leadership without trying to better the society’s state. It is reserved for the selfish and foolish. In the recycle bin of history the foolish are better treated than the selfish who are forever vilified and accursed.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


181

16

Function of Leadership No. 7 Maintenance of Organizational Effectiveness.

Organizational effectiveness is the end pursued by every system of cooperation or organization. Ensuring that this end is attained is the responsibility of leadership

Organizational effectiveness is the ability of an origination to achieve its purpose. The means of attaining this end is through the institution and maintenance of what I chose to call the “Organizational MOLE”

The organizational MOLE is a term used to define the various elements of the systems of action that are indispensable to organizational effectiveness. It includes

1. the existence of a well structured and institutedManagement – M

2. an instituted workable Organization – O

3. a capable leadership to provide the essential dynamism – L

4. and Entrepreneurship to provide the impetus for creativity and innovation that will enable the organization to adjust to the growing and changing forces that is characterizing the globe. – E

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


182

Leadership is responsible for ensuring that the entire organization is effective in the pursuit of its defined requisite goal and purpose, through the maintenance of the organizational MOLE.

Liberating the necessary cooperative effort and the vital energy within them for this purpose; providing the pivotal force essential for organizational motion; providing the inspiration and moral force essential for organizational motion; providing the inspirational and moral force by determining the investment to be made in innovation, in material, economic, social, political, moral, cultural and technological assets and liabilities of the aspects of the organization; ensuring that the elements of organizational effectiveness i.e. a competent Management, a workable and adapting Organization/Institution, a capable and effective leadership and an entrepreneurial organization and workforce are available and exploited is the seventh function of leadership.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


183


Maintaining And Sustaining The Pressure And Enthusiasm For Responsibility Throughout The

Organization,

This is one of the salient concrete functions that nonetheless is at the bottom of successful leaderships.

Haven identified the strategic factors, the significant problems, needs and expectations, haven arrived at a vision, a picture of an objective and attractive future; haven determined the structure, content and quality of a supportive organization, ascertained the means and ends; the responsibility of leadership then becomes that of maintaining relentless pressure, to constantly bring to attention of all stakeholders of the organization, especially the strategic actors, these factors, focussing their attention on the focus, the vision, constantly in the face of challenge and change, maintain the conviction of the inevitability of ultimate triumph.

To maintain pressure, constant effort and vigilance in maintaining spirit and discipline, resilience to face challenges and constantly communicate and emphasize to the people in a human society, the need to keep moving, the need for forward thinking; on the need to keep looking for new solutions to old problems and new ways to apply old solutions to new problems.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


184

The leadership function of maintaining pressure and enthusiasm for responsibility involves maintaining pressure on a network of leaders within the organization i.e. members of the leadership institution; and leaders outside the organization who are not members of the organization but could be stakeholders whose decision are vital, individuals and organizations/institutions who can influence environmental forces that may positively or adversely affect the organization.

It is ensuring that there is a sense of urgency; that the dispersive tendency of human beings is not allowed to destroy the purpose and purposive action. It is constantly reminding all that nothing works out itself. That man should act as catalyst in any socio-technological situation. The leader must emphasize that the need for force or energy to be applied is a vital necessity to create social motion.

It is that act of persistence in the face of conflict; of tenacity in the face of obstacles that appear insurmountable. It involves the motivation of the troops, followers and society; the creation of enthusiasm for the exercise of responsibility, the need to generate a positive attitude; the communication of the “can do” spirit; the democratization of opportunism; the psyching up of the workforce, the people and the followers in their ability to transcend self, in their selflessness in their belief in the ultimate achievement of objective purpose. It is that ability to communicate, demand and inspire urgency, action, resilience, persistence, commitment, continuity, resolve, determination; that focus on values, on sense of duty, building conviction; on

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


185

the social utility of purpose and enlistment; faith in the inevitable outcome; on the necessity to bind the wills of men to accomplish immediate purpose and remote ends; of faith in social activity; faith in moral codes; in cooperative personal decision; the persistent subordination of part to the whole; the necessity of maintaining persistence when the chips are down.

This function of sustaining pressure maintaining enthusiasm for responsibility includes the reaffirmation of stand; it is keeping society energized enough for purposive action; it is inspiring the society and promoting acceptance for responsibility throughout the society; it is maintaining persistence in pursuit of goals; it is the creation of the ownership of identifying problems both basic and otherwise as well as ownership for the solution in everyone in the organization and in individuals who have the responsibility and authority; it is ensuring vigor and strong drive for task completion; it is maintaining relentless pressure through persuasion, communication, control, coercion, inspiration to enable the society overcome inertia, delay, frustration and opposive change. It is generating and inspiring a bias for action.

Pressure and the building of enthusiasm for the exercise of responsibility is essential to the need for men to move and act beyond limits they hardly think themselves capable. Without this energizing force, this strong drive for persistence and continuity in the face of change, without this faith, the leadership of men would be an effort in futility.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


186

This function can be carried out by the indulgence of mass action, by maintaining pressure across the three factors of leadership: Leader, society and situation i.e. [pressure on the leader, pressure on the society and pressure on the situation in the pursuit of favourable change.

This enthusiasm for the exercise of responsibility must be built up and maintained in the leader, by the leader, in the society and in the situation.

Methods of maintaining pressure include constant communication and demand of constant feedback; persistent in pursuit of goals; persistence for task completion by setting deadlines, monitoring progress etc; designing new goals when old ones are attained or become obsolete; new objectives, restructuring and reengineering, reviewing existing strategies, promoting a desire for change, and creating a new vision. These are done when they are deemed necessary and not for their own sake.

Leadership by walking about is done not just to acquaint oneself with on goings, but to buildup a presence that will make every one in that environment to feel a sense of being watched and hence asking about if results have been attained makes every one aware that the leader is result oriented, does not tolerate waste of time, energy and organization resources.

Maintaining the enthusiasm for responsibility comes through the use of persuasion, faith in their capacity for achievement, in inspiration by the use of optimistic language, in demanding urgency for

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


187

action and being urgent yourself; in maintaining organizational trust; with a constant connection being made to a common ideal or value shared by all or the majority.

To maintain pressure, the ultimate goal must be bigger than the capacity of the organization in the now; but subsidiary goals must be attainable; an appreciation of the interaction of all factors, facts, events, trends and occurrences and their significance must be communicated in simple language.

It is asking new questions, building up a social conscience as well as delegating substantial one-off responsibilities to individuals to bolster trust; sustaining blind optimism, practical; realism what Dr Robert Schuller calls “holding power” (1983 p.28) Ensuring that the society never loses sight of the purposes, objectives, and tasks; and that constant supply of energy is channeled in the direction of progress, maintaining pressure for growth, for commitment, for patience in the face of change and for change in the face of patience.

All these are vital to organizational effectiveness and to leadership effectiveness in particular.

It ensures that there is energy in the organization in action. It instills a business like attitude in members of supportive organizations; it inspires dedication in members and followers; and ensures that there is purposive action.

This is a function no leadership can do without or take for granted if success is its goal.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


188

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


189

18

Function of Leadership No. 9 Focusing On The Forces And Area(s) Of Strength,

A leader is a locator and operator of the forces

of strength.

There are three basic areas of strength on which a leader focuses.

1. The area of strength of man/leader himself.

2. The area of strength of the society, its product, its constituent, its members, its geography etc.

3. The area of strength inherent in any prevailing situation.

To locate these areas a leader carries out what

I call a 3D SWOT analysis of the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in and to the three leadership factors and as the Process takes full reading decisions to focus on strength centres or areas [SCA] took for strategies to minimize weaknesses or turn them to strength, advantages and opportunities; locate opportunities that can be harnessed on a three dimensional level; discover threats to himself, threats to the society and threat to the situation he dreams to create, the vision he pursue, the project he implemented etc.

In the final analysis, leadership, an effective leadership focuses on areas of strength whether such strength centres are present in the individual followers, in himself and/or in a particular situation, the leaders responsibility remains that of

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


190

optimizing the relationship of the three strength towards achieving leadership and societal goal.

In this regard leaders, while recognizing weaknesses in them followers, exploit and harness their followers areas of strength and expertise, while doing every thing to minimize or eliminate their areas weaknesses, and the threats they may signify.

This is the reason why they focus and build on their areas of competence be they on core competence, fringe competence, area of strategic, competitive advantage; local or global competence; be they internal or external.

Effective leaders focus on the areas of strength of their organization they lead or belong to. In operationalizing the principle of power, principle of focus on strength, principle of acceptance of responsibility and the interdependent relationship functions between the operational principles, the operational environment and operational factors of the leadership triad, leaders must exert personal, social and situational forces capable of changing the total situation, spirit and picture in progressive direction. To do this, leaders must focus on strengths.

The essential thing in the leadership of social organizations is to seek and exploit opportunities in your area of core competence, and using this and the polyvalent social, political and economic resources at your disposal to extend your competence into other areas. This may be used negatively as in imperialism of nations and corporations, and other expansionist policies that

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


191

were the cause of the escalation of conflict between capitalism and socialism in the recent past. However, it could be used with its moral implication, to advance the organization and seek the overall welfare of the organization.

Harmonizing the critical factors and their patterns in a particular period, and monitoring/manipulating them for organizational advantage is the duty of leadership. Others in the organization may not, but the duty of the leader is to point himself, the organization and everyone in it, as well as those outside it, to its areas on strength.

It is from this focus that the organization gets its strength and purpose, the individual members their motivation and the leader his vision.

Effective leaders are those who at every critical point are able to define and properly redefine the core business and competencies of the organization he leads, what such competence are today, and will be tomorrow, and muster the necessary will, resources and vision to channel leadership force and historic forces #towards the optimizing, exploitation and enhancement of that or those competencies.

Developing new competence is the key to organizational survival in a world global and competitive.

Focusing on areas of strength includes focusing on the strength of your staff, of your products, of your organization, of the socio-economic and legal climate, and doing everything to exploit,

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


192

recreate and re-engineer them while weaknesses and threats are taken into cognizance so as not to allow them to distract or destroy the leader’s or society’s morale and life.

Harnessing the forces, the total forces and situation is what leadership is all about. it is holding 23 books together. It is like juggling balls in space.

If your product is a leader, build on its strength, add-in value to the product. A leadership must provide progressive added value. It is not only a subject of final or audited reports. Add-In Leadership is a vital component of leadership responsibility and organizational effectiveness. Every leader must contribute positively to organizational growth.

Effective leaders allow individual members to exploit the frontiers of their personal competencies towards advancing further the competence of the society and/or organization, so that sufficient competencies - critical competencies - are available at any given time to be tapped and used to serve organizational purpose whenever opportunities become available or is created.

A leader therefore must understand what his followers individually can achieve, what severally they can do; what collectively they can achieve and move them to do so. Leadership according to Mary Parker Follett and Chester Barnard, must heighten cooperation vital for organizational success.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


193

It is imperative that leaders focus on areas of strength; that they multiply such areas of competencies not only for the purpose of profit, but for the purpose of stability and realizing genuine productive objects of their organization.

As a leader focus on strength and you will attain and develop more strength.

19

Function of Leadership No. 10 Maintaining A Readiness, And

Demonstration Of Show Of Command.

Show of command includes having symbols and presence of mind of being in control. Symbols of authority – crown, signet/rings, maces, dresses, seals or even protocol. These symbols represent significant historical experience that when displayed invoke and stimulate emotions that can be translated into power.

Maintaining a readiness to show and demonstration of command includes the ability of a leader to realize the potent force inherent in symbols; the demonstration of functional competence to execute an amalgam of the other nine fundamental concrete functions of leadership and using them to serve leadership needs favourably. It is that spiritual quality of presence and identity, of having not only the personality, but also the power and authority; the possibility and ability to function; to act and/or to refrain from acting. It is that quality which Machiavellian

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


194

says, “It is better for a prince (leader) to be feared than to be loved.”111

The show of command instills both emotions of fear and love in different individuals and in the same individuals in both different and similar situations. The awareness that the leader and leadership has the authority and power (control over social processes, over the forces of coercion); that it has the ability and the willingness to act; decisively and ruthlessly if need be; and that it has the willingness to exploit possibilities inherent in a situation.

The show of command implies that a leader is an embodiment of faith: faith in the ultimate achievement of set objectives; faith in united action; faith in rightness of its action; and the ability to inspire respect for this faith in the followers and across society.

Readiness to exhibit show of command is the ability to demonstrate, demand a show of command that marks out a strong leader from a weak one. The more effective a leader is in carrying out this function, the more charisma is attributed to him or her. Show of command involves the capacity and spirit to demonstrate control through awareness of on goings, resoluteness, decisiveness, strength, determination and courage required in any particular situation, especially in demanding that things be done and that they be done right and that the right thing be done. Carrying and accepting the responsibilities imposed by leadership without fear and favour. DO THINGS RIGHT AND DO RIGHT THINGS. 111 Machiavelli, Niccoli (1988) The Prince. London Pengium

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


195

Do what is best and do the best thing are the hallmark of show of command.

It is demonstrating a willingness and defiance or even nonchalance about self interest in the face of danger but consumed by purpose and task at hand and good of the led. It is the ability of the leader to keep up public appearances; to appear in firm control even with ailing health or power; to communicate and inspire resoluteness and courage by one’s example; to reiterate positions and command its adherence; to resolve and to do whatever needs to be done and to do it rightly and timely, demonstrating the moral will to lead; recognizing your position or role as leader and accepting responsibility for vision and action; for praxis; readiness to be seen by the people at work; readiness to take the final decision on any issue and to accept the consequence as a result without apology or regret; readiness and resoluteness in demanding discipline and effectiveness; swiftness to censure insubordination or indiscipline; to take an improper decision and/or course of action when as leader, such conduct is considered the right thing to do.

It is asserting your authority. One of the common features of modern day theoreticians is the treatment of the exercise of authority as bad and evil. In practice your persuasion to be effective must be authoritative. In practice, you cannot achieve anything without asserting your authority. How-be-it subtle and indirect. The leader’s authority does not have to be political or positional. It may be a moral authority and it should be asserted at strategic times of every leadership. It is the tact that rises to the occasion.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


196

Show of command includes the exhibition of a character that inspire confidence and is transmitted by spirit and words; by decisions resolutely made and expected to be final and obeyed; commands are short, rapidly issued and expected to be carried out with dispatch.

Show of command includes the will to dominate and communicates itself not only by a spirit of resoluteness, but by a sense of urgency in the demand for action, emphasis on urgent action, action and decisive action and the inherent moral force inherent in the rightness of the chosen course of action and/or rightness in the method devised to accomplish it. This is vital. If the course of action is either right or the method devised to accomplished it is not in agreement with social situation as was evident in the coup against Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union, the show of command will fail and it has no command to show.

Show of command shows itself in a leader’s readiness to say “Yes”, “no”, “”move”, “don’t move”, “go”, “don’t go” and stick to it until he or she sees a reason to change course; capacity to restrain action in the heat and thirst for action; and to act in the face of contrary views of it. But it could be abused; it could be void of the sense of rightness and diminish to the use of naked power thereby corrupting the man or woman of power. It could result in the use of mere spirit but absence of soul.

These power or show of command is acquired through having the assurance of doing right and being able to communicate it; of having the

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


197

assurance of having the authority; the experience and readiness to dominate in public; in the inspiration that he or she has been chosen by the people, by God or by the gods; a conviction howbeit debatable, to play an historic role in leading your people top the promised land.

Theatrics, pomp and ceremony and being seen in the followership or even seclusion all play a part in the development of the leadership mystique vital for an effective leadership. “It is at such times when events are weighty that the physical qualities of leaders become fundamental.

In demonstrating show of command, the leader must understand the social process and the power structure, the mentality of the led especially members of the executive institutions. Show of command is every attempt and every act of the leader to impose his or her will and presence first on the executive organization, on the supportive organization, on the entire followership and the outside society at large.

A leader may have periods of doubt, of weakness and of fear, but must demonstrate in the midst of that fear the courage to act for the common good. Leaders must understand that even when they are afraid that they can still function if they are resolute to do whatever is necessary to achieve what is purposed either for the common good or otherwise. But in the final analysis, leadership carries with it a moral responsibility; the responsibility not only to do right, but also to do right for the common good of the society it leads.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


198

But the truth is that the morality of a robbery gang differs from that of a nation at large. It is this variance in social situation and leadership characteristics required that makes leadership a unique phenomenon. But as rightly observed by W.H. Cowley (1928) in his treatise “Three distinctions in the study of leaders” “the significant thing is to make a distinction between the traits that an individual possesses and the traits that a situation demands.”112 This is true in the performance of every function of leadership and more so in the area of show of command.

112 Cowley, W. H. (1928) Three Distinctions In The Study of Leaders: Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


199


Ensuring, Maintaining And Protecting The Overall Welfare Of The Total Followership

According to Queen Elizabeth of the United

Kingdom, “leadership demands a dedicated responsibility towards the men under your command. Their lives will be in your hands and they will have the right to expect from you the highest standards of character, professional competence and integrity. If you will always put their interests and welfare before your own, you will not fail them and together you will be able to undertake any enterprise. You will often inspect you men, I suspect that when you are doing so they will be just as keenly be inspecting you….”113

It can be asserted that the principal function of leadership is the exercise OF leadership skills to ensure the welfare of its subject; to maintain and protect the interest of its members, to seek the best possible good for to his/her followers.

In the pursuit of this goal in its performance of their function the leader must engage in the search for means and ends that will ensure that it delivers the goods, they project where possible radical vision and revolutionary ideology; and/or concrete stands,

In the pursuit for the interest of the followership and the overall welfare of the

113 Queen Elizabeth of the United Kingdom: At the Sovereign Parade Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst in 1965. Quoted in Adair John (1988) Developing Leaders: The Ten Key Priceless: MacGraw Hill Madenhead Berkshire, England. P.73

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


200

members (especially those who in morally bound), the leadership most resist tyranny; any attempt at lawlessness immorality and any attempt to breach social harmony and progress

It cannot be overemphasized that there is an identification of executive function with the nation and people will. Leadership, any leadership including dictatorial leadership - must seek to obtain moral mandate by tying its conducts as a necessity to ensure the welfare and interest of the followers and safeguard it; It must provide justification for it existence by tying its actions to its desire to ensure the good – future or immediate – of the followership.

The inability of any leadership to dedicate its self to ensuring the welfare of the members of the society it governs is an invitation to revolution and generally, puts in motion the revolutionary processes that eventuates in their overthrow by whatever means social forces may contrive by the outcome of their interacting macro and micro variables.

“In any event, what matters most is always the support or acquiescence not of popular majorities of society but of the politically powerful and mobiles group invariably including the regimes own cadres”114 wrote Theda Skocpol. Such mobilized groups may invariably include any of the micro-forces of the three factors of leadership – the masses or any pressure group(s).

114 Theda Skocpol !1980) States and Social Revolution: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China. Cambridge: Press of the University of Cambridge

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


201

This implies that the competing forces - both internal and external - at work in any social situation, are competing for scarce resources and will aim influence strategic factors and issues to gain control of the economic, political and social forces and ultimately, the social organization proper in line with the principles of competition and domination, affecting in the process the situational equilibrium. This results in a dynamic equilibrium that may be beneficial to an individual or pressure group or institution within the social system at a particular time and otherwise at other times.

Invariably, conflicts will arise: of interests, of views, of beliefs, of cultures and objectives. What the leader and the leadership should strive at all times is to achieve an equilibrium that will satisfy the majority; that will meet the competing needs of the leader, the society and its competing groups and institutions, and the situation.

In seeking this objective, a leader invariably has to compromise, has to have a dynamic priority, would have to be guided by an ideology, a purpose, a view of the critical and strategic factors at a particular time. He or she cannot lead with inflexibility. Adapting to the imperative of the situation becomes the norm.

Why do men rebel? Why do men “strike”? Men rebel when they perceive that their self interest, their faith or that of their society has been compromised to an extent that is considered by the mobilized group(s) or politically aware individuals, to be detrimental to their self interest or sense of value.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


202

“The welfare of the society” is an abstract concrete term. It is a situation that is interpreted as being good by members of a social structure and since social structures are variegated, its meaning can only be defined in relation to a social structure being defined.

The duty of the leader and leadership is to identify the factors and the social values that articulate social interest. It must seek to meet the needs of the mobilized groups and mobilized the society or groups it seeks to meet its need.

The leader must ensure that the sick are healed (both men and institutions), that the bound are faced, that the hungry are fed, that the hopeless gets hope that the shelter obtain shelter, that the illiterate get education. He/she cannot provide for all, but can attempt to do. The possible best to solve the problems, or motivate the people to solve it themselves.

A leader must show an appearance of working to curtail the social obstacles constraining the development, cohesion and advancement of the individuals and institutions in the society.

A leader must show an appearance of working the development and advancement of the individual and society.

In the performance of this role, an acknowledgment of the vicissitudes of human situation, the dipersive tendencies of human beings, the best and worst potential in man must be made.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


203

Society must be made to know that it is respected by leadership, that it is expected to perform some roles; that individual members of society are expected to take responsibility and cooperate with the leader in ensuring that its welfare is not compromised either by the conduct of the leader or of the society itself, or members of the society or leadership institutions existing within or without.

Leadership promotes an understanding of the total situation and the need for resolution of conflicts in atmosphere of civilized conduct.

Ensuring the respect of every one’s interest and everyone’s responsibility and communicating effectively to them the sacrifice required of them in each objective situation is the interest of the leader and network of leaders in a society’s social structure and organization.

Without this understanding, without faith in cooperative action, faith in the subordination of individual and group interest to national and society’s greater interest, no meaningful revolution, development and advancement can take place in society and no progressive change can be achieved, as the spate of conflict will escalate to subvert the very interest they seek to serve.

Leaders need wisdom. Resources to meet needs are scarce. Ensuring an equitable and/or systematic and optimal distribution of wealth factors (SOPDOWF) that is paramount to ensuring a state of well being, a feeling of belonging among the individuals and group that form society.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


204

Leadership requires the internalization of the primacy of social interest over individual interest - including that of the leader – in the social ethos. Mobilized groups must be made to understand that they must subordinate their interest to the overall good of the larger society in the interest of fair play and goodwill among all who constitute members of that society.

Leaders themselves must equally ensure that they place the interest of the followership over and above their self-interest. This means that a leader should be willing to work the social equation to an equilibrium that is beneficial to the three factors. However, in certain situations, the leader own interest comes last. At such a time, the leader must pay the supreme price of resigning, dying or accepting social will even when such a decision may be detrimental to his own best interest.

Ultimately, leadership is a tough job. It is a sacrifice. Leaders are born and made to serve. When they can no more serve the people, they no more become leaders.


Creating And Maintaining The Right Atmosphere

Atmosphere is a function of leadership. It is the responsibility of every leadership to create the right atmosphere within which society can

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


205

function and enable social organization to be mobilized and feel a sense of belonging sufficient to ensure that majority of its members have faith in cooperate and cooperative action, and faith in organizational purpose and destiny; sufficient enough to enable the attainment of set objectiveness and missions.

What that atmosphere is, is a function of concrete social situation in questions. But generally, a leader must ensure the development of spirit or morale of hope. According to Napoleon Bonarparte, “a leader is a dealer in hope.”

Atmosphere is a spiritual quality of any concrete social situation. It includes the morale, the moral, mental, psychological state of the leadership and the followers in any concrete situation.

In the armed forces, it includes ensuring preparedness for war in peacetime, a state through constant exercises, training, modernization of equipment and skill in their usage, to instill the possible ability to cope; with the stress situation that war may impose. Military leaders therefore must ensure that they are well equipped in arms and ammunitions that they are in working conditions that troops well trained in the use of those equipment, will and courage have developed the mental and mental and psychological stammer and emotional maturity to withstand periods of stress, that they have mobilized the necessary civilized conduct required by its moral codes and imposed by the various international convention on prisoners of

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


206

war and cessation of conflicts etc. as war is not the total anymore* that they have a positive outlook which the leaders believe is needed to achieve objectives being pursued, that they are in right spirit. Leaders therefore in performing the function of determining the right atmosphere must

(a) Define and communicate the right atmosphere.

(b) Demonstrate the moral and physical example required by any concrete situation.

(c) Project a vision of the ideal society and situation.

(d) By leadership by traveling to the spots of conflict and or potential hot spots. Physically or electronically (Leadership by Touring &jamboree) i.e. that is by an attitude of effectiveness &efficiency in organization.

(e) By ensuring effective scheming and timing of moves, proper follow up and following through of actions.

(f) Define the expected conduct, attitude and psyche to face the concrete situation, the expected effort, sacrifice, skill and speed that they are.

(g) Instituting leadership across the spectrum of the organization, establish structures and institutions.

(h) Creating awareness between the conduct of one member and the total situation and on another member.

(i) Enhancing intradepartmental, interpersonal, interpersonal, interdepartmental, intra institutional communication and functional communication.

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


207

”Atmosphere, by its very nature, is difficult to analyze and almost impossible to convey to others. The pink-white building of Old College, guarded by those six gleaming brass guns taken at Waterloo, the Chapel lined with memorials to fallen officers, the traditional parades and ceremonies of the Academy: all these exercise their own pervasive Influence.”115

Atmosphere is a spiritual quality. In its totality, it is made up of intangibles that can only be felt. It is achieved by identifying the spirit conducive for the productive interaction of the forces and variables of the – individual, the society and situation in a way that will encourage the individuals and corporate units or cells of society to contribute expertise and energy in the pursuit of predetermined objectives aimed at solving significant problems.

Effective leadership presupposes identifying anticipating situation and predetermining or improvising responses to them.

In leading with the human factor the leader should know what should happen, should anticipate what should likely happen, should anticipate any eventualities and set in motions systems, and institutions and policies to avoid, counter or solve them.

115 Adair John 1988 Developing Leaders: The Ten Key Principles: Maidenhead Berkshire McGrawHill p. 73

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


208

Problems of atmosphere must be taken seriously by leadership before minor problems become major problems and major problems become critical or chronic problems. Leadership must ensure that it communicates a clear policy and takes a clear position on proper behavior of members of the society, be it a group, a nation state, company or empire.

In the final analysis, the leader must find a workable and beneficial equilibrium between the interests of the leader, the interest of the society and interest of the situation and keeps the welfare of the society and his social concern in balance.

Creating and maintaining the right atmosphere in the leadership function that aims at.

(a) Building trust and cooperateness within and between the organization/society and it’s members and institution.

(b) Building and enhancing individual, cooperate and organizational competence, efficiency and effectiveness.

(c) Building and promoting attitude plus spirit and installing common sense of value in the pursuit of objective, in the analysis of problems.

All these are essential to the development of

requisite atmosphere vital to achieve and sustain leadership with impact.

How a leader performs these twelve concrete functions, how he/she interacts them with the six

CONCRETE FUNCTIONS


209

elemental functions, how the social forces at work at a critical situation interact with themselves singularly, severally and collectively, and the character of their moving equilibrium largely determines a leader’s effectiveness.

In matters of social constitution wrote Alexis Tocquille, the possibilities of structures are infinite. Leaders must recognize that they are playing with change. That nothing is constant in society. Even if the members of the society they govern remain the same over a period of time, their moods, their morals, their character, their attitude will change in response to various circumstances they may encounter.

In that regard in the discharge of these function, a leader must be flexible, creative and resourceful; must use his/her resourceful mind to sensitize the community, top be sensitive to the needs of the society, the individuals who make up society, the competing social groups, their interests, and seek ingenious ways to meet their needs. Sensitivity is vital.

It is in the understanding and interaction of these twelve functions with the elements of the organizational MOLE – Management, Organization, Leadership and Entrepreneurship that effective leadership is achieved, that society is developed, that individual members of society develop confidence in leadership and in themselves, and achieve the cooperate objective that is set by the leadership.

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


210

PART V

ELEMENTAL

FUNCTIONS OF

LEADERSHIP

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


211

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


212

22

The Functions of Leadership Part II Elemental Functions of Leadership

While the concrete functions define in broad terms what leaders and leadership do or ought to do or be doing, the elemental functions define basic activities by which leaders perform concrete leadership functions. They are as follows:

Mapping

Sitting down, engaging the mind in strategic thinking, reflecting for the purpose of “programming the activity that will establish the reality of a vision; engaging the forces of mental calculations, mental assertions, mental coordination of facts; collation of factors that make for the reality of what you are dreaming about; developing a dream; Defining the vision by which the objective would be defined

The definition of the “What” should be done, “Where” we should head to rather than “How” which The mapping function of leadership represents the function of setting the societal values, its direction and aspirations, developing a perspective, establishing approximations, positions, determining and setting the strategic direction of the group, business or society; creating a coherent and articulate framework and paradigm and principles for action. It involves the process of “Contriving” and describing of a vision, setting direction; “Shopping” for alternatives in light of a mental or systemic analysis to obtain sustainable competitive advantage; develop a comprehensive agenda. Mapping involves the reflection and performance of “environmental scanning”, “mental programming” to ascertain direction, decision and purpose. This is what Management “Planning” is not.

1. Mobilizing:

Establish structural infrastructural foundations, that things are organized by Managers, empower by providing the tools needed by the various tasks, and inspire the people

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


213

Mobilizing is the leadership responsibility of making society act in a particular way, towards a particular direction, for the attainment of a particular purpose or objective. To achieve this requires “mobilization” (logistics, modalities, machinery of governments, mechanisms, institutions, structures) vital for the operative dynamism.” Convention” rallying society towards communicating it to the need and necessity for objective, encouraging contribution, “Education” training, role, purpose and vision communication, skill development, communicating energy, excitement and meaningful interest, building commitment to vision, service consciousness, develop intra-social sense of responsibility, unity of purpose, of mission and philosophy within the society, establish team and team building systems (TBS), sen-sitizing awareness about role and situational realities and means to transform society, social engineering, the imperative of participation and co-operation, encouraging skill and moral contri-bution, “Motivating and inspiring” by conduct and by example, spirit, skill, fear or incentives; “Equipping” the “force” or group with all the moral and material, political, social, psychological and economic resource; “Empowerment” to ensure desirable and meaningful performance. Channeling and controlling feelings constructively to the three forces and needs realities and towards more productive pursuits. Instill and reinforcing values, taking trouble to act decisively and realistically.

2. Directing:

Empower; give Managers the Mandate to carry out the Assignments, provide examples, and communicate their map, the “what should be done.”

To direct means “Mandating” people to carry out decisions, prosecute their on professional initiatives or both; promote a sense of urgency for more work, vigilance, more initiatives, energy and setting an example; to exercise “responsibility over” “responsibility for” and “responsibility with” the group and society; ”Monitor” feedback systems, “Oversee” activities or even main a “presence” even in your absence by setting objectives and examples, a common sense of value and responsibility; “Communicate” effec-

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


214

tively these expectations, with a view to convert the forces and energies of society to meeting the needs of those factors.

4. Aligning

Correct errors of omission, commission, principle, Structure, Strategy, improvise in changing situations, Innovate, sanction activities such as rewarding excellence and punishing non-perform-ance.

Aligning is the leadership function here the leader implements “Correction” measures, be it on errors of omission, errors of commission, complementary errors, errors of principle, structure, or of function: mapping, mobilizing, directing or even timing. Correcting deviants from ideals or goals.

Aligning is “Sanction”: orchestrating sanction systems to reward, to punish, to give and receive same on group’s behalf.

Aligning includes the cultivating, developing and servicing progressive “Alliances and Networks” relationships, associations, affiliations, connections, mergers that will enhance achievement, productivity, capacity and actualization of goals and purposes in the long and short runs.

Aligning is “Educating”: creating avenues where society can be educated or educate themselves about its role in the leadership process and ensuring a proper definition of this role and a unified concept of its role and that of the leader in the contexts of the situations that evolve.

Aligning is the function of rewarding excellence, reprimanding incompetence and negative behaviors, working the system of prerogative of mercy, operating a strong network of informal relationships, promoting uniformity or role and perception at least in the approach to a particular need, promoting amity, trust, dialogue and “resolution” of conflicts; “Improvising” to respond

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


215

adequately to changes and novel situations and impromptu demands on your leadership, to the new realities in the factors of leader, society and situation as well as in the functional imperatives. Conflict resolution, seeking collective objectives, ensuring a beneficial distribution and control of organizational resources, a beneficial view of decision value towards favored goal amidst competing ends; engaging in power systems towards building dominant coalitions, responding to shifting balance of interests and power; balancing needs for cooperation and the need for confrontation; balancing structural equivalence: the alternative and competing sub-structures in a social system, with the functional equivalence: alternative solutions to a given problem.

The aligning functional process involves: to correct, sanction, network, improvise and resolve.

5. Synchronizing

Synchronizing is the leadership function where the leader “harmonizes” the workings and effects of the three factors of leader, society and situation; superintend direct factors with indirect factors be they social, political, moral, economic, envi-ronmental or what have you; to create a consistently working coalition. It is ensuring that efficiency “couples” effectiveness and vice versa; ensuring “Congruence” between programme and reality, between mapping and planning, between organization and mobilizing; Mental and physical coordination of activities.

Finding a “Balance” between competing interest and stakeholders on a consistent basis; ensuring a fusion between functions and form, forces and needs, structure and strategy; ensuring the presence and function of the organizational MOLE elements (Management, Organization, Leadership and Enterpre-neurship); balancing the deterministic and opportunistic elements of an enterprise; resolving tensions caused by changes in performing the aligning function of leadership; locating strengths and weaknesses in operation and function and “Optimizing” their relationships and/or “maximizing” the outcome of the interaction of the forces of the leader, society and situation to meeting the factor need; maintaining a focus; a united sense of value, goal and ideal;

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


216

aiming at eliminating incompetent interferences, overcoming negative variables of the three factors, “Matching” policy with practice and concept with reality.

Synchronize is to harmonize, balance, optimize, maximize, congruence, match factors and forces in the meeting of needs within the three factors of leadership context.

6. Consolidating

The leadership function of consolidating involves “Institutionalizing” of progressive values and cultures; of change, initiatives, innovations and principles; “Maintaining” commitment, continuity; “Actualizing” goals, developing competitive abilities, seizing opportunities, “Reproduce” leadership abilities, develop new forces and needs within the leadership factors, “entrench” make to become part of the social structure; establish “Progression”, make “Invincible”, create renaissance, renewal; “Modernize” restructure, re-orient, take advantage of new developments, technologies, skills, competencies and disciplines; moving society forward to ensure that its competitiveness in the modern scheme of things.

Consolidating involves, “Institutionalizing, maintaining, actualizing, changing, reproducing, making invincible, modernizing and ensuring progression.

To execute Leadership creditably:

1. We need to establish stronger relationship with the members of the executive organization

2. Identify the leadership roles and persona and wisely bring their attention to their leadership role in achieving the expected results inherent in your strategic goal.

3. Be professional, pleasant and practical

4. Be competent, committed and confident

5. Take risks and encourage your organization members to take reasonable risks

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


217

6. Tap from the information bank provided by information technology, which has increased access to new technologies in various fields, using these to broaden your vision and speeding up your development cycle.

7. Be conscious of your leadership role and responsibility and that of everyone in the organization and influence, train or develop them in their doing of it.

Most times, organizations fail or the wise counsel and beautiful structures put in place by Management Consultants result in nothing because the spirit, the leadership is absent in the execution of their counsel.

Management consultants have to bring the attention of their clients not only to what have to be done to get the excellent result, high profit performance and greater growth and productivity which they demand and dream of to the inescapable fact that if leadership responsibilities required to actualize a management consultant’s advice is not done, the whole system put in place may not achieve the desired results.

This requires the management consultant to go an extra mile within the dictates of time and resource, to incorporate leadership systems and strategies in their program to get results.

It requires

• Bringing to everyone’s attention short term and long term perspectives and opportunities, threats, strengths and weakness of a certain line of and/or program action or vision or business

• Building our competence to understand our business intimately and enabling both members within and customers outside, indeed stakeholders to develop new visions that exploits and enables you to exploit emerging markets and technologies.

• Making “Get Results” your objective and demonstrating concern for the overall welfare of the staff and management of your organization

• Showing that you are human and intelligent

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


218

• Building up your future advantage today

All these require professionalism and discipline.

Management consultants have become scapegoats. Only the activation of leadership consulting practices in the performance of our roles can earn us that credibility, performance and respect we deserve.

ELEMENTAL FUNCTIONS


219

THE MAKING OF LEADERS

PART VI: LEADERSHIP IN THE REAL WORLD S

220

PART VI

Leadership

In the

Real World



221

”It seems to me inevitable that the struggle to maintain cooperation among men should as surely destroy some men morally as battle destroys some physically. When considering cases of failure where there are enough facts available to warrant a judgment, it has seemed clear to me that in most of them the cause was promotion beyond capacity as respects ability, not initial lack of responsibility or inferior morality”

(Barnard C.I. 1938 p.278).



222

23 The Making Of Leaders

All kinds of personalities emerge as leaders. Sane and mad, the

weird and sophisticated, the local and the civilized; all have become leaders. The great, the small, the rich and the poor, the wise, the foolish and the not so wise, the young and the old; all have either emerged as leaders or been thrust into leadership by circumstances, or have taken the responsibility for leadership on their own initiative, after discovering that the total situation, and the equilibrium of social and situational forces were in favor of their emergence as leaders. Proof of this fact is borne out by research, history or even a careless observation of contemporary events, or of any social organization – group, society, department, state or nation - today.

Among these leaders we have visionaries: men and women driven internally by a mental picture of a future, who live their lives in unorthodox ways, who seek orthodox explanations for unorthodox behaviors; men and women seized by dreams that enable them to walk through the mud of life with desire and disregard; who go to strain to achieve the glorious end on which they have set their minds; the radar by which they pilot their lives and that of those they control or seek of control.

They walk the streets with their spirit high, their heads raised, their minds focused, or focusing on a distant glory; their eyes set far. They look like psychological misfits, or people from another planet or world; or as individuals who are yet to come to grips with the reality and pragmatism of this world. While they wonder why the world is so blind, dumb, and unable to see or grasp the obvious and simple opportunity before them.

They bet their lives and their joy on attaining their dreams. They may be lucky if they attain their dreams in degrees, if success embraces them very easily. But some wait long. The world they desire to convert so urgently is in a trance, in transit or flux.

When men as these are in the corporate suite, or at the head of an army, a laboratory, a church or a government, they drive men



223

forward because they themselves are driven. They make men believe and achieve the impossible, or failing that, the exceptional. They demonstrate contradictions, robustness and panache in their reactions and behaviors. They speak in glowing terms about their vision as if it is heaven they are describing. They are completely enveloped by their dream; thoroughly consumed by the passion of their vision; totally enflamed by the objective purpose they believe destiny or the society in which they belong, set for them.

They may be wrong, and when they are, only God can help the society they lead, if they have the power to remain and so decide. Social forces will submit at their knees. They believe in domination, in resilience in the face of challenge. If they are evil, they spread evil butter on the bread of society and feaces on the situation. If they have good intention, of what use is it if they fail. That is how society reacts to them.

If they fail and they give up, they become wrecks and recluse; their moral capacity is destroyed, they lose faith in organization, faith in men, faith in life and some, faith in God.

Nevertheless, leadership requires the self-motivation that is essential to design purpose and set objectives - the star in the sky by which the destinies of men, organizations, societies and even nations can be charted.

Some among them are revolutionaries who believe in the need for drastic change and realignment. Some are evolutionaries who also believe in the need for change, but accept that such changes can only be achieved gradually over a long period of time.

Some are neither leaders nor visionaries; some are neither revolutionaries nor evolutionaries and are thrust into positions of leadership, but lack the ability to provide the thrust and impetus for social development of the people they lead.

They depend on soulless purpose and uninspiring objectives set by nature or social forces to guide them. They ride through rough seas without maps or compass. These are they at mercy of social and situational forces; these are they that lack the personal



224

character required to understand the demands of leadership functions on the intellect and character of the leader. These are they who lack the personality and character to withstand tension, stress, complex morality, high responsibility and complexity inherent in the leadership role.

Others have visions but lack the social resources to achieve their vision. Forces external wrestle against them. They feel conspired against, and at times, give up on their dreams. Such is leadership in the real world.

It is like the rainbow: Many colours upon the morning landscape. The brighter the sun, the brighter and more glorious the rainbow. Such is leadership in the real world.

Many societies are asleep. Many are dumb, while some are blind, some are crippled and others deaf.

Those asleep do not hear their leader’s charge that they should move and possess the Promised Land. They see no red badge of courage, nor do they desire any medal of honor. They frustrate their leaders and exert no force or intellect to change their bleak existence or future; tranquilized to sleep, in vain do their leaders rouse them.

Those that are dumb, lack the moral courage and physical faculty to communicate to their leader their minds or lack the capacity for democratic temper, and so, may suffer dictators to rule and tyranny to triumph, or give up on social and situational forces, unless providence delivers a leader that can cure their dumbness.

Those that are blind, such societies cannot see the beautiful world, the wonderful vision, and the lofty heights their unlucky leader points at them.

Those that are deaf, see the leader’s hand but cannot hear his charge, his high sounding inspirationals, hence, they lack faith. They do not believe anything. If only their leaders could give them hearing aids. They lack focus and when they have any at all, it is a selfish inner focus that leaves society no better.



225

The cripple crawl. They are unable to join hands with their leaders to fight the devil and evil to achieve the good they desire. They capture the vision, they desire to move, but resources are lacking, morale or morality is lacking. When they forcefully move, it is by sheer force of will.

All these are led by men. How enviable, how unenviable is the lives and lot of leaders in the real world.

LEADERSHIP IN ACTION


226

24 Leadership In Action

Social organization is much more than “a system of consciously

coordinated activities or forces of two or more persons.”116 (Barnard C. I. P.73)

This is because objective and subjective forces are at work in social organizations; conscious and unconscious forces, personal and impersonal activities are involved; coordinated and coordinating activities and forces are involved; resolving and conflicting forces are involved; dynamism and mechanisms are involved; local and general forces are involved; forces in the common sense of the word, and forces in the specific and remote sense of the word are involved; material and moral forces are involved; functional and dysfunctional forces are involved; structural and moral aspects, spiritual and material elements, objective and subjective components, all these play their part – concrete parts – in what we call organization.

“Organizations are systemic and asystemic cooperative, cooperating entities involving persons and forces of man, society and situation – consciously constructed or emergent and evolving to serve purposes in time.”

All these bring us to the question: How do we enact leadership? How do you operationalize leadership? In other words, How do you put leadership to work?

We have identified the twelve concrete functions and six elemental functions of leadership. We have taken cognizance of the nature of man, society and situation. The duty of any leader is to exert the utmost sagacity on the forces of the man, society and situation to meet the needs of the man/leader, society and situation.

116 Barnard C. (1938), Functions of the Executive: Cambridge Massachusetts. Harvard University Press (p.73).



227

In performing this function, the leader must segregate the dominant and dominating forces and variables, and exercise judgment on their effects and likely impact on the total situation over a specific time; and as it relates to specific goals and purposes to which leadership action relates or will relate; identify in the process

1. The laws of the man/individual/leader

2. The laws of the society or organization - internal

3. The laws of the situation - external environment and events

Identifying the law of the situation as advised by Mary Parker

Follett is not enough. A leader must decide what personal principles and social constitution must guide his behaviour in a particular situation. He must decide on the significant morality and responsibility that will guide his behaviour and determining the significant factors and forces to create an environment of cooperative effort in the direction of the goals and purpose critical to leadership. He must take cognizance of the social norms and cultural and political laws at work in the society he operates in and in the larger society with which his organization interacts.

To achieve this

1. the leader (the society and situation) must change a part to affect the whole

2. This can be accomplished by

(i) changing the man/individual/leader and/or

(ii) changing the society and/or

(iii) Changing the situation.

3. The change of one strategic variable of any of the leadership factors changes its force and changes the total relationship of forces in the total situation. Securing an equilibrium that will enable cooperation to be secured from contributors /followers and members of the organization in the pursuit of dynamic purpose is what leadership effectiveness is.



228

4. The leader must locate and operationalize the hierarchy of factors that will best suit the total situation.

Factors of leadership – man/individual, society and situation are

arranged in hierarchies of relative potency. There are six hierarchies of factors:

Operationalizing as a leader, the right hierarchy at a material social situation that best suits the demands of the three factors and of the objectives is what determines effectiveness and quality in leadership performance.

In using his personal laws and values, the leader must ensure that he does not overreach or overestimate himself. According to Samuel Johnson, “Almost every man wastes part of his life in attempts to display qualities he does not possess,”

Leadership is complicated by the elements of the leadership triad. In an essay on Ramsay MacDonald, Harold Wilson, Ex Prime Minister of Britain wrote that “any…leader’s task would be complicated by the week by week and, at times, almost hour by hour requirement to keep his party together and driving to the same goal. Even if the broad strategy of policy is agreed, there will be those who want to move more rapidly and others who will want to move more slowly to the desired objective. A still deeper division would exist between the “ideologists and theologians” who seek a fundamentalist approach, and the more moderate,

Leader

Society

Situation

Leader

Society

Situation

Leader

Society

Situation

Leader

Society

Situation

Leader

Society

Situation

Leader

Society

Situation

1 2 3 4 5 6



229

pragmatic group, no less idealistic but less prone to determine the reaction of any situation in terms of relevance to some ultimate state of society.”117

Leaders are human beings and as such cannot escape the realities of their humanness. Even when the myth of infallibility and the mystique of invulnerability and invincibility have been entrenched, the cult of personality gives way eventually to the cult of reality.

Society, groups and organizations allow for the realities of human nature in their leaders. Nevertheless, they believe that those who present themselves for leadership or occupy leadership positions must demonstrate commensurate responsibility with ability and commensurate ability with their responsibility and privilege. They should enjoy the privilege, if they so wish, but should discharge and bear the responsibility their position demands, especially in performing effectively the imperatives of the twelve concrete leadership functions.

Your human frailties as a leader will be tolerated provided you act in good faith and are seen to act in good faith; you achieve substantial results that will ensure hope in your leadership. People will respond when they have faith in your competence, when you have lieutenants who will work and complement your skills and areas of strength and when you have sufficient success to use to instill hope in future success or counter failures or criticisms.

You are bound to make mistakes in the performance of concrete leadership functions and in the processual functions. Your are bound to have deficiencies in terms of personal qualities and professional knowledge in certain areas. Your strength may be much, so is your weakness, and so also, the lesser leaders and various individuals and cellular organizations. Everyone has inner and outer contradictions and conflicts. These are characteristic fact of human nature and social organizations.

117 Harold Wilson, House of Commons 16 January, 1964 (Hansard Vol. 687, Col. 427-52), address to the Press Club in Washington, 1, April 1963 (text in Harold Wilson, Purpose In Politics. Selected Speeches, London, 1964 pp. 214-215, House of Commons, 31 January 1963 (Hansard Vol. 670 Col. 1236-50)



230

When you act in your leadership to the best of your ability and can demonstrate sufficient results, people will follow you. Perfection is not part of the demands of the leadership role. Nobody expects you to be perfect, but they expect you to perform, whatever you may do or be.

One fact you must agree with to deliver yourself from untold moral and psychological stress and exhaustion is that “those who vow to do good should not expect people to clear the stones from their path on this account. They must expect the contrary: that others will roll great boulders down on them. Such obstacles can be overcome only by the kind of strength gained in the very struggle. Those who merely resent obstacles will waste whatever force they have.” Says Albert Schweitzer.

LEADERSHIP IN THE REAL WORLD


231

25

Leadership In the Real World

Leaders do not lead from the pages of a book or newspaper, or from theories carried as pocketbooks guiding them in practice. They lead in concrete situation and societies in the real world. They deal with concrete individuals, concrete groups and forces, concrete situations that exhibit all the characteristics - and potentials for others – of social organization in varying degrees. The leader’s personality, the personality of the society and the personality of the situation all contribute elements to his leadership.

Leadership is simple. It is exercising judgment on the total situation and then locating strategic factors – Strategic individual/leader factor (SLF), Strategic Society/Group factor (SSF), and strategic situational factor (SXF) and identifying part of the whole you can use as strategic remedial factor (SRF) and/or strategic integrating factor (SIF) - to change the relation of the part to the whole and by extension the total situation, in pursuit of a beneficial outcome.

To lead,

1. Identify primarily the twelve concrete functions of leadership and their equivalents in your leadership situation and exert the 6 elemental energy in performing them;

2. Exert energy and attention in performing the functions using the elemental functions of leadership in executing the function in any pattern you deem necessary as dictated by the law of the total organization – laws of the individual, society and situation;

3. Perform such functions effectively and efficiently by employing:

(a) habits of effectiveness (HOE1) and (b) habits of efficiency (HOE2).



232

The habits of effectiveness involves the 3Rs: (i) the right thing – locating, applying the right skills

and doing it,

(ii) the right time – acting promptly, scheduling time appropriately for tasks and activities and people,

(iii) the right place – at the right situation or physical place.

The habits of effectiveness are the same for any task and in any social situation. The habits of efficiency involves: (i) applying the right skills in doing a task or carrying

out an activity,

(ii) applying the right sense of proportion – of time, material, morals, responsibility and forces of man, society and situation - necessary to achieve goals,

(iii) Obtaining the right utilities and distributing it rightly.

Although Philip Selznick(1957) queried, “Should efficiency be

the central concern of the President of a university or a large business, the head of a government agency or the director of a voluntary association? Are we getting at what is truly basic in the experience of institutional leaders?…The logic of efficiency loses force, however, as we approach the top or pyramid,”118 it is important to note that effectiveness and efficiency are vital to whatever purpose or task or action a leader or individual or even organizations – including nations and institutions - decide to follow or take.

To lead the organization, the leader must first and foremost (a) lead the executive organization 118 Selznick, P. (1957) Introduction to Leadership In Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. Barkeley, Califonia: University of Califonia Press



233

(b) give the organization a sense of direction by:

(i) stating the goals, vision and mission,

(ii) defining and projecting an encompassing moral code that will articulate organizational image – how it will and should be seen in the eyes of members and of the world.

(iii) Entrench him/herself in the community of elite or network of leaders of the larger society to which his/her organization is but a compartment, a competitor for value.

It is when the executive organization is created or constituted of competent members, when objectives are clear and visions are communicated effectively and the encompassing image is internalized, that members of a social organization can decide either to contribute to the realization of such goals and mission, to remain indifferent about them, or to organize against it. While external members of the larger society can choose either to participate/contribute, remain indifferent or organize against it.

Leaders must articulate and communicate an attractive purpose, or like the army in war, an unattractive purpose in attractive terms. They must articulate a vision, a desirable future and outcome – in the quest for cooperation and action - that will capture the imagination of members of his/her social organization.

When objectives are clear, when visions are clearly communicated and captured, when purposes are effectively communicated and the image of the organization is visibly stated, individual members can contribute energy and are empowered by these elements of moral action – purpose, image, vision and moral code – to contribute energy towards a goal, as they are aware of the purpose, they have a proper sense of direction for what they do and what they can do towards their realization.

In this regard, a leader must have the capacity to communicate either by words or deeds or both. Action speaks louder than voice in certain instances. However, at certain times, action becomes void of power and meaning and blunt of effect when devoid of



234

words, when men are set on fire by the inspirational powers in the words of positive minded leaders.

All these bring us to the influence of psychology on the total situation.

Leaders are psychological beings; societies have distinct psychological character from its members or individuals or cellular organizations; and situations have psychologies of their own; and there is the psychology of the total situation resulting from the interdependence, interaction and equilibrium of the active psychologies of the three psychologies of the three leadership factors and of itself.

Leadership is therefore influenced by two kinds of behaviour: (1) The progressive leadership behaviour and (2) Repressive Leadership Behaviour.

PROGRESSIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

This is any act or behaviour of the leader (and/or society and/or situation that results in a positive outcome and contributes towards goal and mission achievement in a positive way.)

REGRESSIVE LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOUR

This is any act or behaviour of the leader (and/or society and/or situation) that results in a negative outcome and distances a significant part or the social organization as a whole from the realization of its goal and purpose.

What is progressive and what is regressive behaviour can be analyzed in the light of the short and long-term impact of such behaviour and when attitudes, moralities, responsibility culture and situation are analyzed and observed. In point of fact, what is regressive in one society or leadership situation may be the reverse in another.

In that regard, the pursuit of self-interest is not necessarily regressive, because the individual is a vital component of factor of



235

consideration in social organization and leadership. However, it becomes regressive behaviour when self-interest is pursued at the total exclusion or marginalization of organizational interest.

It is in the interest of a leader to use power to maintain his personal relevance in a social situation; to seek to protect his integrity in the face of assault on his moral and political integrity. It is regressive behaviour to refuse to groom successors or develop leaders in an organization; or fail to delegate properly or not at all, simply because of the fear of being outwitted by executives.

Leaders who develop leaders, gain more power, more influence and respect than those who do not. Their organizations grow under their collective leadership as the leader's capacity and the abilities of the individuals are heightened and encouraged to contribute to the development of the whole. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VIRUS

Leaders influence their followers and followers influence their leaders. This two-way influence is usually stronger when the organization’s mission and the leader’s ability to communicate his vision in a metaphor that will capture the essence of the times is strong and apt. Followers imbibe a leadership's lifestyle values. When the values imbibed are positive and constructive they are referred to as charismatic or charisma, but if such values are negative or are destructive, like that of Adolf Hitler, they impact on the psyche of the followers the way viruses impact on people’s bodies, hence the reference to them as ‘psychological virus’.

The psychological virus - that attractive and exciting essence in a leader’s idiosyncrasy behavior and attitude that followers are inspired or aspire to, copy, exhibit or mimic - is the major cause of what Arnold Toynbet in his classic study of "History" refers to as 'mimesis' - the process which people mimic their leaders.

Psychological viruses attack followers are the result of



236

a. patterns of behaviour and values of the leader which he projects or is judged by the society/followers as attractive and ideal.

b. This behaviour or trait is presented in and inspiring height.

c. Its constant reaffirmation and infallibility create an attractive mental consciousness and representation.

d. This trait is associated with positive results and achievements.

e. Followers imbibe and imitate by osmosis these attitudes and behaviors because of their charismatic or archived values; or its social, or moral values psychological.

The psychological virus is the attractive or predominant behavior or idiosyncrasy of a leader, which is exhibited and imbibed by the followers. It may be morally right or immoral. Leaders reproduce themselves in their followers. When the leader’s are defective in character or behavior, such behavior is what is imbibed, it represent a destructive virus that will eventually eat up the cultural foundation and stability of such leadership and society making them unable to respond to demands of social situations.

It is therefore important for leaders to demonstrate by their conduct, the behaviors that will sustain their organization and improve their civilization, rather than promote self-glorifying, edifices and men without their own minds and conviction.

PRINCIPLES OF LEADERSHIP BEHAVIOR


237

26 Principles Of

Leadership Behaviour

Individual behaviour, social behaviour and situational behaviour have impact across the whole organization – on the leader, on the society and on the situation. They function as an organic whole, and change in one affect and cause change in the other.

Leaders act based on their assumptions about human nature and societies as well as about individuals and the strategic factor they believe is at work in a particular situation.

Circular behaviour theory (Mary Parker Follett), Pygmalion effect, the self-fulfilling prophecy and frustration theories (JAC Brown and Argyris) and concepts and assumptions about human nature, all play their part in leadership and lead to the following principles of leadership behaviour.

1. Regressive leadership behavior leads to regressive followership behaviour and vice versa.

2. Progressive leadership behaviour leads to progressive followership behaviour and vice versa.

3. Regressive organizational behaviour leads to regressive leadership and situational behaviour and vice versa.

4. Progressive organizational behaviour leads to progressive organizational results, progressive leadership, and situational behaviour and vice versa.

5. Regressive leader/individual behaviour leads to regressive society behaviour and regressive situational behaviour.

6. Progressive leader/individual behaviour leads to progressive society behaviour and progressive situational behaviour

7. Regressive society behaviour leads to regressive leader behaviour and regressive situational behaviour.



238

8. Regressive society behaviour leads to regressive leader behaviour and regressive situational behaviour.

9. Regressive situational behaviour leads to regressive leader behaviour and regressive situational behaviour.

10. Progressive situational behaviour leads to progressive leader behaviour and progressive social behaviour.

11. Regressive organizational behaviour leads to Regressive external world reaction/behaviour and to progressive external chain reaction.

12. Progressive organizational behaviour leads to progressive external world reaction/behaviour and to progressive external chain reaction.

13. Society and situations are regressive in tendency

14. Proactivity in leadership behaviour and progressiveness holds the balance of force in the total behavioral equation.

15. Rationalization is the process where the forces of progressive or regressive behaviour are given faith, providing conviction of rightness of behaviour or effect, or, destroyed or demobilized in psychological terms, giving the rationalizer the moral and psychological power to reverse the behaviour itself or the effect.

Regressive behaviour is the cancer that destroys leaders, the

society they lead, the situation in which they lead and events through which they lead.

“Action and reaction, says Isaac Newton, “are equal and opposite." The duty and challenge of the leader is to avoid the “regressive trap” and impact on his behaviour influenced by the regressive behaviour in the other two factors – society and situation – by introducing progressive elements such as faith, hope, positive decision, good naturedness, focus on areas of strength and on purpose, by ensuring constitutional action/reaction, principles, humanity, pragmatism and mature response into the total situation to change the outcome in its favor and to turn regressive behaviour



239

to progressive behaviour in himself and in the other two factors; heightening the progressive potentials in the society and situation.

This is done by focusing the society on forces and areas of strengths, on areas of common interest and common purpose, on integrity of intent and past action, by aligning social disequilibrium and introducing new strategic factors into the organizational social and total equation and principally, by satisfying individual motives and sharing - if not equitably, commensurate to contribution - the results and benefits of cooperation to contributors and members of the organization providing them better utility and sense of belonging.

Whatever hierarchy of leadership factors you adapt, ensure that it is capable of satisfying the needs of their vital interest and/or is able to give hope of future benefit from the cooperation, otherwise, prepare for regressive behaviour and conflicts of mild or revolutionary proportions. This is because organization is intrinsically transactional.

Leadership must do all within its power to be progressive, as society and situation are inherently regressive in character and tendency. Progress attitudes are interpreted within the larger values of the wider society

Strong leadership is a characterization given to a leadership that is strong and consistent in the use of power, a leadership that has gained ascendancy over the forces of the man, the society and the situation.

As a leader, you need to be strong – retain the ability to function in an environment of complex morality, high responsibility and high activity.

You need to discover what powers you have in your personality, what powers you have constitutionally or situationally and use them through progressive leadership behaviors to exert influence on the total social process and situation to achieve whatever task, mission, vision or goals you or society or situation may contrive.



240

“Leadership in a democratic army means firmness, not harshness; justice not licence; understanding, not intolerance; generosity not selfishness; pride not egotism” says Gen. Omar N. Bradley.119

Strong leadership is strong in communication, strong in operationalising political processes; strong in the exertion of effort towards specific purpose; optimizes its authority in performing leadership roles, by exerting its contribution on all leadership indices; by sustaining authority, by effective performance and attainment of set goals; strong in coping with the stresses inherent in the executive function.

Look for parts you can act upon to influence the whole.

As a leader you have to (1) Watch people individually, (2) Deal with groups as groups, (3) Deals with the total situation, (3r4) understand that the paradoxes in dealing with the part as well as the whole is a central demand on a Leader’s moral capacity.

Leadership involves the following social processes.(1) The process of thinking/ reflecting, (2) The process of scanning, (3) The process of decision, (4) The process of communication, (5) The process of timing & scheming of moves, (6) The process of acting, and (7) The process of resting.

To lead effectively a Leader must apply the “DARTS Principle.”

v D - Decide and judge, delegate v A – Act v R – Rest and Reflect v T – Think and Train v S – Scan and Strategize DECIDE

Decide on what vision to pursue, what subsidiary goals to pursue in the immediate circumstance; what mode of 119 Gen. Omar N. Bradley, quoted by Gen. Westmoreland in a speech at Abilene Texas 1971



241

communication to adopt, what individual to employ into the executive, which executive to select for promotion or delegation, what action to take, what part to act on to move and affect the whole. As a leader, you must decide issues even if the decision is not to decide. You have to delegate to (a) secure economies of input (b) economies of time (c) economies of output (d) economies of resources (e) economies of skill (f) economies of force and authority etc.

The act of decision may be rational or instinctive or a combination of both.

In the pursuit of decision imperatives, it is important that organizational ends dominate the leader which itself has to be determined through the act or acts of decision.

The act of decision is affected by the authority, capacity and psychology of the leader to decide; to locate strategic factors; it is affected by social decision internalized into the organizational ethos like constitutions, culture and it is affected by situational decision which is abstract and involves the realities surrounding the moment of decision.

Leaders make organizationally relevant decisions to serve organizational ends. This is where leaders fail. (1) They avoid making decisions, (2) they make wrong or improper decisions, (3) they make right decisions and apply wrong decision in implementing them, (4) they make decisions improperly (5) they make other people’s decisions for them, (6) they make decisions untimely or execute them untimely.

THE OPERATION OF DECISION

Leaders – executives and non-executives, take decisions alike – by logical and non-logical methods.

Decisions are operationalized by verbal and written communication. To decide a concrete decision that would be communicated, many subsidiary decisions would need to be made in most cases. In seeking for decisions, leaders should:



242

1. Make organizational decisions

2. Ensure that organizational decisions are made in line with purpose – organizational purpose

3. Base decisions on the definition of the forces of the man, society and situation

4. Operationalize organizational decision making process – organizational DARTS – ensure that those who should be involved in making a particular decision are involved

5. Locate the strategic factor, the part that can be changed to change the nature and character of the whole organization or total situation for the better

6. Access the elite competition and impact on his decisions;

7. Communicate decisions to the right points or cells as the nucleus and at the right time to operationalize decisions

ACT

In the implementation of decision, the concrete purpose and environment exert forces of their own.

Action is the organizational act of receiving energy from contributors in a social situation – internal and external – in the pursuit of organizational purpose, operationalizing decision and exerting organizational authority on contributors to secure utility in the total situation.

Leadership action involves three aspects:

- leader’s/individual action - Social action and - Situational action.

The leader’s action comes in the taking and communication of decision as orders; in granting authority; in rewarding a conduct; in receiving authority; in accepting responsibility, in executing sanction, in robustness of behaviour if need be.



243

Social action is visible by what it exerts its concrete cooperate energy on and by what purpose it chooses to exert social resources and processes on and from either as a part or as a whole, by the equilibrium of social forces in the direction of a particular social constitution.

In doing this, leaders perform the imperatives and demands of the three laws and their synthesis; Acting to perform leadership tasks and functions and to delegate authority and responsibility to competent and developing followers; to respond to the demands of the total situation, acting to meet the needs of the three factors. Action is synthetic, as decision is synthetic.

Situational action limits the scope leadership and social action can be focused and represents the boundaries of action available to them. It represents the action of the external environment on the organization.

REST

Effective leaders must learn the attitude of rest. Rest increases the energy vital to cope with complex morality and conflicts of values and positions in the exercise of morality; restores energy needed to function in positions of high responsibility and high activity.

Most leaders become morally bankrupt, psychologically incompetent and physically drained because of stress inherent in the exercise of the leadership function; the stress involved in thinking through the environment of decision, in determining the strategic factor; in operating in an environment of complex morality; in operating in an environment of intense paradoxes, contradiction and conflicts; stresses involved in fashioning strategies, means to achieve desirable ends; stresses in segregating progressive purposes and redefining purpose, ways and means in a changing world; stresses inherent in taking morally difficult decisions, in the need to respond to hostile action by resorting to punitive actions even to the point of dismissal, incarcerating or execution of culprit; stresses in the inability to give sufficient time and attention to family; stresses involved in hearing and/or



244

responding to criticisms – be they constructive or destructive; stresses in the feeling of being betrayed by close associates at a critical time on critical issues; stresses resulting from the frustrations inherent in responding to regressive behaviors in individuals, cellular organizations and the external environment; stresses and frustrations involved in the discovery that in the attempt to bring success to the organization or society, to the situation and to one’s self and leadership, people and systems create failures for you, and failure when you are seeking success hurts the psyche, hurts the body, tears it to pieces and turns the mind into tartars unless rationalized, by the use of thoughts, by keeping your mind off tension areas, by developing capacity to function under pressure and in environments of conflicting personal and organizational moral codes – by developing high morality.

It is your duty to avoid stress-prone activities and habits. What may cause stress for one individual may differ from that of another. But usually it is connected to capacity to function in arenas of conflicts of codes, with the fact of personal responsibility for the consequences of organizational action and of individuals in organizations, which the leader must bear – both successful and the unsuccessful.

Not only for the purpose of ensuring physical health, but to ensure spiritual, moral and psychological health, leaders should find ingenious ways to rest, take off their mind from organizational matters; they should equally provide ways to rest the minds of society and its members as a stressed follower, member, contributor or society will invariably not contribute its best to the organization.

Leaders should work to create a right atmosphere and spirit for themselves and their societies. They must understand that they have to do all that is possible within their power – moral, social and political – to accomplish ends. They should take failure as a challenge and not as the end of the world.

Put a careful watch on your psychological energy – your motivation, your faith and courage, your desire to be tenacious, to act against the forces of failure. Do not allow failure or threats of



245

failure to destroy your motivation to succeed. This is where one leadership differ from another – in strength of personal character of the leader – to face the threats, the tenacious opposition, the tensions, the ill will that society or situation may contrive.

The stresses inherent in leadership are not only biological because of the draining of physical energy. They are also social as a result of activity – high activity of great mental exertions and proportions; high situational exertions as a result of the complex relationship inherent in the interdependence of social behaviour, and the complications imposed by the reality of personal responsibility.

An attitude of rest involves the ability to rationalize behaviour, to rest the mind and body, to keep it off areas of stress and on areas of faith, achievements of the past in the heat of impending failure; in faith in the rightness of your purpose in the face of questions raised to the rightness of action in its direction.

Resting your body, soul and spirit is an attitude. Each individual must develop the attitude to cope with the executive stress. This is why s many executives are sick; an issue lamented in “Sick Men Rule The World” by Perre Acoce in L’Express (1998).

Sick men not only rule the world, they rule organizations. The mental toll, the psychological toll, the physical toll, the moral toll, the social stress and demand on your limited time by the organization and the individuals in society, all collectively put a terrible strain on the capacity of the leader.

The challenge is not to be overwhelmed. But to agree that stress is a natural phenomenon, and requirement of the executive position; and to develop a mental position, an unwavering faith necessary to cope with it, and to rest your body by sleeping sufficiently, by taking off your mind from organizational matters – though difficult – for a time, by engaging in executive games – polo, tennis, any game at all – by listening to music, by engaging in physical exercises, by taking a holiday or whatever means you have discovered enables you to rest – do it, but please, do not engage in drugs. They destroy your rest eventually and your



246

capacity to lead ultimately. The deceptive motivation and rest they give do not last.

Stress comes from the acceptance of responsibility for the competent and the incompetent, for the right and the wrong, for the good and the evil of the organization and its parts. The scapegoat executive principle is the principle where the executive receives blame for failures of organization but is expected to share the success of organization with all. That is a cross you must be willing to carry, otherwise, get out of the executive or leadership position before it gets you out or destroys you partially or permanently.

It is failure to accept this possibility, this reality of the executive situation in some instances is the reason for the moral paralysis and moral destruction of most leaders. Now that you know, wisdom demands you do what is reasonable, REST.

As Harold Geneen Ex CEO of ITT Corp. once affirmed in his Memoirs, ‘the worst disease that can afflict business executives in their work is not, as popularly supposed, alcoholism, it is egotism. It is a problem that is still in the closet, a secret every one knows, few talk about, and almost no one knows how to handle. The egotist may walk and talk and smile like every one else. Still, he is impaired as much by his narcissism as the alcoholic is by his martinis.”120

The reason for this is the discovery by many a leader that they hold the destiny of many and of their organization in their hands. They have power over men and resources, over systems; power over what gets done and what gets undone.

The key to solving this problem is a discovery also that forces beyond the individual are at work in social situations. Failure can help to an extent in making leaders humble. But the attitude of humility when imbibed can help in reducing the moral tendency towards egotism that impairs leadership conduct and at times make

120 Geneen, Harold (1987) Memoirs.



247

the leader susceptible to the regressive forces in him/her and in the society and situation.

It is this humility that will enable a leader to rest; that will enable him to believe that individuals can be trained to handle his job; that he could delegate and still get result and not overload himself with excess work that could be easily delegated. It is this humility that will make the leader recognize that while leadership is indispensable to an organization, the occupier of a leadership position can be changed and the organization goes on with greater or lesser productivity, depending on the personality and character of the leader, the society and situation.

There is no alternative to a good rest, a good attitude of rest for replenishing lost mental, psychological, physical and moral energy, NONE. THINKING

Effective leaders give time for reflection and thinking. They separate themselves in environments where they can exert their mind to identify the critical variables and forces at work in a total situations; where they can search for the strategic variable they can use to change the total situation in pursuit of purposes and objectives; where they can be free to take and/or see through the environment of decisions with a bid to take effective decisions; where they can sit down and programme the activities that will establish the reality of their vision; where they can mentally coordinate activities.

It is through thinking that vision is concretized; through thinking decision and vision are concretized, even if intuitive processes are involved in their development. “A leader who is not wise cannot be wisely advised,”121 wrote Nicolli Machiavelli.

An effective leader must show himself capable of locating the right things to do, the right decisions to make, the right things to make decisions on; must be quick to grasp opportunities for

121 Nicolli, Machiavelli (1988) The Prince: New York. Pengium



248

decision when it emerges from among his executives, non-executives or followers; must demonstrate the right capacity for judgment to appreciate capacity in others by respecting good judgment; must exert self and the organization as a whole to organizational thinking – thinking about how to make the organization and its cells and individuals function better – and not base action on impulse all the time – necessary though it may be sometimes.

Organizational impulse can be correct if properly developed by the socialization of the process of action and thinking; by the internalization of purpose and vision, but the social atmosphere of effective communication and good naturedness; by the sharing of the results of cooperation; by the inspiration of faith in pursuit of common purpose; and by the spread of authority to act.

Invariably a leader must think. Society in the abstract must be seen to think, situations must be made to feel the impact of thinking. As Steve Shirley, Life President of FI Systems states, “Even when you are not sure what is for the best, by acting in good faith, you can take the wrong steps yet progress in the right direction. But you cannot be a leader unless you ACT. Thinking is not enough.”122

Thinking must be aimed at arriving at the right things. At asking the right questions and coming up with the right decision. Leaders usually ask the wrong questions, which even when they come out with right answers sink the fortunes of the organizations they lead and regresses the situation.

In thinking, rational and extra-rational faculties are used. Internalized skills and believes, behaviors and outcomes form elements in the thinking process. Social, political, individual and situational variables form component aspect of the thinking process. But conviction may deaden or heighten capacity for effective judgment.

122 Shirley, Steve(1995) How To Give Reality To The Vision: MANAGEMENT TODAY April 1995



249

In the thinking process, especially as it relates to decision making, relevant steps come to bear: (1) identifying the problem characteristics, (2) identifying problem requirements, (3) identifying solution requirements, (4) locating alternative solution options, (5) taking the decision by elimination and/or structuring in stages, (6) planning the action essential to problem resolution, (7) implementing change and taking the required political, social and technological processes, (8) maintaining purposive action.

Thinking would have to be exercised in seeking ways and means of achieving these eight steps.

In the thinking process, the forces of the man, the forces of the society come into play. Situational forces become essential part of the thinking equation.

Thinking can be enhanced by quality information, by the capacity to envision the future or to create an attractive future; by faith in objective purpose and in ultimate success. Applying the mind and spirit to organizational purpose is what thinking is. Any one who desires to be effective in leadership must do it effectively.

Purposes must be made progressive and adaptive, new crafts and theoretical basis of their art must be learnt and absorbed; a feeling of the organization and of the direction of events in the larger world must be had. This is because failure in organizations and of leadership is traceable to the destabilization caused by forces external which furnishes both the materials used and limitations of their actions, and leaders must think through on measures to apply to the continuously fluctuating forces of the man, society and situation by the readjustment of internal processes of the organization to ensure the survival and progress of their organizations.

Ultimately many leaders fail but failure is a strategic component

in the development of leaders, what is important is learning from that experience. The histories of great men and women like Ulysses S. Grant, Abraham Lincoln, Nelson Mandela, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher, Olusegun Obasanjo are sufficient evidence and proof of this fact. The essence is learning from the experience.



250

SCAN

A good leader must be a scanner of the environment, a student of men. This is because scanning holds the key to the development of the principle of vision that is central to leadership. According to Pierre Du Pont, “leadership requires that communication be harnessed to an inner vision that captures the future in a metaphor which strikes a resonant chord in his constituency.” This is what scanning helps the leader to achieve. To gain a feeling of the situation, to articulate a picture of the present, past and future; to achieve spiritual communion with himself, with society and situation.

In scanning, the leader is looking for elements in the total situation that represents opportunity which his/her organization or society can exploit to obtain and secure utilities. He is looking for means to satisfy defined ends; he/she is looking for men and women of competence to place in executive organization or man other positions that have the requisite executive capacity to elicit the cooperative function of society/organization and secure requisite contribution of energy, skill, and initiative in the pursuit of attractive objectives. He/she is scanning for regressive social and situational behaviors to stop or arrest at infancy. He/she is scanning for strengths that the organization can exploit to further establish its ability to meet its objectives, achieve its purpose and establish its continuity; entrench its survival. He/she is scanning for strategic indices that will enable the total situation – forces of man, society and situation – to achieve progressive goals over a long period of time. The leader is looking for vital inputs for decision making. As Frederick Pincutt advised Mahatma Gandhi, “You have no knowledge of the world, a sin qua non for a vakil (leader). You have not even read the history of India (of your society). A vakil (leader) should know human nature. He should be able to read a man’s character from his face.”123

123 Frederick Pincutt (1890) Quoted in Gandhi, M. K. (1927) An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiments With Truth: Translated From the Gujarati By Mahadev Desai: Ahmedabad: Navajivan p.70



251

In the exercise of the leadership function, a leader invariably makes use of:

(i) his personal view of the world

(ii) his view of his society, and it cellular organization

(iii) his view of the individuals especially those in the executive organization

(iv) his view of the situation especially the contingent immediate situation

(v) his views of the ideal leader, ideal society and ideal situation

(vi) his vision, his psychology and personal forces

(vii) his experience and view of social institutions, methods and human nature generally.

Neither adherence to the Socratic dictum – know thyself, nor

focus on the law of situation, as advised by Follett, nor overemphasis on personality can guarantee leadership effectiveness.

Leadership requires a three-dimensional focus on the leader, on the society and on the situation to be effective.

For this reason, tyrants are always the last to know that the world around them has changed. Regressive behaviors in any leadership results in venality in the ruling clique or dominating groups, corruption that eats up individuals and social institutions that are supposed to be sacrosanct; galvanizes reform forces, and compromises development.

QUALITIES OF STRONG LEADERSHIP Strong leadership is a function of (1) A Strong leader personality and conduct and/or

(2) Strong Society and/or



252

(3) Strong situation.

A strong leadership personality has strong character, strong use of authority and power, strong demonstration of competence, strong tolerance for effectiveness and intolerance for ineffectiveness; control over forces of coercion; and strong sense of responsibility.

Although a strong leader may have low morality, without high morality, no leader can long succeed and no society or organization can survive.

A Strong society is a society with strong social personality, strong culture, strong and working institutions, responsive to changing global and/or environmental changes, are committed to change and reform, aims at transparency in its leadership and in the society at large; are eager to exploit opportunities and to create opportunities, have an organizational identity; have utility they can provide to competing societies and to the external environment; has coercive forces in its resources, ideals and as a society they can use against the world if need be; can compete effectively with other organizations, has open, democratic and cooperative systems; has an active citizenry jealously guarding justice and freedom from all forms of encroachment and aggression, from the will of politicians, the compromise of individuals, the subversion of competitors, the greed of corporations, the abuse of generals and members of the military class; has a vibrant communication system or Press committed to social development.

A strong situation has a heightened demand and sense for response to need, has a compelling demand for attention; has situational authority as it is a strategic factor requiring consideration; requires the use of high authority, high responsibility and high morality to resolve; requires leadership and social action on the situation to change situation.

All these notwithstanding, the leader is the personality that must give social direction to leadership and social forces to counter dispersive forces inherent in all three factors. Leaders must focus



253

society and situation on areas of strength and counter and/or anticipate weaknesses.

It is for this reason that “a modern nation cannot prosper under the iron thumb of an authoritarian ruler abetted by servile courtiers.” Wrote Anwar Ibrahim, Malaysia’s former Deputy Prime Minister from prison.

Organizations endure in proportion to the leadership by which the leadership by which they are governed governs them. The purpose of such organizations may be immoral or commendable, but if the morality by which any organization is governed is low – the norms and mores of the society cannot be effectively operated nor compete or survive in competition with other norms, and if the capacity to stand on norms and moral codes that are beneficial to organizational purpose is lacking in leadership and society - the leadership will not be sustained long nor be effective, and the organization itself is doomed to fail and its survival will be short lived.

Leadership behaviour is vital. It requires maturity and wisdom. It requires the internalization of positive abilities to respond to the diverse behaviour inherent in human beings; it requires an appreciation of the changing moods in subordinates, in members of an organization, it requires a respect of the values of the society in which one lives or leads, a creation of new values that concretizes human dignity in action, demonstrating in practical conduct the dignity of the individual, openness to people and to ideas, establishing and operationalizing standards, and behaviour entrenched in values.

The challenge of leadership is to recognize and institutionalize or internalize values that will limit regressive behaviour and encourage progressive behaviour. This can be done by projecting positive values within the context of the society; values with strong moral input, with an appreciation of the various leadership behavioral principles. It is only when this is done, when the leader understand the forces and behavioral pattern of the three elements of social organization and of leadership, the vital equilibrium and significant factors at that point and the vital part relationship that



254

could be changed to achieve a better and/or optimum total situation, that leadership could be said to have been done effectively.



255

SKILLS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP


256

27 Skills Of Effective Leadership

Effective leaders possess basic skills at least to a moderate

degree. Possession of these skills does not discriminate between age, sex, race or role but must exist to moderate level. They include

1. Ability to simplify and cope with complexities

2. Mental programming (or arithmetic)

3. Interpersonal skills

4. Inspirational skills

5. Approximational skills

6. Mechanistic skills.

7. Ability to Simplify and Cope with Complexities

Leadership forces, - forces of the leader of society and situation - are multifarious and complex. The needs to which they are to be directed to, are complex. The limitations of environmental factors’ and ability of resources to meet needs, the incessant rate of change caused by changes in the character of each leadership in any character social context, present the need for leaders to simplify this complexity to signs, symbols and words that are identified by and can be identified with by the society.

Effective leaders possess the ability to cope with complexity; they are not overwhelmed by the changing social and structural forces, nor with the rate of changes in needs. They seek to dominate their society and situation. They seek vital elements in a social context and codify it into values that will be used to concentrate social and personal energies. They convey meaning; they cope with the variety of factors which affect society and situation. They cope with the rate of changes because they have the ability to adapt, to communicate to society the forces within society and the object or situation at hand, the vision; they generate trust adapting organization behaviour to social needs.



257

MENTAL PROGRAMMING

Effective leaders have the capacity to do mental arithmetic or programming. In every leadership situation, they use their mental faculty to segregate decision variables constraints as well as the objective function; they plot a mental graph or SWOT, cause and effect, they establish concepts that are sealed to take into consideration the objective and subjective factors at play.

Ability to use initiative and imaginative powers at their disposal. This is what some call conceptual skill, but mental programming is brainwork calculations that takes cognizance of probabilities of success or futures; they relate forces and needs in complex patterns before making their choice. They determine the feasible region and then seek to locate the most beneficial action with the best outcome of success. The data for mental programming may be numerical and for otherwise this ability is developed by pulling people in charge, making them responsible. This skill is vital for effective mapping.

If this skill, the ability to identify relationships and connections among problems, to relate social and mental interaction systems to the purpose at hand is absent or poor, the tendency to develop a vision that is defective and certainly will not carry much conviction is high. Mental programming promotes originality in problem solving, the development of a coherent and clear vision. That is why the reasons leaders have in the successful outcome of a particular cause of action are only explainable by “Faith”.

More than any leadership skill, thinking and conceptual skills - mental programming - lays the foundation for any effective leadership, but it is this skill in the present generation, this lack of capacity to think, that is in the cause of so many leadership futures in our society today.

Mental programming is also determined by the leaders psychological state. Effective leaders are known to fear, but they channel their fears constructively. They seek to dominate it. They are forward thinkers, optimists, they have faith in successful



258

outcomes and the inevitability of ultimate success and reaching goals.

Mental programming is Brain storming with facts, figures and values. Effective leaders think through, they give time to reflective thinking looking for major differences rather than minor nuances; they use all the available key enabling mechanisms, usually the systems of management, operations and communicate, to programming will then do selective evaluation of variables and relate them to the objects in relation with perceived constraints now, and likely in future.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS

Effective leaders can interact well in social situations. They can convey meanings using simple words slogans, institutions, example and vision. They may or may not be eloquent, but they generate an understanding of what needs to be done, of where we are going; they can relate effectively, they communicate by both verbal and extra verbal media, people fear and/or trust them for either their authority or their convictions and faith. They are sensitive to the needs and welfare of the society; they interact, with the aim of making the organization and the behaviour mutually self-reinforcing. They understand that a leader cannot do everything but must accomplish results through exercising the forces of society in human societies people, their knowledge, skill, initiation and humanity; after taking proper cognizance of the situational forces and the external environment and internal processes and capacity to respond to its imperatives.

They show consideration and concern for task achievement and people welfare, at least as it relates to one issue. They may be autocratic but they care. When they speak, they do so to influence and affect the actions of men, to stir the masses, the general ability of the people; their mental programming in geared at reproducing mental images in the minds of their followers that will symbolize commitment to their goal.

INSPIRATIONAL SKILLS



259

Effective leaders inspire by their conviction which is revealed in their speech, mannerisms, positive thinking, vision, the force of their intellect, persuasive powers; by their use of identifiable slogans to symbolize their ideals, visions and views; they locate all forces in themselves, in others in the society and situation, take a positive view that in the ultimate, everything, the topic of events will work to the good of the group, if all contribute they inspire by their example, by demonstrating faith and courage required; they use the right kind of motivation, appeal to reasons of use, to the morality of their cause, to the ultimately of success, to the benefit of cooperation; to functionality of sanction and fear, to the pride of society; to the need to show example; they inspire both by words and by conduct.

Effective leaders possess the skills that converts the elements earlier on discussed, to heighten the expectation of the society, both in what they need to do, what force is at their disposal, and the composition, faith that it can be and will be achieved. They articulate situations from functional perspectives.

Inspirational skills are developed by the development of a functional positive attitude, pragmatic disposition; readiness to take risks the force of personal example and above all, strong, transparent and committed conviction.

It is developed by inspiring oneself first of all, by believing in the purpose set by one for the organization, and in its ability to be superordinate enough to enable individual goals to be achieved in its pursuit and achievment.

APPROXIMATIONAL SKILLS

The deluge of information which are available to leaders from a network of contacts provides diverse kinds of information: numerical and textual, deterministic and opportunistic, objective and subjective.

The ability to sift from the diversity packed figures, from the diverse information and separate them using mental programming; to define the pattern of interaction systems; the competing forces



260

and needs of man, society and situation require the ability to approximate the environmental picture now, and in future. Mental programming uses inputs derived from an “environmental scan” together with inputs from an “internal scan” to approximate, develop a sense of what is happening, a vision of the future and then how to instill it into the lifeline of the organizational blood stream.

The ability to approximate forces and degree of using limited and sometimes unavailable facts; is a characteristic of effective leaders. In fact, effective leadership performance is non-existent without the skill of approximation being put to effective use. Mental programming uses inputs from initiative and analytical decision making systems to complement themselves, drawing extensively from the database accumulated over their lifetime, including internalized experiences of society and self.

The leader must have the ability to approximate subjective variables, develop the courage to approximate the relationship between these subjective variables with objective factors, to approximate the timing, scale the concepts and time the moves. The total forces and needs is approximated in relations to the objects at hand and the ideals to which they are channeled.

Approximation skills are not only vital for mental arithmetical calisthenics or programming, but also for scientific analysis where relationships are approximated to enable accurate numerical analysis. Effective leaders use their judgmental skills to make approximations.

In summary, leadership to be effective must identify the laws of the individual, of the society and of the situation and exert the forces inherent in them to meet the three factor needs.

Image is a function of leadership and is concretized by a concrete vision and/or purpose and by concrete decision, action made in the direction of such purpose, and in the obtaining of concrete contribution from followers – internal and external –in a social context.



261

That personal style plays a big role in leadership cannot be denied. However, leaders should avoid regressive leadership behaviors. While the tendency towards democratic and participate leadership styles have been observed to heighten the possibility of effectiveness in leadership, the exertion of authority is critical and necessary for the purpose of keeping in check, the dispersive tendencies of human beings; to activate coercive forces punitive capacities of organization to stop indiscipline and deliberate hostility against the organization or its individual member.

Apply whatever theory or technology your good judgment informs you as being contributory. Lead by the common sense of the whole. Leaders must face the world with wisdom and good naturedness that is the only armor they have in the performance of a task few perform successfully to the end of their days.

Even if leadership is prone to failure because of many contributory factors with personality, societal and situational basis, a leader should face leadership with the this attitude of Woodrow Wilson who said, “I would rather fail in a cause that will ultimately succeed than succeed in a cause that will ultimately fail.”

As evident from history, observation and practice, “the only test of … leadership and it is a tough one is SUCCESS” (Harvey-Jones); but even success has a dynamic meaning and character in time. “To succeed, or even to survive, in the most difficult of roles requires… good health, humor, and a resilience not given to many.” – Jan Hildreth, former director general British institute of directors p.79. Or as Montgomery(1958) puts it, “No leader however great, can long continue unless he wins victories-the battle decides all.”

According to Howard Gardner in Raising Power, “all leadership ultimately fails” (1995 p.5), or as Chester Barnard affirms, “Leadership, of course, often is wrong, and often fails." (p.283), or as Admiral Dick Clayton (1988 p.96) puts it, “history…shows how sadly often we get our leadership wrong – for every case of failure of leadership results in actual indiscipline, there must be many others that result in discontent, unhappiness, low morale and poor



262

achievement.”124 Or as Selznick P states, “When institutional leadership fails, it is perhaps more often by default than by positive errors or sin. Leadership is lacking when it is needed; and the institution drifts, exposed to vagrant pressures, readily influenced by short run opportunistic trends. This default is partly a failure of nerve, partly a failure of understanding. It takes nerve to hold a course; it takes understanding to recognize and deal with the basic sources of institutional vulnerability. One type of default is the failure to set goals. …Another type of default occurs when goals, however neatly formulated, enjoys only a superficial acceptance and do not genuinely influence the total structure of the enterprise…. The default of leadership shows itself in an acute form when organizational achievement or survival is confounded with institutional success. To be sure, no institutional leader can avoid concern for the minimum conditions of continued organizational existence. But he fails if he permit sheer organizational achievement, in resources, stability, or reputation, to become the criterion of his success.”125

This is because leadership is seen as the strategic factor rather than a strategic factor in the organizational axis. The motive force in society therefore is compromised or diminished in significance and the leadership inherent in situational forces is ignored either because social structures are obscure or situational forces are elusive.

Under abnormal condition:

Progressive leadership behaviour may lead to regressive social

behavior or regressive situational behavior

But regressive leadership behavior cannot lead to progressive social and situational behavior. This is because when destructive personal propensities gains control over a leader, it destroys his responsibility, paralyses purposive action, heightens tension,

124 Admiral Sir Dick Clayton (1984) Quoted in Adair, John (1988) Developing Leaders: Ten Key Principles. Maidenhead Berkshire. McGrawHill p.102-3 125 Selznick, P. (1957) Leadership In Administration: A Sociological Interpretation. Barkeley, Califonia: University of Califonia Press



263

heightens frustration within the three factors, and above all destroy the leader’s “integrity.” This is because progressive leadership behavior does not necessary guarantee success; but regressive leadership behavior makes success and effectiveness impossible.

Organizational success in a function of the organization as a whole rather of leadership alone; it is function of the progression in all the element of social organization and in the element of the organization MOLE (management, organization leadership and in enterpreneurship but in this success, leadership can make a great impact. Success of organization is impossible without leadership but leadership without organization will ultimately fail.

Progressive leadership behavior include: 1. upgrading and developing the competence of the organization

/society and of the various individual that make up the organization and the vary system and moral element

2. Recognizing competing forces and resolving forces in the three factors.

3. demonstrating capacity for to bear the right personal responsibility and authority and timely action

4. Willingness to secure quality of personality, of action, of processes of condition, of communication.

5. Willingness and firmness in the distribution of attitude resulting from cooperation.

6. The capacity of individual to cope with environmental conflict total

7. To demonstrate personal example.

8. By achieving ends and setting, heighten ends, heightening social expectation.

9. Setting progressive goals develop and communicate your vision of the ideal organization.

10. Secure right person and systems in right position.



264

11. By delegating and spreading leadership tasks throughout the structure set standard and

12. Operationalize a framework of disciplinary code and promote and inspire people to be self –disciplinary and accept cooperating willingly freely

13. Demonstrate and interest in the character building of individuals and of members as a whole

14. Build trust in both direction and faith necessary to cope with the novel, the unexpected, the stressful and strenuous

There is no substitute for the organizational MOLE in any social

contest or organization - to an understanding of the fact that effectiveness in social organization is the outcome of functional a. effectiveness in management

b. effectiveness and efficiency in organization

c. effectiveness and efficiency in leadership, and

d. effectiveness and efficiency in entrepreneurship is the first test of wisdom of the leader.

WHY ORGANIZATIONS FAIL


265

28 Why Organizations Fail

Social organization has three elements - The individual/leader,

the society and situation. Each is a strategic factor and plays a role in determining whether organization or leader or society fails. They are interdependent and have a tied destiny.

Organization fail when leaders fail in their capacity to heighten and mobilize self and society to meet the needs; when leaders become regressive, or society and situation becomes regressive in behaviour and leaders fail to respond progressively. Organization fail when the situation becomes burdensome and deprives society of the necessary cooperative indices to and processes to function. Organization fails, when it is unable to secure sufficient cooperative energy, or is incapacitated and demobilized destroyed by a resistant environment; is overwhelmed by internal loses; by relative ineffectiveness, or because organization itself is ineffective in construction or purpose or such organization function without principle or standard of practice; or the part is allowed to dominate the whole and compromise corporation.

Probably leadership fails because the situation is too resistant; or the organization is ineffective, or is incapacitated by the dominating tendency of social forces or powerfully mobilized group; or the mobility to identify a social and encompassing vision or as the result of failure in capacity – To determine strategic factor or inadequate attention to the creation of moral codes or lack of position in facing or a workable progressive purpose, reluctant or insecurity of purpose, inability to secure adequate incentives. By the destruction of responsibility, by the failure in morality or to cope with the moral complicity of the leadership role; or a wrong hierarchy of factor is exercised; or society and situation which have organizational character are personalized; or leader is trapped between the incompatibility of situation and the society; or incompatibility between the leader and the method he employs; or as a result of wrong and or untimely decision, or he is

WHY ORGANIZATIONS FAIL


266

incapacitated by a resistant society or situation and lack the possibility to create.

But as a primary cause, leaders fail for lack of capacity to lead. Or when defects in one, two or all of the three factors become endemic or incapable of correction; Or is unable to correct defect in the process of cooperation or organization itself; or defect in the leader society and situation becomes distinctive; or society disintegrates, or is unable to identify motive changes in the external environment and to adapt to them; and failure to effectively distribute sufficient utility or establish a creative economy. Invariably, failure in any one of the twelve leadership functions can result in failure.

LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES


267

29 Leadership Structures

There are different structures of leadership with differing

characteristic. They are 1. The star, Tsar, hero or individualistic structure 2. The Mafia, kinship or functional structure 3. The junta, technocratic or professional structure 4. The ring structure 5. The carnival structure The Star Structure

The star leadership structure is one which is highly individualistic and/or individualized. The leader is a Tsar, highly personalized. The individual plays ‘god’ has the executive.

All leadership requires a star but the structure may exist alone. Bob Geldof exemplified the star structure during the Band Aid invent, to raise funds for war torn famine battered Ethiopia.

The Star or Czar (Tzar) structure or system is the kind of structure operated by sports and academic institutions, athletes, boxers, musicians and the so-called “stars” or “guru”.

The Star or Czar structure is essentially a personality structure characterized by self-deployment, highly personalized and individualistic, personal display of powers, qualities and abilities. This is hero structure. This is the kind of leadership shown by products in the market place.

The Mafia Structure

The Mafia Structure is a kinship, dynastic structure. Leadership is restricted to members of the ‘tribe’ or ‘kin’. It is dependent on having related idiosyncrasies or background. It is based on brotherhood. The leadership of political parties, dynasties or even families and nations maintains a Mafia Structure. Leadership in clubs, societies is composed of the same clan.



268

Attainment and exercise of leadership is dependent on the acceptance of a common sense of value, tribal relationship and clan membership. The Mafia structure is a society structure. It is the kind of structure in the Sicilian Mafia: the Cosa Nostra or commission. In the Mafia structure, the forces of society are stronger than the forces of the man. Non-conformity with values the group has dire consequences unless the entrepreneurial forces are already making inroads into the cultural fabrics of the society and change or reform is seen as being necessary. It is very effective as a maintenance structure.

The Mafia structure is characterized by clan membership, kinship or brotherhood and by being politically, socially, economically, religiously, tribally, spiritually, morally homogeneous.

The Junta Structure

The junta structure is a highly technocratic and professionalized structure. Success depends on the exhibition of superior professional skills. It is an exclusive club where only members of a particular profession belong. This structure can be found in professionally based organizations like the armed forces, media, chartered accounting firms, legal practitioners, universities, hospital and academia. The Ring Structure

The ring structure is a structure of equals. Although some are more equal than others. This is the kind of structure you find in the international organizations like the United Nation Organization (UNO), Organization of America States (OAS), Organization of African Unity (OAU) etc.

The leader in the ring structure is the “ring leader”. A meeting of states, of the G7 or G77 nations, board of directors of companies, is of this structural kind. It is also the kind of leadership structure in gangs, be they robbery, secret and other outlaw groups.



269

The Carnival Structure

This is a mob leadership structure. It is characterized by flexible structure and value systems. It is the leadership structure in student demonstrations and even revolutions. It is the kind of structure in a crowd situation, which has more complex factors that divide them, but one principal factor that is of collective importance to both. It is the kind of leadership structure where leadership is not clearly defined but is dependent on what needs to be done. It implies a continuous change of leader for even the minutest subject. It provides for little changes in function to demand a change in leader. It is a situation based leadership structure.

Zebra Structure

Leadership structure that exist parallel to one another. This is

the quality of multiple leadership’s structure existing in parallel with one another. In an organization, it is possible for the Mafia, the junta and the ring structure to exist. Individual leaders become multiple participants in this structure, exercising multiple leadership roles. In point of fact, all institutions have the Zebra structure. It is a structure that unifies the total forces and factors.

Structures have implications for leadership. “You can’t take a

kid out of a cradle and put him in a tuxedo and let him boss people in the gutter if he can’t talk their language” says one Mafiosi to the making by Bonnano, as capo and head of the Bonnano Mafia Family of his son as Consigliere (Underboss).126 Declining productivity and shifting social and technological curves, all have serious implications for the leadership structure of many organizations. Structures by their very nature create power play between actors in the social process, which have both positive and negative effects on the performance of the organization as a whole. The key to leadership at this point is for the leader to promote and adhere to the principle of promoting a healthy harmonization of 126 Tomasso Buscetta. Quoted in Men of Honor: The Man Who Destroyed The Mafia, p.262.



270

professional and social talents necessary to run successful organizations and profitable industries.

FROM LEADERSHIP TO STATESMANSHIP


271



272



273

30 From Leadership To Statesmanship

Throughout this book, we have emphasized the need for

sufficient leadership to be demonstrated by every individual – the leadership that is commensurate with the requirement of this position, his personality and his situation. We have defined leadership as the ability to use and symbolize the use of the forces of the individual/man/leader, the forces of the organization/society and the forces of situation/events to meet or attempt to meet the needs of the individual/man/leader, the needs of the society and the needs of the situation.

We have looked at the paradigm and nature of leadership and stated that shades of leadership are infinite; frames of leadership are few. We have defined more usable functions of leadership to enhance the performance of leadership by any individual in any situation.

We have stated repeatedly that universal quality of leadership that involves the identification and use of forces in the three elements to meet the needs of the three elements. But in all this, one thing becomes apparent. Leadership becomes focused on things internal, becomes how to move an organization forward, how to gain cooperation of forces internal, to the exclusion of the external environment, how to consciously coordinate forces within in response to forces without.

But leadership transcends an inner focus. When in acquires an external focus, when it begins to project a strong image of an organization or state to the external world, when it begins to export its values and exert its influence on the external environment or world, leadership begins to acquire or require the attributes of statesmanship.

Statesmanship is leadership, but a leadership of a special character. Anybody within the organization can become a statesman. It is characterized by:



274

1. projecting the values and image of an organization to the external world

2. projecting the personality of the individual beyond self, organization into the larger world of the external environment

3. Personalization, projection of values into the external environment. Such values may be personal, societal, intellectual, moral or situational

4. Externalization, projection and promotion of interests – personal, social and/or situational into the wider world

5. The externalization of the identity or image of self, or of the organization, or of the situation

6. The symbolization in self or in the organization of a society

7. Operation of the star structure of leadership

8. Functioning within an existing leadership scenario – in a pool of leaders and in a network of elite.

9. Successful leadership is a possible platform for successful statesmanship and vice versa.

While leadership internalizes visions, purposes, values,

purposes and objective identity of self, statesmanship externalizes and exports them to the wider world and articulates problems, visions in the wider world that may bear little or no relevance to the internal organization.

Leadership triumphs through internalization of values. Statesmanship succeeds by externalizing such values.

Statesmanship is an added requirement of some but not all leaderships. The need for statesmanship becomes more pronounced as an individual, organization/society and situation begins to experience a greater external environmental influence. A national leader or President, the General, pilot or the Chief Executive Officer of any organization is expected to demonstrate statesmanship; to project the distinctive concrete values of its



275

organization to the outside world; to articulate problems on a wider scale, to project a concrete living identity or objective sense of self to the outside world; an image; to symbolize the organization or beliefs; to externalize values and purpose. But a leadership becomes more successful if when it can effectively combine imperatives of leadership with statesmanship achieving strategic balance in its practice.

Statesmanship is a requirement of institutional leadership but can be demonstrated at every level of leadership. Anybody without any title or formal role can popularize, externalize or symbolize values and organizations. Even an individual who has no subordinate can practice statesmanship. Statesmanship does not necessarily need followership. It needs an audience.

‘Strategic statesmanship’ involves the

(a) institutionalization of statesmanship, of interests and values into the strategic ethos of the external environment

(b) the externalization of doctrines

(c) the exertion of leadership functions in the external environments

(d) The internalization into the ethos of the larger society of images of the organization, the leader and/or the situation.

(e) The use of diplomatic skills.

The Christian duty of ‘evangelism’ is a function of the

statesmanship role as states in 2 Corinthians 5:17: “Now then we are ambassadors of Christ.” And again, “Let your light so shine before men that they may see your good works and glorify your father which is in heaven.”

When a leadership wins the trust of its fellowship and contributors it can move and inspire them to externalize, organizational values, identity and image, in fact to make them statesmen. The challenge is to move form strategic leadership strategic statesmanship.



276

An executive or leader becomes a statesman when he succeed to an extent in extending personal or societal values beyond and concrete identity or image into the external environment or world. The transition from administrative to institutional leadership does not a statesman make. It only requires statesmanship.

Opportunities for statesmanship increase as leadership acquires institutional character or as leaders acquire a strong drive to influence the external environment and the larger world.

At certain times individuals succeed at statesmanship but fail at leadership i.e. their leadership in the external world is a success while their leadership in the internal world of their organizations and/or institutions and/or society fails.

Leadership seeks to mobilize forces external to the society to serve its interest in the pursuit of the satisfaction of interests of a broader character, of a more general character relative to the leader’s organization

Statesmanship is still leadership, even organizational statesmanship but with an outer rather than inner focus or preoccupation. In statesmanship the functions of leadership remain the same but acquire an external focus or relationship. It requires wisdom to know when to be a statesman and when to be a leader; when leadership is needed and when statesmanship is needed; when to carry the interest of the world on your shoulders and when the interest of your organization should be paramount. It requires the development of leaders who can effectively perform your leadership imperatives in the organization to which you belong or in areas internal to it, while you project yourself, your society and its situation to the outer world and on a broader scale.

Delegation and empowerment of competent subordinate leaders is paramount in the movement from leadership to statesmanship.

The function of creating, maintaining the executive organization becomes that of creating, maintaining participation and dynamism in a comity of elite, seeking to function as a ‘strategic elite' to



277

entrench oneself in the elite class, in the network of leaders or statesmen if you like.

One becomes an active participant in the external world, in the elite organizations. This is why leaders enrol or become members of clubs, non-executive directors of corporate organizations, government committees’ etc.

The function of locating strategic factors become that of identifying strategic factors in the broader society one can use to champion causes and interests that may affect organizations similar to ones own or that have impact in the external environment at large where if there is no connection to the organization one leads in the direct sense. It involves identifying a common problem, projecting it into a major issue on the broader world state; identifying purpose that will meet more general interests; fashioning a dynamic vision that has impact well beyond one’s immediate organization.

The challenge now is how to move from leadership to statesmanship without failing in either. Some leaders take a this or that approach, choosing to fail in one; neglecting one for the other as if both are exclusive. You can succeed in both leadership and statesmanship.

In the new millennium, no leader can succeed for long without performing both effectively. Those who recognize the imperative of statesmanship and leadership would be poised to learn the skills vital for their effective performance and thereby position themselves to cope with the demands of the statesmanship era may place on them.

Statesmanship is still leadership although of a distinctive character, hence the nature of leadership as expounded in Part III still applies. There is charismatic statesmanship and non-charismatic statesmanship, superordinate statesmanship and subordinate statesmanship. There are evolutionary statesmanship and revolutionary statesmanship. Hence like any leadership, statesmanship demonstrates the elements of the features common to all leaderships. Its distinctive quality is in its external focus or



278

bias and deals with big issues relative to the individual, the organization and the situation, influencing the external world, functioning in a community of elite becomes an end in itself.

Statesmanship is the ability to acquire status and reputation to function within the elite and/or larger world by the externalization of moral, social, intellectual, political, spiritual and/or scientific values.

It is responsible for nations who have a dynamic foreign policy and impact and a failed internal policy.

Institutional leadership seeks to make ‘statesmanship impact’ in its bid to control events in the external world. But as Jose Marti the Cuban nationalist father once said, “A true man does not seek the path where advantage lies; but rather, the path where duty lies,” and to rephrase it, “a true man will not seek the path of advantage for its own sake, but rather will seek the path where duty lies advantageously, so as to succeed in his task. This is true both for the individual who aspires or is a leader, and to the statesman.

CONCLUSION


279

31 CONCLUSION

Leadership is a worldly phenomenon. In this book we have

looked at the functions of the leader and the paradigm of leadership.

It is believed that a clear understanding of one’s job is vital to an effective performance of the job beside the possession and acquisition of skills requisite for its effective performance.

Every leader therefore – an intending or potential leader for that matter – will definitely benefit from this expose.

The leader must grasp the concrete and elemental aspects of his function and engage attitudes and behaviors of effectiveness in their performance.

Developing this skill is both a thing of internalities and externalities. It will involve building your inner qualities, equipping yourself with technical skills, and keeping abreast the technological and social trends and developments in the greater world or larger society in which you belong or function.

It will demand the adaptation of mechanic skill and inspirational skills to the changing situations that confront the leader.

“We must mind in the beginning what matters in the end.Carry your very souls in your hands and walk circumspectly”. Says Reinhard Bonnke127

Patterns of Leadership

Leadership is about the exercise of the ability and possibility to act in a constellation of situations [emergent and historic] and in response to inherent changes imposed by the changing relationship 127 Reinhard Bonnke: Evangelism by fire. Kingsway Eastbonne

CONCLUSION


280

between the factors [forces and needs] of the leader, the society, and the situation, with a view to achieving and obtaining by such actions and responses, desirable equilibrium, balance, continuity and progress relevant to that context or dispensation.

What these actions are the nature these processes or responses,

the patterns leaders will follow may be (I) Constant in all situations (2) Vary in different situations (3) Constant in some and variegated in others.

Leaders and Leadership contend with (1) the three factors of leadership ; Leader, society, (2) innumerable forces that combine in equally innumerable ways (3) wide variations in the leadership factors(4) incessant changes within (5) wide variations without (6) needs for adequate response to wide variations in variety of ways (7) multiple constellation of needs within itself and outside itself (8) Limitations, Choices and opportunities within and without .

The factors of Leadership: Leader, society, and situation are pervasive. They influence the various factors that affect how leaders perform their functional responsibilities. Hence effective leadership requires three level of knowledge and three levels of mobilization/deployment

Leadership effectiveness presupposes that those in positions of leadership, and those who see the manifestation of leadership ability as a vital pendulum in self realization, must recognize that organizational effectiveness is a factor of what I call the Organizational Mole: The effective performance of the imperatives of Management, organization/ institutionalization, leadership and entreprenuer-ship.

While Leadership is crucial, Leadership alone does not guarantee organizational effectiveness. But without leadership there can be no organizational success as it occupies a strategic place in the success of nations, organizations and of mankind. In this success you have, can and must play your part.

There is no alternative to leadership in organization; leadership can not be substituted with management. Title or systems does not

CONCLUSION


281

an organization make. Organization are system and asystemic corporate entities consciously constructed of emergent and evolving to serve purposes in time.

In the final analysis – in human organization – leaders are human beings and societies are partly made up of human beings hence, the psychological aspect of leadership – i.e. the psychology of the leader, the psychology of the societies and the psychology of the situation – have very weighty impact on events and on the total outcome of leadership. All these bring to a leader breath of vision and breath of action, depth of character, and height of purpose and width of decision.

Regressive leadership behavior – in the leader, in the society, and in the situation- are primary causes of failure of both organizations and leaders.

The only way out is for the leader to be proactive, to guard against being a regressive leadership behavior point (RP); as this destroys faith, destroys moral authority; destroys the power of individuals to inspire cooperative personal decision; regresses the capacity to build special values and distinctive competencies into the organization; creates regressive outcomes that becomes an integral part of the interrelationship and interaction of the forces at work in the total situation; destroys ability to wield the minds of men to objective purpose; destroys initiative in social situation and compromises capacity to adapt organizational resources and processes to attractive objective; destroys or reduces the willingness of individuals to contribute effort to attain group goal; destroys or regresses faith in the integrity of objective authority and faith in the superiority of common purpose of all – including receivers of the regressive leadership behavior; it compromises the integrity of structure and reduces the continual motivational responses needed to accomplish task and give meaning to social cooperation; making it unable to secure willingness to cooperate to generate utility; making vision less compelling and more difficult to translate or sustain; and reduces ability to respond to or avert significant problems.

CONCLUSION


282

Leaders have no choice but to do their utmost to eschew regressive leadership behavior and promote progressive leadership behavior in the three factors.

Leaders may fail because of failure to communicate or breakdown of communication systems, or because faith is lost in the society. They have no option to the necessity of understanding the laws at work in the three factors and determining the strategic factors that can best enable the leader, the society and situation to achieve a workable equilibrium favourable to achieving its objectives.

Having drawn inspiration from my experience and from the practical experience of others, and having constructed a paradigm which I believe will supplant existing schemes, it is my belief that those who practice leadership will observe and obtain from this essay, the vital elements that will promote efficiency and effectiveness in the performance of their role.

As a student of affairs, these pages represent a contribution of what I have observed leadership to be, and what I have observed in organizations in my work in organizations, from concrete situations of leadership conduct in contemporary times and from the pages of human history.

A leader is an active participant in leadership. He competes with other leaders for his position. Society competes with other societies for resources and dominance and situations demonstrate competitive abilities. In all these, elite competition and competition among mobilized groups contribute dynamism to the whole leadership reality.

Ultimately to secure quality of leadership, leaders must secure (a) quality of forces, (b) quality of decision, (c) quality of cooperation, (d) quality of distribution of wealth/utilities, (e) quality of behavior, (f) quality of processes, (g) individual/leader effectiveness, (h) social/society /organizational effectiveness, (I) situational process effectiveness and the effectiveness and efficiency of the part with the efficiency and effectiveness of the whole.

CONCLUSION


283

It is on these that ability must work on the part to change the whole in a continuous dynamics. In all this, one fact comes through – leadership has to be dynamic, persistent, visionary, courageous, magnanimous, humane and purposeful; must have the courage to apply judgment even when reason is at bay; to summon the forces of intelligence and inspiration, coercion and persuasion, reason and empathy to whatever cause or purpose it judges imperative; conditioning the chief elements of the factors of leadership – the individual, the society including its cellular organizations – by altering and reconstructing incentive systems, facilitating the synthesis of concrete action of historic, organic, organizational and moral forces; by recognizing the dynamics of sustained collective effort, speed, time and mechanical adaptation of processes to changing, variegated and alternating objectives; secure the effective cooperation of the purposive forces; resolve conflicting and contradictory forces; maintain persistence in pursuit of organization ends; recognize the schema of organization and of leadership in the performance of leadership – the role of objective authority, the necessity for developing subjective and moral authority, for the maintenance of mandate and legitimacy by exerting influence on social forces, constitutional structures, by success and effective control over coercive and empathic forces; by the socialization process – ceremonies, inaugurations, celebrations and other symbolic actions – by proof of effectiveness in judgment, by timeliness of decision and action, by the courage to indulge in use of intuition, by the simplification of the complexly organized executive processes, and by securing the dynamic interaction and interdependence of the forces of management, leadership, organization and enterpreneurship to your cause, and above all, by a history of achievement of objectives.

When these are done, leadership succeeds, or if it fails, will not ultimately lose in the empathy that is essential to a revision of their performance in the light and eyes of history. Those who lead, have no option than to do their utmost sincerely, in the discharge of their duties, in the exertion of personal qualities on the social and situational realities of their time. These are the facts of our social world, facts of the reality of the leadership environment that we have intensively analyzed in the light of their practical impacts.

CONCLUSION


284

Leadership is important, but works interdependently with the forces of society and situation to accomplish desirable, desired or unforeseen results. History faces us with this truth. Contemporary events provide us with sufficient tool and evidence to acknowledge the rightness of the story and discourse in which we have engaged ourselves.

CONCLUSION


285

“In this age when men are brave to ask divine questions but lack the courage to proffer human answers, when they engross themselves with contriving flawlessness in the laboratory but whine because they do not find its replica in the street, when they turn dizzily from text to text and fad to intellectual fad, always pursuing some dominant formula or master phrase to which to surrender their freedom – in this age if ever, there is a need for superior quality in civic judgment. The educated people of the west took more than a millennium and a half to recognize that the god who might answer them was not imprisoned within institutionalized theology; then they took two hundred years more to learn that wisdom was not encapsuled for them within the tomes of philosophy; and recently they devoted another century to discovering that ethical and political salvation is not confined within, nor will it ever issue from, the apparatus of science. Though the library and the laboratory yield useful information and desirable skills, a conscientious citizen who comes to the crossroads of decision always finds that he has to judge for himself and assist his neighbors in judging for themselves. Theology, philosophy, and science are only special resources of our society, repositories for particular arts. They offer us hints, precedents, analogues, clues, techniques, subordinate clarifications, and grist for our deliberations. Ultimately, after giving them the fullest deference and attention, we can only exercise our own choice and shoulder the consequences. To elude a choice and by parroting what the theologian or the philosopher or the scientist has said is nevertheless to make a choice and an unworthy one. In the shaping of social arrangements, all the vaunted “methods” – scientific, juristic, statistical, analytic, or experimental – can never be more than transitory instances and concrete manifestations of the single authentic method: the method of free intelligence. Without quality of judgment, there is no eventual virtue in any method…the best of philosophies would avail little to a person who lacked the gift of judgment”

Edmund Cahn(1961) The Predicament of Democratic Man: New York Feffer & Simon p.159-160

EVERYONE CAN LEAD SOMEWHERE

PART VII: LEADERSHIP WITHOUT TEARS S

286

286

PART VII

LEADERSHIP

WITHOUT

TEARS



287

287

I Everyone Can Lead Somewhere

There is no one who cannot lead if he or she is adequately prepared for it and commits him or herself to do so.

Leadership is a worldly phenomenon. There is nothing God-given which makes any particular individual to have a definitive or leading position in the race for leadership.

You can lead if and only if you are prepared to prepare, accept the responsibility and pay the price.

Every leader has strengths and weaknesses. The qualities required for leadership are not exhaustive. They are not the exclusive preserve of any one or few persons. Each and every one of us is endowed with leadership qualities of a sort, which in the right place, and with the right opportunity and combination, will enable any one of us to excel in it.

Leadership requires spiritual qualities. It is not a factor of age, sex, background, education or what have you. These factors may be relevant in some instances, but irrelevant in others. The only barrier to you being an effective leader is no one else but you.

To be a leader, you have to prepare or be prepared for it. All kinds of people, including your kind of people, people of your age, character, weakness etc. have been leaders and will be leaders. Blind people, cripples, lame and deaf people, handicapped people, rich and poor, males and females, young, old, children and all kind of people have been leaders. This is one truth that is evident in any analysis of our social structure.

In this book, we are going to examine how you can prepare and develop your leadership power or potential; how you can perform leadership functions effectively, and how to identify and avoid common mistakes in leadership.

Given the right commitment, the right motive, the right spirit and opportunity, you can learn and be an efficient leader; one remembered by your fellow men and women as someone who has touched their lives for better and given them the courage to be what they should be in life.



288

288

You can be a leader. The only obstacle and question remains if you will be willing to pay the price, if you are willing to bear the cost. It is not payable in money but in learning. If you have the will to learn, this book will benefit you on your path to leadership.

FOUNDATIONS FOR LEADERSHIP


289

289

II


If the foundation be destroyed or absent even the righteous can do nothing, except to build a foundation for that house or life. Says the Psalmist King David.

To lead you need a foundation and to lead effectively, you need a strong and good foundation.

The foundation for leadership can be summarized into four things: Birth, training, God and Man’s Grace, experience and Faith.

To be a leader in a human society, you have to be born a human being or take the form of mankind first and foremost. With your birth comes certain privileges, inherited resources that endows you with temperamental and behavioral tendencies, intelligence, aptitudes etc.

These when developed further, provide a basis for it to be said that leadership is an art that one is born with to some degree; although you acquire some of the qualities through practice.

Your natural endowment can be developed and should be developed, as the capacity for leadership is usually proportional to the capacity of an individual to develop his capacity as they go along in life. Parental attention, social, mental, psychological, material and spiritual inheritance are building blocks on which leadership is or can be crystallized - and all of us have this quality in one form or the other.

It is said that in every disability, there is ability. What remains is for every individual to develop themselves to perform effectively. Everyone can lead but not in the same situation.

Leaders are born and we are all born. We were all given birth to. What you need to be a great leader is already inside you in its minute quantities. The challenges lies in allowing yourself to identify them, develop them, and then acquire the experience that will instill that unique identity that will set you apart from men and women of your generation, as well as identify the circumstances in



290

290

which they are relevant. Benjamin Disraeli once advised, being ready to seize your opportunity when it comes. If you cannot be a great leader, you can at least aspire to be an effective one.

The more you develop your innate qualities, the more you allow yourself to develop, the more capable a leader you are likely to become.

One of the greatest reasons why many never become leaders is their low self-esteem. After a ten year research into the subject - the factors of effective leadership, I have come to the conclusion that among others, the first quality of any leader, especially an effective one is SELF ESTEEM, and usually, having it or a lack of it is traceable to the environment of an individual’s birth. Inherited genetic factors, temperament and gifts/aptitudes play an important role in the development of self esteem an in laying a foundation for future leadership. Yet even self-esteem is not in constant supply in individuals. The Self Esteem Quotient (SEQ) of an individual is the rate at which an individual has a high self esteem from -10 to +10. From negative self esteem to positive self-esteem. But these are rather, artificial measurements design to the varying degrees of self esteem in an individual over the period of his life.

The rate at which an individual sustains a positive self-esteem has a direct impact on his leadership effectiveness.

The path to leadership for any one begins from the point of birth, where, by whom. We all have this universal quality.

This is not the time to find negative reasons and views about your nativity or birth. The parents of great leaders, more often that not, were usually poor. But they were able to transmit certain habits, views of life, instill values, develop certain gifts, aptitudes and temperament in their children, who further developed these during their lifetime, either accidentally in response to emergent situations, or naturally in the normal course of life, or systematically, through programmed environment designed for the development of such qualities.

At this juncture, please cast away every form of self-devaluation you may have. I will want you to carry out a self-audit or



291

291

analysis/evaluation via the consideration of the following questions.

1. What are you and What have you

(a) Inherited by birth and endowment from your parents or foster parents?

(b) What are you good at, i.e. what do you think you have a natural talent for?

2. What interests you most and what do you enjoy doing?

3. What kind of intelligence do you have?

Finding answers to these seemingly simple questions are the key to not only the development of your leadership know how, but to success and achievement in life and business.

Ultimately, appreciating your inherited resources will go a long way to develop you for the leadership of the future and for the moment, and enhance your success in life.

On no occasion and under no circumstance must you be ashamed or reticent about your origins, or race or culture. You should be proud of them. If your parents were poor, so were parents of Jesus’, Kim Woo Chung of Daewoo, Martin Luther King’s and other great men and women of history. If they were convicts, it at least reveals an ability that was used to serve criminal purposes, i.e. if they actually did the act and did not suffer injustice as a result of human treachery, cruelty, prejudice, injustice etc..

This brings us to the subject of intelligence. I strongly believe that there is much intelligence, beyond the traditional concepts of intelligence.

According to Harvard University’s psychologists theory of multiple intelligence which argues that a human being possesses not one but several different kinds of intelligence one of which is ‘bodily kinaesthetic’: ability of the athlete, dancer and mime. Yale



292

292

University Psychologist Robert J. Steinberg evolved a three-part theory, which postulates three components of intelligence:

a) Purely internal mental mechanisms - in particular, how

one goes about planning and evaluating situation to solve problems.

b) How one function in the world, a faculty close to what

most people will call common sense.

c) The relationship of intelligence to experience, especially regarding how one deals with novelty in making a decision.

In his book “Frames of Mind,” Howard Gardner set forth seven human intelligences or competencies. a) Linguistic intelligence,

b) logical-mathematical intelligence,

c) musical ability

d) spacial intelligence

e) bodily kinesthetic intelligence

f) intrapersonal intelligence - sense of self

g) interpersonal intelligence - sense of social grace or ability to deal with others.

A THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

I would like to use this opportunity to propound a theory of intelligence.

Intelligence is of various sorts. There is no one kind of intelligence. Each individual is endowed with one form of intelligence or the other. Failure in life is the result of the devaluation of, or not placing value on one’s kind of intelligence,



293

293

pursuit of kinds of intelligence one has no aptitude in as ultimate rather than as complements to that which they have, and ignorance or their intelligences, or neglect of it.

Intelligence can be divided into

1. Action based intelligence,

2. Reason based intelligence.

The various intelligence types - Moral Intelligence, Leadership Intelligence, Culinary Intelligence, Kalisthetic Intelligence, Social Intelligence, Artistic Intelligence, Logico-Analytic/Conceptual Intelligence, Sexual Intelligence, Political Intelligence, Economic Intelligence, Marketing Intelligence, Spiritual Intelligence, Aesthetic Intelligence, Musical intelligence, Structural Intelligence, Development/ Educational Intelligence, Kinetic intelligence, Linguistic intelligence, Professional/specialization intelligence etc.

There is much intelligence as you can see. From culinary intelligence to marketing intelligence. And you can definitely know and believe that you have at least one of them; and one is sufficient to put you on the lead as well as enable you to become a leader if properly developed, harnessed and channeled.

So be fair to yourself and locate positive things about yourself, your strengths. In doing so, you have to have a positive self-appreciation. These are what will constitute part of your foundation for leadership.

The possibility of inculcating in individuals, certain traits, which they do not possess earlier, may be debatable. What cannot be debated however, is the fact that all great leaders have been associated with one or few predominant trait(s) or the other, thereby providing a basis to the idea that leadership is an art to which one is born with to some degree. But that is only part of the story



294

294

TRAINING

“You can’t train people until they are educated. And I’m not talking about manual skills. I am talking about grafting operational skills on to a solid educational base.” Says Sir Graham Gray.128

The second foundation for leadership and leadership effectiveness is training.

Your training collectively goes a long way in preparing you for leadership. Training given to you by your parents or guardian and family; training in religious institutions; training in formal educational schools; training in informal settings, these collectively play crucial roles in the development of character, skill, value and value system, personality and attitude to life and of life.

The object of training is to inculcate skills and values that reflect in our attitude and actions. Training in the family where parents instill family and social values of one form or another; values such as love, respect for seniority, truthfulness, hard work and other positive values, help in developing the individual, in preparing them for leadership.

An individual who grew up in a family or society where negative values are emphasized and practiced, values such as hatred, laziness, crime, murder, fraud, thievery, etc. will develop negative values that ill affect his/her mode of leadership and perspective of the world. It was the emphasis of these family values that made the difference in the leadership of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher in her 11 year leadership of Britain.

Training in religious institutions, or by individuals with deep religious discipline or beliefs, reinforce spiritual values in us, and instill in us certain kind of morality that guide us unconsciously or consciously through life; affecting our actions, our responses to

128 Says Sir Graham Gray In “A Head for Business” Corinne Simcock



295

295

events and issues, and determine our view of self, society and of issues.

Every leader is confronted by multiple choices and chains of values, which on a daily basis, he must reconcile himself with or put an air of authority or control, to enable him, or her maintain grip on the morality of the organization.

Apart from values, certain skills are learnt where they are taught and it is important that you identify skills and values that you acquired through the various training in spiritual institution that you belong to. Equally important in your preparation for leadership, is the impact of formal education. What schools did you attend? What qualification(s) did you obtain? Which educational program did you enroll in, and what skills: vocational, mental, moral and social skills have you acquired? These collectively represent building blocks toward leadership.

The sum totals of your learning either in formal or informal settings are very crucial to your leadership. This does not imply that a lack of formal education will hinder effective leadership as it can easily be disproved by practical evidence. But learning and education acquired by whatever means, formal and informal, represent the greatest and most important pillar and factor in the development of leadership potential.

Effective leaders are effective learners of habits, values, skills and attitudes that enable them to influence their societies when time is ripe.

The leader is a normal human being and cannot escape the influence of the features of the society in which he was born, grew, was trained and lived.

In life, and in leadership by extension, there is a continual and essential evolutionary development of new ideas, and new situations; and successes comes easily and readily to those who study the world around them, learn and adapt their craft to the new realities. This requires a combination of practical experience and pragmatism, as well as a continual absorption of the theoretical



296

296

basis of their art. Hence, the vital role of formal and informal education and practical training.

It is therefore important for every of us to seek to develop our mental and moral capacities as effective in leadership is usually traceable for certain skills – communication, team-manship and other intangibles like intelligence, sense of humor and capacity for judgement and moral example.

Brains without minds seem a futile imbalance; and a mind without brains is a futile imbalance equally. Leaders today need the rewards of formal and informal education, and the benefit and pragmatism instilled by the station of the mind. Leadership requires the training instilled in every opportunity for education, which an individual will encounter in his lifetime, and the presence of mind which parental attention, the environment presents. Learning is a continual evolutionary process. Hence learning how to cope depends, on the ability of an individual to learn, absorb new ideas, discover new trends, fashion new and better ways to cope with them to tackle successfully the complexities of everyday living, and to use the acquired resourceful mind and repository knowledge to execute successful many varied tasks.

It may be said that though background may not count, but learning and training is All. While training is important it is dangerous if it has no practical relevance or experience is the third building block in the foundation leadership. Like training sharpens natural abilities, experience sharpens and heightens both natural abilities and training. It is utilizing opportunities provided doing an individually lifetime to learn and acquired skills both tangible and intangible that will inculcate an understanding of the trade, state of mind, and environment and of the world which is beyond the reach mere intellectualization.

It is therefor vital that you appreciate opportunities to lead at as lower level and or appreciate the attempt by mentor ands and for those who success is leadership. Either way you will build in a repository of knowledge beyond the four walls of the classroom understanding how the world works and how to make it work. It is dangerous to step into leadership without prior experience at lower



297

297

levels and it is dangerous for you and everybody, to attempt to lead or be coerced to lead with only a school education. There is the need to understudy other leader to gain practical experience about, leading people at lower levels were the mistakes will be minimal but sufficient enough to gave you insight into the mentality responsibility morality and challenges of leadership.

To give the responsibility of navigating a ship through treacherous waters to a fresh graduate of a sailors/navy school will only required the intervention of divine providence to avert a ship wreck. To gain experience you may equally have to undertake personal experience that will require an element of risk taking and skill on your part.

Avoid untested and unproved concepts. To presumptuously assume leadership of a club, a church, a project and/or company or a group of any kind without experience usually results in avoidable disaster. Experience can be acquired in various ways.

1) Practical or involvement and incremental learning and development.

2) understanding others peoples

3) experience and/or mentorship.

But the above two require a third.

4) experience and risk taking.

(a) testing an idea in some kind of experimental situation of prove their validity- IN PRACTICE.

(b) in the interest of all concerned leader and society, submitting the destiny of a nation, church, club, project and group to a novice should be discounted and discouraged. This does not imply that the individual must have undertaken leadership in that particular area. But usually, over ones lifetime, opportunities to lead avail themselves at home, at playtime in schools, in informal social situations, in the offices, and usually, experiences are built up over time through evolutionary development.



298

298

What you have achieved in the past represents, validates and encourages you to take the risk to lead in a new and novel situation for trying you with sufficient faith.

Rising up to the challenges of leadership cannot be divorced from the fact that one’s experience was developed incrementally. Take a step by step approach to leadership. This will make you ready when your opportunity comes and gives you more likelier chance of success than if you drop from the helicopter to the top of a mountain

The mountain-climbing approach to leadership is more successful than the helicopter drop approach.

FAITH

The fourth building block is faith the above not with standing, it is important that should you accept to lead a situation that to bigger than your experience which is usually the case 95% of the time in everybody’s the challenge must not be bigger than your faith.

Leadership is experience and faith, faith and experience. One leads to the other. So it is important that you develop the strength your mind character and will to enable you dominate at the relevant time.

How do you develop your will?

(1) By drawing inspiration from past achievements (2) By focusing your mind or mind strengths (3) By assimilating training and learning (4) By focusing your mind or positive values (5) By associating with positive minded people (6) By obtaining spiritual moral- reinforcement (7) By believing in what you do or understand to do (8) By dreaming aspiration from other.

FAITH IS VI TAL TO LEADERSHIP. It is the fuel of leadership while experience is the lubricant Before you accept any leadership



299

299

responsibility, evaluate your experience and evaluate your faith realistically.

One of the greatest obstacles to leadership development, is not only a low or a lack of self-esteem but a tendency forward self negation and how sense value of self.

You can not be an effective leader if you do not have a positive sense of value of your self-worth, as you will not be able to instill it in others and inspire them sufficiently to generate the faith that produces the energy for their co-operative action.

FAITH can be generated or activated:

a) A belief in God and/or, (b) A belief in your self and or, (c) A belief in cause and or, (d) A belief in the destiny of a people, society, a person, a company and or, (e) A belief in another.

EXPERIENCE

Experience is the third block of the foundation for leadership and faith the fourth. So it is important to know that it is an arid debate to continue to argue or debate if leaders are born or if they are made. Leaders are both born and made.

Leaders are born because their birth, your birth endows you or them with natural resources, aptitudes, temperament and intelligence. And if you are true to yourself, and to them, your parents’ endowed/ transmitted certain traits that are sufficient to position you in your way to leadership. We all have this universal quality: BIRTH, which qualifies us for leadership

LEADERS are also made because they are groomed, trained or imbibe training which may be deliberate by a mentor or god-father, or through formal education and institutions – schools, colleges, training programs, churches etc., and it may be accidental through learning assimilated from environmental experience.



300

300

Exposure to responsibility at an early age; parental attention; guardian inspiration; and inculcation of certain values; and by inspiration, a faith, a religion, a cause, past achievement or a people.

Ultimately, leadership is an evolutionary process with revolutionary possibilities in the process. At certain age of a man or woman’s life, revolutionary events occur to influence his or her views of the world, principles, actions and even faith or temperament.

The truth in all these is that if you think your birth has disadvantaged you for leadership, and that your experience up to this point does not give you sufficient courage and faith to carry such a responsibility, you still have a chance. You can be made. You can learn to lead. You can be made. You have to choose to lead or follow.

PREPARING TO LEAD

PART VII: LEADERSHIP WITHOUT TEARS S 301

III PREPARING TO LEAD

Many are called but few are chosen” (Matthew 22: 14)

“No race posses the monopoly of beauty, intelligence and force, and there is room for all of us at the rendezvous of victory” wrote Aimé Césaire. 129

Why are many called to be leaders and few chosen? Why is it that despite the fact that there is room for us all for leadership and to lead, only a few actually and fewer still of the few who lead do lead effectively? The key difference is preparation.

There are many of us who believe in the factor of divine providence-God- in the determination of leadership and I do. Then you have the right to concur if you so wish. But one factor is this. When God ordains a man or woman for leadership, he prepares them for it. Hence in the bible for example, you find an injunction “ If a man desire the position of a leader, he desires a good work. A leader then …not be a novice.”130

This implies that he or has to be train, tested, proven: his or her capability must have been developed and evaluated over time. Even if you are born to lead you need to be trained and prepare by others and to prepare for it yourself: To acquire sufficient experience for the good work that leadership represents. So we must not carry or overstress the issue of charisma or divine gift to lead too far beyond reason, or at the expense of the need to prepare for leadership.

Prepare yourself for the eventuality, even if you do not desire to lead, in readiness for situations that may arise, where in the interest of the followership, or a society or a popular cause, you find yourself thrust into a leadership position which you need to accept as a personal sacrifice.

129 Aimé Césaire quoted in Donald Woods (1989) BIKO. London, Pengiun Books 130 Holy Bible King James Version

PREPARING TO LEAD


All leadership is power and one has to hold on to power to achieve things. If to achieve anything is in your agenda for life, you cannot escape leadership; and if you cannot escape a measure of leadership, it is wisdom to begin now to prepare adequately so that your leadership does not end you in disappointment, discouragement or disaster.

Acquiring the ability for leadership is done through preparation. The possibility is the work of the environment and its myriad forces among which you can chose to be a proactive actor in using and affecting the various forces at work on the three leadership factors to establish the possibility for effectiveness in the performance of leadership.

Preparation for leadership is not glamorous as may appear on surface. Leadership involves a lot of pressures, tests, challenges and painful experiences. You will encounter criticism from loved ones; you will be misunderstood, misinterpreted, and misrepresented.

Your motives and approaches will questioned. You will acquire enemies because you seek to protect common good. People motivated by hatred, jealousy and fear will for meant one from rebellion or the other against you.

Even the followership may even grumble about your style. So it is necessary for you to be aware that your preparation for leadership includes the willingness except these unglamorous possibilities.

Behind the glamour of leadership, behind the show and theatre, lies a measure of stress which leaders suffer. This requires moral possibilities. You will likely face a time in your life, where as a leader, you will make decisions how be it unpopular, which you consider right and appropriate; and other decisions and actions that require great skills, but whose outcome you do not really know and cannot predict. You will entertain doubts a thousand times, but you have to overcome those doubts a thousand times too; and these consume moral and physical energy.

PREPARING TO LEAD


There are times when you find yourself going against the tide of history, doing things without precedence and other times when the whole tide of history is going your way; and all those times, you are required to provide adequate leadership; which is an extension or aftermath of adequate preparation for leadership.

I deem it necessary at this point to emphasize on the price of leadership because a mere acceptance of the glamorous and attractive side without aforehand knowing the other side, has been the ruin of many leaders and I am the last man who will want you or anybody else to fail.

The price of leadership demands on your moral fibre is very great. Those who have taken the price required of by leadership lightly, blinded by ambition and/or its rewards, have ended as drunks, cocaine addicts, social misfits, committing crimes, losing their principles and conscience as the mental and physical toll is demanding and sometimes, devastating. Exhaustion, stress, heartless, baseless criticisms. Oppressive security apparatchick, loneliness that limit your social life even with your wife, husband and children; loss of privacy, high exposure to risk; these are few of the prices you may have to pay or are already paying for leadership.

These are reasons why you must prepare. You may avoid leadership but leadership may not avoid you so; either way, preparation puts you in a better psychological position to take on the possible physical and moral toll that leadership demands.

PREPARING TO LEAD


HOW TO PREPARE TO LEAD


305

305

IV


Until a few years back, leadership development has largely been accidental or more appropriately, un-programmed, unsystematic and left to chance. But faced with the growing complexities of today’s world, the rapid pace of change; and the greater demands to upgrade once competence, the greater technical, social, political, mental, moral and physical challenge it represents, and granted that in the face of these changes, old methods of leadership or more appropriately, traditional and classic methods of leadership had become inadequate, the need for a systemic approach to leadership have become more promising, necessarily pronounced.

But ultimately for preparation for leadership is basically through

the following approaches: (a) Un-programmed unsystematic and chance/ natural

approach (b) Systemic and programmed approach.

UNPROGRAMMED AND UNSYSTEMATIC APPROACH

Leaders can be prepared by accidental events in their life; By acts and reactions of daily living; by challenges imposed by circumstance; by chance. There is no deliberate preparation or intention to prepare for leadership. Leadership development is left to chance and situational developments.

According to Field Marshall Lord Shim: “The only way in which the group need for leadership can be met is to find the potential leader and then start his training and give him the chance to lead.”

The most important are the development

1. Capacity to take decision – creativity, power of analysis, Critical judgment, imagination, sense of reality, analytic reasoning skills.



306

306

2. Self management – self motivation, initiative, sets and achieve goals, capacity to work under pressure, works to deadline, self awareness & achievement motivated leadership is developed principally by exposure to leadership of an early level or in low ranks of organization or of society. Personal qualities – strong, tenacious and determine personal impact & presentation, resilience under pressure, maturity of character flexibility and adaptability, vigorous and energetic, stable, calm, cool, breath of intent.

3. Communication skills – persuasive, perceptive listening written communication, arguably assertive

4. Teamwork – dependable behavior, get into people.

It is developed be the desire to practice it better and by the exertion of effort and thought to perform its demands in better ways; it calls for the building up of in the personalities of attitudes, character and personalities which their future leadership may require including the technological professionalism and competence that may be required. Although that is of secondary consideration. Leadership requires the continuous absorption of perceptions and attributes, the continuous development of personal character and the continuous upgrading of personal and technical competence by inhabiting the arts that will provide the structure of self discipline and moral that is demanded in effective leadership in social organization. Training is everything says Mark Twain.

SYSTEMATIC/PROGRAMME APPROACH.

In this approach, a mentor or an individual an organization take responsibilities for developing leadership in its member or in him self this is the “Jesus approach”

It follows three principles.

1. Find potential leaders

2. Start their training

3. Give him exploit the chance to lead.



307

307

According to Field Marshall Lord Slim, “the ONLY WAY in which the growing need for leadership can be met is to find the potential leader and then start his training and give him the chance to lead”, or as John Adair put it, “The soon a potential leader get out into the world and earn his or her living –and begin to learn from experience –the better. To prolong the year of academic study, even by tackling on slabs of my studies, would be a great mistake.”



0

0

DEVELOPING LEADERS

Developing leaders require a systematic approach. It requires a strategy, the identification of potential leaders, training and structure as well as the commitment of the leader in a formal environment. In what I choose to call the “informal society” the potential leader must take the personal responsibility to implement the programme.

John Adair in his book enunciated ten key principles to

leadership development.131 1. A leadership development strategies

2. A selection of potential leaders

3. The actual training of leaders

4. A career development policy

5. Line managers as leadership mention

6. Research and development adviser

7. The right structure

8. Self development

9. Organization climate

10. The commitment of the CEO

Development must focus on the two aspects of leadership – on

the local 1. The development of individual superiority in physique, skill, in

technology, perception in knowledge in memory and in managing subject to specific development by conditioning, training, education relatives, easily determinable, commanding admiration.

131 Adair, John (1988) Developing Leaders: The Ten Key Principles. McGraw-Hill Maidenhead, Berkshire



1

1

2. The more general, the more absolute, the subjective that which reflects the attitude and ideal of society and it general institution aspect of individual superiority; In determination, persistence, endurance, corrupt; that determined the quality of action, the quality of responsibility, that gives dependability and determination to human contact & foresight and ideality of purpose

Those who wish to develop leadership capacity in themselves and in others must systemize their leadership development. It is no longer enough to ask like Calder in Calder Sky, “How do you train a man to be a leader of men?” or like TAI PAN who was hunted by the same question. The Leadership Thrust Organization as a Centre for Leadership Research, Development and Consultnacy, makes it its business to find usable and practical answers to these all important questions.

Men must become matadors and take the bull by the horn. Whether we apply Douglas McGregor’s ‘agricultural approach,” where individuals grow in the environment of their circumstance, or “engineering approach,” where leadership development is systematized, in the pursuit of this objective, what matters is that there is a design to develop personal and corporate leadership and statesmanship, and that leadership and innovation is demonstrated in its performance.

“There is nobody who cannot vastly improve his power of leadership by a little thought and practice” says Field Marshall Lord Slim. But Leadership development is too important to be left to the individuals themselves.

As has been emphasized throughout this book, leadership involves the application of the principle of healthy harmonization of factors, interests, values, conflicts, personalities, societies, compartments, forces, of the individual, the society and the situation. This become imperative in developing leaders who must be equipped with the necessary capacity for judgment to cope in an environment which will definitely differ from that in which they were trained. As aptly stated by Mutsushita Konosuka (1984) in “Not For Bread Alone: A Business Ethos, A Management Ethic” “One can gain the required knowledge and experience over the years simply by working with a company, even if its management



2

2

has no sense of mission to share with the employees. But knowledge and experience alone will not help one to develop into a person of wisdom, with maturity and depth to his personality. What he needs is a philosophy that gives a frame to his thoughts and guides his behaviour….An organization whose members lack perspective and objective sense of self, on the other hand, will probably not last very long. Its individual members may be competent and have all the right information, but they will not be able to pass sound, unified judgment on the problems that confronts them. The person with a sense of self is aware of his own imperfections and, at the same time he is determined to be accurate in his evaluation of a situation. Without those qualities, including the willingness to keep trying, he will not go far in business” and I dare add, in leadership.132

132 Mutsushita Konosuka (1984) in “Not For Bread Alone: A Business Ethos, A Management Ethic, PHP Institute Inc. Panasonic Europe Headquarters Ltd.



3

3

INDEX



0

0

A

ability, viii, ix, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 28, 33, 35, 41, 57, 84, 86, 107, 109, 121, 123, 126, 128, 146, 152, 157, 170, 172, 179, 185, 191, 193, 196, 205, 206, 207, 217, 236, 239, 247, 248, 254, 260, 268, 274, 281, 282, 283, 284, 286, 287, 301, 307, 310, 311, 312, 314, 321, 324, 325, 329, 336

Ability, 97, 281, 282 Abraham Lincoln, 6, 274 Abraham Maslow, 52, 59 abstractions, 108 Acceptance of responsibility,

24 action, xii, xv, 18, 35, 53,

72, 81, 130, 131, 135, 136, 137, 140, 162, 169, 173, 184, 188, 193, 196, 197, 198, 199, 206, 207, 208, 215, 217, 226, 232, 244, 251, 252, 259, 262, 264, 265, 266, 268, 271, 272, 277, 278, 282, 283, 287, 290, 291, 312, 314, 333, 2

Action, vi, 243, 252, 259, 264, 265, 325

Add-In Leadership, 204 administration, 5 Administration, 16, 28, 67,

93, 251, 289 Admiral Sir Dick Clayton,

33, 289

Admiral Sir Richard Clayton, 12, 33

Adolf Hitler, 131, 255 aim, 16, 78, 147, 175, 183,

213, 277, 284 Aimé Césaire, 335 Albert Schweitzer, 248 Alexis de Touqueville, 109 align, 78 aligning, 229, 230, 259 Aligning, 149, 228 Alvin Toffler, 91, 92 Andrews, 17, 43 Andrews, K. R., 17 Anwar Ibrahim, 63, 278 Aristotle, xv, 6, 28, 73 Arnold Toynbet, 255 art, xii, 37, 47, 66, 103, 105,

126, 175, 273, 321, 326, 329

art of leadership, 47, 126 atmosphere, 34, 39, 149,

215, 217, 218, 220, 221, 267, 271

Atmosphere, vi, 217, 219 attitude, 55, 59, 137, 188,

196, 199, 218, 220, 221, 255, 265, 268, 270, 285, 288, 291, 327, 2

audit, 170 authority, 15, 24, 56, 117,

118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 125, 130, 139, 154, 161, 163, 177, 183, 186, 187, 197, 205, 206, 207, 209, 261, 262, 264, 265, 271, 276, 277, 284, 287, 291, 312, 315, 328

autonomy, 52, 157 Awolowo, 190



1

1

Axelrod, 39, 40 Ayn Rand, 31 Azikiwe, 190

B

Barnard, xv, 9, 16, 17, 20, 39, 41, 48, 58, 66, 71, 89, 92, 101, 103, 136, 146, 183, 204, 236, 243, 288

Barnard C, 20, 58, 71, 89, 101, 146, 183, 236, 243

Barnard XE "Barnard" ,, xv, 9, 16, 17, 20, 48, 58, 89, 204

belief, 18, 68, 70, 178, 197, 313, 333

Benjamin Disraeli, 321 Bennis, xv, 18, 127 Bennis XE "Bennis" , W. G. &

Nanus, B., 18 Berger & Luckman, 72 Bhutto,, 18 BIKO, 335 Bonnke, 310 Burns, 17, 115 Burns XE "Burns" , J. M., 17

C

C. A. Gibb, 9, 12 capacity, ix, x, xi, 20, 28, 34,

35, 36, 39, 43, 44, 51, 57, 59, 62, 72, 93, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, 136, 140, 143, 152, 164, 185, 190, 191, 199, 206, 208, 228, 236, 239, 240, 252, 254, 261, 262, 266, 268, 271, 272, 273, 274, 278, 282, 283, 284,

291, 293, 294, 312, 321, 329, 340, 2, 3

Carlyle, 7, 8, 68, 70 Carnival Structure, 297 cellular organization, 97,

100, 248, 253, 266, 275, 314

CEO, 125, 182, 269, 1 challenges of leadership,

331, 332 change, viii, xiv, 11, 18, 27,

30, 32, 33, 35, 38, 49, 56, 61, 75, 85, 88, 92, 97, 98, 107, 127, 129, 136, 151, 170, 177, 179, 180, 182, 195, 197, 198, 199, 208, 215, 221, 230, 239, 240, 245, 249, 257, 259, 263, 270, 272, 277, 281, 296, 298, 314, 339

character, 20, 22, 32, 38, 59, 71, 87, 93, 94, 95, 96, 101, 107, 112, 113, 116, 117, 119, 122, 129, 146, 151, 158, 188, 208, 211, 221, 239, 253, 256, 260, 263, 267, 270, 275, 276, 281, 288, 292, 294, 302, 305, 307, 312, 319, 327, 332, 340

character of leadership, 32, 107, 113

charismatic, 109, 111, 113, 114, 255, 256, 307

Charismatic, 62, 109, 110, 111, 113, 114

charismatic statesmanship, 307

Charles G. Finney, ix



2

2

Chester Barnard, xv, 41, 48, 71, 92, 136, 204, 288

Chief Executive, 154, 303, 1 choice, ix, 10, 24, 28, 43,

55, 57, 128, 137, 169, 282, 313, 317

Churchill, 170, 190 Clautwitz, 8, 70 Coleman A. Young, xiii Comfort, 11, 12, 107 communication, 4, 38, 85,

91, 92, 104, 146, 149, 153, 155, 157, 161, 162, 164, 187, 189, 190, 191, 192, 196, 197, 198, 219, 226, 261, 262, 263, 264, 271, 274, 277, 291, 313, 329, 340

Communication, v, 187, 340 community, 29, 31, 33, 44,

101, 104, 116, 168, 189, 221, 251, 307

compartmentalization, 116 competence, x, 16, 20, 52,

83, 158, 181, 184, 186, 202, 203, 204, 205, 211, 220, 232, 247, 274, 276, 290, 339, 340

complex organization, 4, 155, 156

Complex organization, 157 complex relationship, 11, 22,

92, 97, 99, 267 complexities, 21, 169, 281,

330, 339 compromise, 213, 277, 293 concept of leadership, 13, 16 concrete, xii, xviii, 5, 8, 9,

11, 13, 25, 44, 54, 58, 60, 61, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 77,

89, 93, 97, 114, 119, 127, 129, 130, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152, 167, 175, 178, 179, 187, 191, 195, 205, 212, 214, 217, 218, 221, 225, 243, 244, 247, 248, 249, 263, 264, 287, 303, 305, 309, 313, 314, 317

concrete functions, 148, 152, 195, 205, 221, 225, 244, 249

Concrete Functions, iv, xv, 148

conducive environment, 178 conflict, 28, 31, 34, 35, 40,

43, 55, 72, 80, 82, 92, 95, 136, 162, 183, 185, 196, 203, 215, 218, 291

Conflict, 30, 76, 97, 136, 229

congruence, 36, 230 consolidate, 78 constitution, 49, 82, 109,

152, 157, 160, 174, 183, 188, 221, 244, 264

control, 1, 6, 36, 41, 51, 81, 83, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 130, 131, 132, 153, 154, 155, 156, 162, 169, 197, 205, 206, 207, 213, 229, 237, 276, 290, 308, 315, 328

cooperation, xiv, 34, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 43, 44, 48, 71, 88, 100, 153, 180, 188, 193, 204, 229, 236, 245, 252, 259, 260, 271, 285, 291, 294, 301, 313, 314, 315



3

3

Cooperation, xiv, 39, 40 core competence, 202 core leadership functions,

145 corporate vision, 188 courage, xiv, 21, 22, 33,

192, 206, 207, 209, 218, 240, 267, 285, 287, 314, 317, 320, 335

culture, 33, 62, 77, 81, 82, 85, 131, 139, 181, 183, 184, 188, 189, 254, 262, 277, 323

customers, 35, 38, 140, 178, 232

cyclical nature of needs, 59

D

DARTS, 261, 263 decision, 10, 15, 30, 43,

154, 157, 162, 164, 168, 174, 183, 191, 196, 197, 207, 216, 226, 229, 259, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 271, 272, 275, 282, 286, 287, 294, 312, 314, 315, 317, 324, 340

Dele Israel, IKEORHA, 19 delegation, 62, 100, 116,

161, 262 Dele-Israel, i, ii, iii, xvi, 43, 1 destroy, 146, 196, 204, 236,

267, 268, 290 destruction of responsibility,

294 developing leaders, 341, 3 direct, 78, 93, 129, 130,

131, 132, 227, 229, 306, 322

directors, 69, 120, 121, 122, 189, 288, 297, 306

Directors, 120, 151, 192 dispersive tendency, 196 Doestoevsky, 46 dominant motivators, 58 domination, 94, 132, 213,

238 Donald Woods, 335 Douglas McGregor, 11, 32, 2 Drucker, x, 37, 103, 104,

138, 159, 180

E

economic, 6, 7, 27, 55, 84, 90, 99, 115, 116, 145, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 172, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 188, 189, 190, 191, 194, 202, 204, 213, 227, 229

Economic, 179, 325 Edmund Cahn, xviii, 29, 317 Edward E Pollack, 30 Edward R. Murrow, 100 effective leaders, viii, xii, xvi,

119, 160, 187, 189, 194, 202, 209, 222, 283, 286, 311, 322, 328, 341

Effective leaders, 28, 44, 45, 131, 147, 202, 203, 204, 219, 265, 270, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 287, 329

effective leadership, viii, xii, xvi, 119, 160, 187, 189, 194, 202, 209, 222, 283, 286, 311, 322, 328, 341

Effective leadership, 28, 44, 45, 131, 147, 219



4

4

Effective Leadership, vi, 19, 281, 1

effective performance, 11, 14, 190, 261, 307, 309, 311

effectiveness, v, xii, 5, 36, 68, 83, 85, 139, 149, 159, 160, 162, 163, 164, 171, 173, 175, 181, 187, 189, 191, 192, 193, 194, 199, 204, 207, 218, 220, 221, 229, 245, 246, 250, 251, 276, 287, 290, 292, 309, 311, 313, 314, 315, 322, 327, 337

Effectiveness, 193 efficiency, 44, 56, 159, 177,

181, 184, 189, 218, 220, 229, 250, 251, 292, 313, 314

egotism, 261, 269, 270 elemental functions, 78, 130,

146, 149, 178, 221, 225, 244, 250

Elemental functions, 148 Elemental Functions, vi, 225 elements of moral action,

252 elements of social

organization, xii, 72, 73, 75, 78, 92, 96, 99, 132, 169, 279

elite, 165, 251, 264, 303, 306, 307, 314

elite organizations, 306 entities, 90, 91, 243, 311 environment, x, 9, 11, 21,

33, 38, 55, 61, 91, 144, 155, 167, 168, 170, 174, 178, 183, 198, 202, 244,

245, 260, 264, 265, 271, 274, 277, 284, 293, 294, 302, 304, 305, 306, 315, 322, 323, 329, 330, 336, 1, 2, 3

equilibrium, 34, 56, 77, 81, 82, 89, 98, 99, 124, 152, 157, 158, 213, 216, 220, 221, 237, 245, 253, 264, 279, 310, 313

ethics, 45 ethos, 2, 57, 116, 188, 192,

216, 262, 304 evolutionary leadership, 111 evolutionary statesmanship,

307 Executive, iv, 9, 16, 17, 18,

20, 37, 41, 48, 58, 66, 89, 92, 101, 103, 109, 110, 119, 120, 121, 123, 126, 144, 146, 151, 154, 243, 303, 1

executive leadership, 119, 123, 124, 125, 126

Executive leadership, 119, 120, 121, 123

Executive Leadership, 18 exertions, 267 experience, xviii, 6, 8, 12,

20, 30, 35, 36, 38, 48, 60, 80, 116, 125, 131, 137, 171, 205, 209, 251, 273, 275, 303, 313, 320, 321, 324, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 341, 3

external focus, 302, 305, 307 externalization, 302, 304,

307



5

5

F

factors, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 25, 34, 36, 40, 41, 43, 44, 49, 51, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 97, 98, 100, 105, 106, 116, 117, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 139, 140, 143, 144, 149, 154, 156, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 181, 184, 187, 195, 198, 199, 201, 202, 203, 213, 214, 216, 225, 227, 229, 230, 231, 245, 246, 249, 253, 259, 260, 262, 265, 277, 279, 281, 282, 287, 288, 290, 291, 294, 297, 298, 306, 310, 311, 313, 314, 319, 322, 337, 3

Factors, v, 9, 10, 105, 167, 245

factors of leadership, 8, 12, 14, 25, 44, 73, 75, 76, 79, 94, 129, 143, 144, 156, 175, 181, 198, 213, 230, 310, 314

Factors of leadership, 245 failure, 1, 29, 44, 48, 80,

128, 138, 145, 183, 190, 192, 236, 266, 267, 268, 269, 273, 288, 294, 312, 313

failure in leadership, 1, 145, 190

faith, 15, 20, 21, 46, 132, 138, 139, 178, 188, 197,

198, 206, 214, 215, 217, 239, 241, 247, 258, 259, 267, 268, 271, 272, 273, 283, 284, 285, 292, 312, 313, 332, 333, 334, 335

Field Marshal Lord Montgomery, 16, 174

Field Marshall Lord Slim, 341, 2

Finney, ix Flaws, 191 focus, 139, 168, 170, 182,

195, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205, 230, 241, 259, 275, 276, 277, 302, 305, 307, 1

Follett, 69, 204, 244, 257, 276

followers, xi, 3, 9, 10, 11, 17, 19, 23, 35, 36, 37, 100, 187, 189, 196, 199, 202, 204, 206, 211, 212, 217, 245, 254, 255, 256, 265, 271, 285, 287

followership, 149, 181, 189, 190, 191, 209, 212, 216, 257, 304, 336, 337

forces of the man, 19, 24, 121, 244, 260, 263, 273, 296

forces of the situation, 24, 85 forces of the society, 24, 82,

84, 85, 121, 129, 273 formal organization, 22, 23,

49, 154, 158, 162 frames, 110, 111, 114, 115,

117, 126, 301 Frames, 324 frames of leadership, 301 Freda Laski, 54



6

6

freedom, 29, 32, 37, 52, 55, 128, 132, 182, 277, 317

Freedom, 52 functions, viii, ix, xi, xii, 9,

14, 78, 100, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153, 155, 156, 161, 173, 175, 178, 183, 190, 195, 202, 205, 221, 225, 230, 239, 244, 247, 248, 249, 250, 265, 294, 301, 304, 305, 309, 320

Functions, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, xv, 9, 16, 17, 20, 41, 48, 58, 66, 89, 92, 101, 103, 104, 142, 143, 146, 148, 225, 243

functions of leadership, xi, 78, 130, 143, 144, 146, 148, 149, 178, 190, 205, 244, 249, 250, 301, 305

Functions Of Leadership, 148

G

Galbraith, 179 Gandhi, 140, 190, 275 Gardner, 19, 288, 324 Garrett Fitzgerald, 126, 127 Gary Yukl, xv, 14 Geoffrey Stern, 18 Gibb, 9, 12 global, 27, 48, 91, 93, 104,

168, 202, 203, 277 goal, 16, 18, 20, 23, 42, 62,

114, 132, 194, 199, 200,

202, 211, 229, 230, 231, 246, 252, 253, 285, 312

goals, 10, 20, 22, 23, 30, 34, 36, 42, 86, 116, 118, 126, 160, 168, 173, 174, 182, 197, 198, 199, 228, 230, 244, 245, 250, 251, 252, 260, 261, 262, 275, 283, 286, 289, 291, 340

God, xiv, 37, 42, 46, 47, 80, 209, 238, 239, 320, 333, 335

Good leadership, 128 good naturedness, 32, 259,

271, 288 Gordon Wood, 73 great leader, 42, 83, 321,

322, 326

H

habits, 146, 250, 266, 322, 329

habits of effectiveness, 250 habits of efficiency, 250 Harold Geneen, 169, 269 Harold Wilson, 175, 183,

246, 247 Harvey-Jones, 19, 176, 288 Havard, 9, 10, 16, 158 Helmut Schmidt, 11 Henry Ford, 43 Herbert Macauley, 190 Herbert Simon, 32 hierarchy of factors, 34, 94,

245 hierarchy of need, 53, 56,

58, 59 historic forces, 203 Historic forces, 93



7

7

historical vision, 190, 191 history, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12, 29, 30,

32, 34, 41, 44, 46, 54, 57, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 90, 125, 128, 132, 146, 182, 190, 192, 237, 275, 288, 313, 315, 324, 337

History, 6, 7, 8, 69, 83, 179, 255, 316

Ho Chi Minh, 132 Holy Bible, 5, 71, 140, 336 human factor, ix, xii, xv, 25,

27, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 49, 108, 220

Human Factor, iv, 27 human nature, 28, 33, 45,

46, 48, 53, 54, 56, 247, 248, 257, 275

I

IBM, 96, 163, 182 ideal, 19, 29, 32, 45, 82, 95,

199, 218, 230, 255, 275, 291, 2

Ideal, 31, 76 identity, 32, 93, 98, 206,

277, 302, 303, 304, 305, 321

Ifepariola, 49, 50 image, 45, 188, 251, 252,

302, 303, 304, 305 Image is a function, 287 imagination, 63, 140, 183,

252, 340 imperatives, viii, 104, 130,

132, 229, 247, 262, 265, 284, 303, 306, 311

incentives, 38, 62, 160, 163, 177, 178, 182, 227, 294

incompetence, 34, 138, 228 individual, xii, 11, 16, 19,

20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 42, 43, 44, 48, 51, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 86, 88, 89, 96, 104, 106, 120, 121, 122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 135, 136, 139, 143, 153, 182, 202, 203, 204, 210, 213, 215, 216, 219, 220, 222, 244, 245, 249, 250, 251, 252, 254, 258, 259, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 272, 278, 286, 287, 288, 291, 293, 295, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307, 308, 314, 319, 321, 322, 325, 327, 329, 331, 341, 1, 2, 3

Individual, 178, 257, 298 individual goals, 42, 286 individuals, xi, xvi, 9, 10, 12,

15, 22, 34, 35, 36, 57, 60, 61, 70, 96, 97, 136, 154, 170, 177, 179, 182, 196, 197, 199, 206, 214, 216, 219, 221, 238, 248, 249, 253, 254, 257, 266, 268, 270, 271, 275, 276, 277, 292, 305, 312, 322, 326, 328, 2, 3

Industrial Democracy, 32 influence, xvii, 23, 28, 33,

38, 43, 49, 55, 79, 90, 93, 95, 123, 129, 130, 135, 144, 151, 153, 159, 172, 189, 196, 213, 231, 253, 254, 260, 261, 284, 289,



8

8

302, 303, 305, 311, 315, 329, 334

inner focus, 182, 241, 302, 305

inspirational skills, 310 institution, 91, 93, 122, 124,

160, 167, 168, 171, 174, 193, 196, 213, 220, 289, 328, 2

integrity, 15, 35, 113, 114, 118, 125, 149, 162, 185, 187, 189, 191, 211, 254, 259, 290, 312

intuition, 170, 315

J

J. G. Hunt, & D. M. Hosking, C. A. Schrieshiem, A. R. Stewart, 18

J. H. Folger, 43 Jacobs, 17 Jan Hildreth, 288 Jan Leschly, 158 Janda, 16 Jenkings, 10 Jesus, 54, 324, 341 Hendry, J, 18 Jonathan Andrews, 43 Joyce Cary, 42 judgement, 158, 185, 329 judgment, 16, 34, 84, 88,

132, 236, 244, 249, 271, 272, 288, 314, 317, 340, 3

Julius Nyerere, 190 Junta structure, 100

K

Karl Marx, xv, 69, 151, 152

Katz, D & Kahn, R. L, 17 Keegan, 11, 68, 106, 143

L

Laski, 54 laws, xv, xviii, 25, 28, 74,

75, 76, 78, 135, 136, 144, 183, 244, 245, 246, 250, 265, 287, 313

Laws, iv, 8, 47, 85, 135 laws of social organization,

74 laws of the man, 244 laws of the situation, 244 leader, xi, xiii, xv, 2, 8, 9, 10,

11, 12, 13, 19, 20, 23, 24, 33, 37, 38, 42, 43, 45, 49, 63, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 94, 95, 97, 100, 106, 111, 120, 123, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 136, 138, 143, 144, 145, 146, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 175, 180, 184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 192, 196, 198, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221, 228, 229, 230, 239, 240, 241, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 264, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274,



9

9

275, 276, 277, 279, 281, 284, 287, 288, 289, 290, 292, 293, 294, 295, 297, 298, 301, 303, 304, 305, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 319, 320, 321, 322, 326, 328, 329, 330, 331, 333, 336, 337, 340, 341, 1, 2

Leader, 12, 14, 16, 68, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 89, 171, 198, 261, 310, 311

leadership, viii, ix, x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, xvii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 62, 63, 67, 68, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198,

199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 237, 239, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 265, 267, 269, 270, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 1, 2, 3, 1

Leadership, i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi, ix, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 42, 48, 49, 62, 67, 74, 76, 83, 87, 93, 100, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 115, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 130, 131, 132, 135, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 151, 167, 171, 173, 177, 181, 182, 187, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 201, 204, 205, 211, 212, 215, 216, 217, 218,



10

10

220, 221, 225, 230, 231, 235, 243, 246, 249, 251, 253, 257, 260, 261, 264, 276, 278, 281, 288, 289, 295, 296, 298, 301, 303, 305, 309, 310, 311, 316, 319, 325, 329, 332, 337, 339, 340, 2, 1

leadership activity, 2 leadership by

direct/proximate control, 131, 132

Leadership by proxy, 131 leadership by remote

control, 131, 132 Leadership by remote

control, 131 Leadership by Remote

Control, 132 Leadership By Remote

Control, 130 Leadership by Touring (LBT),

131 Leadership Defined, iv leadership fails, 289, 293 leadership forces, 93, 152 Leadership functions, viii, ix,

x, xi, xii, xiii, xv, xvi, xvii, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49, 62, 63, 67, 68, 72, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115,

116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 167, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 237, 239, 240, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 260, 261, 265, 267, 269, 270, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 281, 282, 283, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 1, 2, 3, 1

leadership in action, xv Leadership In Action, vi, 243



11

11

Leadership is, ix, 3, 10, 20, 22, 24, 34, 42, 48, 49, 67, 76, 105, 106, 109, 115, 121, 135, 146, 171, 182, 194, 204, 246, 249, 253, 289, 296, 309, 310, 311, 316, 319, 332

leadership scenario, 303 leadership system, ix, 192,

232 Leadership System, 105 Leadership Thrust

Organization, 74, 2 leadership triad, 12, 14, 22,

44, 75, 78, 79, 87, 95, 144, 159, 171, 202, 246

learning, xii, 77, 116, 168, 273, 320, 328, 329, 330, 331, 333, 334

legitimacy, 315 Lenin, 7, 69, 140 Lenz, T. R., 18 levels of abstraction, 105,

108, 114, 115 levels of leadership, 115 limitations, 1, 28, 43, 45,

153, 154, 156, 273, 281 lobby, 159 logic, 42, 251 Lord Denning, 190 Lord Slim, 341, 2, 4 Lou Gerstner, 182 luck, 83, 97

M

Machiavelli, 15, 33, 206, 271

Mafia, 100, 162, 295, 296, 298

Mafia structure, 100, 296 Mahatma Gandhi, 190, 275 maintaining equilibrium, 34 making of leaders, xv Making of Leaders, vi man, xvii, 2, 3, 5, 7, 19, 24,

25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 54, 55, 57, 59, 60, 63, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 79, 82, 85, 89, 90, 92, 96, 106, 107, 109, 121, 129, 132, 136, 137, 140, 141, 144, 146, 169, 171, 196, 201, 208, 215, 243, 244, 245, 246, 250, 260, 263, 273, 274, 286, 296, 301, 308, 334, 335, 338, 2

Man, xii, xviii, 4, 14, 29, 31, 33, 38, 47, 48, 52, 57, 67, 68, 72, 75, 92, 97, 298, 317, 320

management, x, 3, 4, 5, 36, 41, 42, 97, 121, 138, 148, 153, 175, 189, 232, 283, 290, 292, 311, 315, 340, 3

managers, 35, 36, 116, 156, 1

mandate, 163, 212, 315 Mandate, 227 Mandela, xiii, 132, 190, 274 manipulation, 170 Mao Tse Tung, 7, 70, 71 mapping, 225, 228, 229,

283 Mapping, 149, 225, 226 Margaret Thatcher, 190, 274,

327



12

12

Mark Twain, 341 Martin Luther King, 324 Marx, xv, 69, 90, 151, 152 Mary Parker Follett, 204,

244, 257 Maslow, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56,

59, 60 McGregor, 11, 32, 125, 140,

2 mental programming, 170,

226, 282, 283, 284, 286 mentality, 209, 331 mentors, 135 mentorship, 49, 331 metaphor, 255, 274 Mier, 10 Mikhail Gorbachev, 208 mimesis, 255 Miner, x, 13, 103 mission, 173, 226, 251, 252,

253, 254, 260, 3 mobilize, viii, 19, 24, 78,

121, 139, 146, 191, 293, 305

models, 27, 39, 43 modern corporation, 74, 91,

116 Montgomery, 16, 63, 138,

173, 174, 176, 190, 288 moral capacity, 136, 164,

185, 190, 191, 239, 261 moral courage, 192, 240 moral example, 329 moral persistence, 170, 184 moral responsibility, 120,

123, 124, 210 morality, 117, 118, 139,

149, 153, 176, 183, 184, 185, 210, 236, 240, 241,

244, 260, 265, 276, 277, 278, 285, 294, 328, 331

Morality, v, 181 motivation, xii, xv, 35, 43,

51, 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 126, 180, 196, 203, 267, 268, 285, 340

Motivation, iv, 42, 51, 53, 54, 56, 60, 61, 62, 63

motive force, 8, 68, 70, 71, 72, 75, 90, 128, 289

motives, 7, 15, 20, 28, 29, 31, 35, 38, 55, 69, 73, 132, 137, 179, 180, 259, 337

multiple intelligence, 324 Mutsushita Konosuka, 3

N

nature of work, 145 need, viii, ix, x, xii, xv, xvi,

13, 22, 35, 38, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 74, 82, 83, 84, 91, 95, 103, 104, 147, 153, 154, 155, 172, 182, 196, 197, 206, 214, 215, 216, 226, 229, 230, 231, 239, 260, 263, 264, 266, 277, 281, 285, 301, 303, 304, 317, 320, 321, 329, 330, 336, 339, 340, 341

Need, 58, 59, 60 negotiable options, 140 Nelson Mandela, xiii, 132,

190, 274 net-positive utility, 178 network of elite, 303 Nnamdi Azikiwe, 190



13

13

non-charismatic statesmanship, 307

non-executive leadership, 119, 123, 126

Non-executive leadership, 122

Non-Executive Leadership, 124

non-leadership functions, 145

Nur Alkali, 8

O

Obafemi Awolowo, 190 Obasanjo, xiv, 171, 190, 274 objective authority, 15, 183,

186, 312, 315 objective purpose, 48, 197,

238, 273, 312 objectives, 17, 34, 41, 42,

43, 45, 121, 131, 138, 164, 168, 170, 173, 174, 181, 182, 189, 198, 199, 206, 213, 218, 219, 227, 229, 239, 246, 252, 270, 274, 313, 315

Omar N. Bradley, 261 operational environment,

202 operational factors, 202 operational principles, 202 opportunity, xiii, 23, 47, 62,

174, 238, 274, 319, 320, 321, 325, 329, 332

organization, v, ix, xi, xii, xv, xvi, 3, 5, 11, 14, 16, 17, 28, 34, 35, 43, 44, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 75, 78, 90, 91, 92, 93,

94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 103, 109, 114, 115, 116, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 138, 139, 144, 145, 148, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 169, 170, 172, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 184, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 202, 203, 204, 205, 209, 213, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 230, 231, 232, 237, 239, 243, 244, 245, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 260, 263, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 279, 282, 284, 286, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 298, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 311, 312, 315, 328, 340, 341, 3

Organization, iv, xii, 65, 66, 67, 74, 128, 151, 193, 194, 195, 221, 230, 293, 297, 311, 1

Organizational Cells, 99 organizational cooperation,

35 Organizational impulse, 271 Organizational Mole, 311 Organizational MOLE, 193 organizational morality, 139,

149 Organizational morality, 183



14

14

Organizational Morality, v, 181

organizational sclerosis, 184 Organizational theory, 47

P

paradigm, xi, xii, xv, 59, 103, 104, 113, 225, 301, 309, 313

paradigm of leadership, xi, 103, 309

paradigmic closure, 47, 114 para-executive, 156, 157 Paschal, 46 patterns, 7, 9, 14, 16, 21, 24,

59, 75, 76, 77, 79, 83, 86, 87, 88, 95, 119, 127, 128, 130, 145, 161, 203, 255, 282, 310

personal example, 131, 285, 291

personal style, xi, 12, 33, 287

personality, 2, 9, 22, 62, 72, 117, 143, 144, 146, 187, 188, 206, 240, 247, 249, 260, 270, 276, 277, 288, 291, 296, 301, 302, 327, 3

perspective, xii, 35, 94, 225, 327, 3

pervasive tendencies, 34 Peter Drucker, 37, 103, 159 Philip Selznick, xv, 93, 251 philosophy, xviii, 14, 48, 58,

89, 181, 184, 226, 317, 3 Pierre Du Pont, 274 pilot, 47, 48, 237, 303 plane of abstraction, 113

planes of leadership, 126 Plato, xiii, 6, 8, 33, 47, 71,

87 policies, 89, 173, 175, 183,

188, 191, 203, 220 political, xviii, 6, 11, 20, 29,

31, 41, 55, 69, 90, 93, 96, 99, 107, 115, 116, 138, 145, 149, 151, 152, 160, 161, 162, 163, 173, 179, 180, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 202, 208, 213, 227, 229, 245, 254, 261, 267, 272, 273, 296, 307, 317, 339

Political, v, 82, 187, 325 politics, 40, 49, 61, 85, 99,

123, 127 pool of leaders, 303 positional responsibility,

124, 126 positive values, 279, 327,

333 possibility, ix, 14, 38, 44, 48,

77, 79, 94, 123, 126, 127, 128, 138, 140, 159, 170, 174, 206, 269, 287, 294, 310, 326, 336

power, 15, 16, 20, 23, 39, 45, 54, 55, 59, 75, 118, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 128, 131, 139, 146, 151, 154, 157, 164, 173, 187, 191, 199, 202, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 229, 238, 252, 254, 259, 260, 267, 269, 276, 298, 312, 320, 336, 340, 2

Power, 19, 125, 288



15

15

practice, x, xii, xv, 2, 14, 24, 34, 103, 127, 135, 136, 137, 140, 183, 186, 192, 207, 230, 249, 288, 293, 303, 304, 313, 321, 327, 340, 2

pragma, 135 Pragma, 137 pragmatic dynamism, 77 pragmatic mechanism, 77 praxis, 135, 140, 162, 207 Praxis, 137 President, xiv, 18, 28, 42,

43, 121, 154, 171, 251, 272, 303

pressure, v, xiv, 39, 55, 149, 179, 184, 185, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 213, 266, 340

price of leadership, 338 Prime Minister, 63, 72, 125,

126, 127, 175, 183, 246, 278, 327

principle of acceptance of responsibility, 202

principle of power, 202 principle of promoting a

healthy harmonization, 299

principle of vision, 274 principles, xv, 2, 14, 29, 46,

105, 116, 118, 135, 136, 138, 140, 192, 202, 213, 225, 230, 244, 257, 259, 279, 334, 338, 341, 1

Principles, vi, xv, 0, 12, 33, 137, 140, 174, 219, 257, 289, 1

problems, xii, 2, 9, 18, 22, 40, 79, 121, 122, 145,

147, 152, 168, 195, 196, 197, 214, 219, 220, 283, 303, 313, 324, 3

Problems, 3, 10, 49, 50, 220 Problems of organizations, 3 processes, xi, 5, 20, 29, 34,

42, 56, 72, 90, 94, 116, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 139, 157, 164, 173, 183, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 206, 212, 261, 264, 271, 273, 284, 291, 293, 310, 312, 314

Processes, v, 105, 187 progressive leadership, 253,

258, 260, 290, 313 progressive leadership

behavior, 260, 290, 313 Progressive leadership

behavior, 290 psychological virus, 255,

256 psychology, 31, 136, 253,

262, 275, 312 purpose, xii, 3, 11, 16, 20,

23, 24, 36, 63, 73, 110, 116, 122, 137, 139, 147, 149, 160, 162, 163, 165, 167, 168, 169, 172, 174, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185, 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 203, 204, 205, 207, 213, 217, 225, 226, 238, 239, 245, 251, 252, 253, 259, 261, 263, 264, 265, 267, 268, 271, 273, 274, 278, 283, 286, 287, 293, 294, 303, 306, 312, 314, 2

Purpose, v, 167, 247



16

16

Q

qualities, 7, 11, 22, 57, 68, 74, 143, 152, 171, 183, 209, 246, 248, 296, 309, 315, 319, 321, 322, 323, 340, 3

qualities necessary for leadership, 11

quality of action, 2 quality of decision, 314 quality of process, 314 Queen Elizabeth, 211

R

race to the top, 49 reciprocal relationship, 92 Red Queen, 96 regressive leadership, 257,

287, 290, 312, 313 regressive leadership

behavior, 287, 290, 312, 313

Regressive leadership behavior, 257, 312

regressive trap, 259 Reinhard Bonnke, 310 relationship, 10, 11, 14, 16,

22, 42, 59, 68, 71, 72, 76, 77, 80, 83, 86, 87, 90, 92, 97, 131, 147, 156, 167, 179, 202, 231, 245, 267, 279, 287, 296, 305, 310, 324

religion, 48, 55, 58, 89, 334 responsibility, v, x, 3, 20, 22,

23, 24, 34, 36, 39, 56, 74, 76, 83, 84, 100, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 128, 138, 149,

151, 153, 154, 160, 162, 163, 164, 167, 168, 169, 173, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 188, 192, 193, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202, 204, 207, 210, 211, 215, 217, 226, 227, 231, 236, 237, 240, 244, 247, 250, 254, 260, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 276, 277, 290, 291, 294, 319, 331, 333, 334, 335, 1, 2

Responsibility, 195 rest, xviii, 265, 267, 268,

270 revolution, viii, xiii, 27, 48,

73, 91, 93, 212, 215 Revolution, 73, 152, 213 revolutionary leadership,

111 ring leader, 297 Ring structure, 100 Roach, C. F. & Behling, O.,

18 Robert Axelrod, 39, 40 Robert Gilpin, 40 Robert J. Steinberg, 324 Robert M. Fulmer, 128 Ronald Reagan, 274

S

Samuel Johnson, 246 sanction, 62, 160, 184, 185,

188, 190, 228, 229, 264, 285

Sanction, 228 schema of organization, 315 scheme of leadership, 101 Schmidt, 10, 11



17

17

science, xii, xv, 31, 33, 41, 45, 46, 48, 57, 66, 78, 89, 103, 105, 135, 317

scientific temper, xiii, 33, 188

self actualization, 55, 59 Self Esteem Quotient, 322 self-actualization, 46, 53, 54,

56, 59 Selznick, xv, 16, 28, 67, 93,

251, 289 Selznick XE "Selznick" , P.,

16, 93, 251, 289 shades of leadership, 107,

109, 301 Shades of leadership, 106 Silvermann, 114 Simon, xviii, 29, 32, 317 Sir Ahmadu Bello, 190 Sir Graham Gray, 327 situation, x, xii, 8, 9, 10, 11,

12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 43, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93, 94, 95, 96, 100, 106, 121, 127, 128, 129, 136, 137, 138, 139, 144, 145, 147, 149, 152, 156, 158, 167, 171, 172, 175, 176, 183, 189, 196, 198, 201, 202, 204, 206, 207, 208, 210, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 229, 230, 237, 239, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249, 250, 253, 254, 257, 259, 260, 261, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 275,

276, 277, 279, 281, 282, 285, 286, 287, 293, 294, 297, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 307, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316, 321, 324, 331, 332, 3

Situation, 75, 76, 78 skill, 19, 66, 71, 103, 153,

164, 178, 217, 218, 226, 262, 274, 282, 283, 284, 286, 309, 310, 327, 331, 1

skills, viii, ix, xiii, 2, 20, 47, 136, 146, 148, 157, 173, 211, 231, 247, 250, 272, 281, 283, 285, 287, 297, 304, 307, 309, 310, 317, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 337, 340

social entities, 90 social expectation, ix, 2, 291 social forces, 73, 81, 82, 86,

91, 93, 96, 132, 174, 212, 213, 221, 239, 264, 277, 294, 315

social interface, 89 Social Organisation, 67 social organization, xii, xv,

14, 28, 44, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 78, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 107, 109, 126, 132, 154, 169, 202, 213, 217, 237, 243, 248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 279, 290, 292, 341

Social organization, xii, 67, 68, 94, 97, 98, 99, 243, 293

Social Organization, iv, 67



18

18

social process, 29, 68, 126, 145, 164, 177, 179, 183, 184, 206, 209, 260, 261, 298

social revolution, 91, 92 Social revolution, 91 Social science, 45 social scientists, 1, 13, 27,

30, 43, 45, 79 social structure, 89, 90, 116,

127, 214, 215, 231, 290, 320

social systems, 31, 90, 91, 160

social theory, x, 6, 31, 45, 46, 47, 72, 93

social transformation, 90, 91 society, viii, x, xii, 8, 10, 11,

12, 13, 14, 19, 21, 24, 25, 32, 34, 35, 37, 38, 42, 43, 48, 49, 53, 56, 57, 62, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 88, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 100, 101, 106, 121, 126, 127, 128, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 144, 145, 146, 147, 152, 153, 156, 158, 165, 169, 171, 172, 175, 176, 179, 181, 189, 192, 196, 197, 198, 199, 201, 204, 206, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 237, 238, 241, 244, 245, 247, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 266,

267, 268, 270, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 289, 290, 293, 294, 296, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 316, 317, 321, 327, 328, 329, 331, 333, 336, 340, 1, 2, 3

Society, v, 12, 33, 69, 72, 75, 76, 78, 79, 82, 215, 247, 249, 258, 272, 276, 314

Socrates, xiii Socratic, 275 solutions, 122, 196, 229 specialization, 108, 116,

124, 326 spectrum of leadership, 106 spirit, 21, 28, 30, 32, 46, 59,

63, 86, 136, 146, 153, 160, 188, 195, 196, 202, 206, 208, 209, 217, 218, 219, 220, 227, 232, 238, 267, 268, 273, 320

Spirit, 41 spontaneous leadership, 24 Spontaneous leadership, 22,

23 star structure, 295, 302 statesmanship, xii, xvi, 106,

302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 2

statesmanship era, 307 statesmen, 304, 306 status of leadership, 117 status principles of

leadership, 118 Stein, 11, 72, 126, 127



19

19

Steve Shirley, 187, 272 Stogdill, 9, 10, 16, 17, 145 Stogdill XE "Stogdill" & A. E.

Coons, 16 Stogdill XE "Stogdill" , R. M,

17 strategic elite, 306 strategic factor, 35, 77, 98,

139, 167, 170, 171, 172, 195, 213, 249, 257, 259, 262, 263, 265, 277, 289, 293, 294, 306, 313

strategic factors, 35, 98, 139, 167, 170, 172, 195, 213, 249, 259, 262, 306, 313

Strategic factors, 167, 168 Strategic Factors, v, 167 strategic statesmanship, 305 strategic thinking, 225 strategy, 78, 163, 174, 230,

246, 1 Strategy, 15, 228 Strength, 201 strength centres, 201, 202 stress, 56, 182, 217, 240,

248, 265, 266, 268, 337, 338

Stress, 269 stresses, 261, 265, 267 strong leadership, 187, 276 Strong leadership, 260, 261,

276 structure, 11, 17, 20, 23, 66,

90, 100, 101, 103, 104, 105, 119, 127, 131, 137, 159, 163, 164, 174, 188, 190, 191, 192, 195, 209, 214, 215, 228, 230, 231, 289, 291, 295, 296, 297,

298, 302, 312, 320, 341, 1

Structure, 228, 295, 296, 297, 298

structured leadership, 22, 24 Structured leadership, 23 style, xi, 33, 76, 83, 84, 110,

287, 337 subordinate authority, 117,

118 subordinate goals, 118 subordinate leaders, 117,

118, 306 subordinate leadership, 117,

118 subordinate position, 118 subordinate statesmanship,

307 subordination, 118, 197, 215 success, viii, x, 1, 15, 29, 39,

43, 44, 55, 56, 80, 83, 84, 97, 122, 128, 138, 151, 159, 164, 172, 176, 186, 191, 200, 204, 238, 248, 266, 269, 273, 282, 283, 285, 288, 289, 290, 305, 311, 315, 323, 330, 332

sufficient power, 124, 154 superordinate authority, 117,

118 superordinate decisions, 118 superordinate functions, 118 superordinate goals, 118 superordinate integrity, 118 superordinate leaders, 118 superordinate leadership,

118 superordinate position, 118 superordinate positions, 118 superordinate power, 118



20

20

superordinate responsibilities, 118

superordinate statesmanship, 307

symbol, 114, 132 synchronize, 78 systems, ix, xi, 4, 5, 31, 35,

42, 57, 62, 85, 90, 91, 99, 100, 114, 116, 153, 160, 170, 174, 177, 184, 188, 193, 220, 226, 227, 228, 229, 232, 266, 269, 277, 283, 286, 291, 297, 311, 313, 314

T

TAI PAN, 2 Tannenbeum, 10 team, 21, 23, 33, 61, 69,

124, 157, 160, 226 technique, 43 technological forces, 96 the law of nature, 3 the nature of leadership, 79,

80, 307 Theda Skocpol, 152, 213 theory, x, xii, xv, 6, 9, 18, 28,

31, 39, 41, 45, 46, 47, 53, 56, 59, 60, 67, 72, 77, 78, 87, 93, 104, 116, 127, 135, 137, 140, 257, 288, 324, 325

theory of cooperation, 39 THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE,

325 Theory X, 11, 32, 51 Thomas Carlyle, 7, 8, 68 three forces of history, 8

time, viii, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 14, 21, 24, 25, 32, 34, 35, 37, 43, 45, 56, 58, 60, 63, 70, 71, 73, 76, 77, 81, 82, 83, 85, 92, 94, 97, 98, 99, 106, 107, 115, 119, 131, 132, 135, 140, 143, 145, 147, 152, 153, 154, 156, 164, 165, 169, 175, 179, 189, 198, 204, 213, 216, 221, 232, 239, 244, 250, 262, 264, 266, 268, 270, 271, 275, 283, 287, 288, 311, 314, 315, 322, 329, 332, 336, 337, 3

Time, 8, 70, 92, 96, 99, 115 time capsule, 4, 92 Time Capsule, 99 time loop, 4, 99 Time shuttle, 92 time trap, 4 total situation, 34, 167, 176,

202, 215, 219, 237, 244, 245, 249, 253, 259, 261, 263, 264, 265, 270, 274, 279, 312

training, 37, 217, 226, 320, 327, 328, 329, 330, 333, 334, 340, 341, 1

transactional, 109, 111, 115, 180, 260

Transactional, 109, 110, 111 transactional leadership,

111, 115 transformational, 109, 111,

112, 113, 114, 115, 135 Transformational, 109, 110,

111 transformational leadership,

111, 113, 114, 115



21

21

U

utility, 14, 149, 169, 174, 177, 178, 179, 180, 197, 260, 264, 277, 294, 313

Utility, 177

V

Václav Havel, 28 value systems, 35, 57, 297 values, 16, 18, 20, 21, 39,

40, 43, 48, 57, 59, 82, 93, 98, 99, 128, 160, 173, 181, 182, 184, 185, 192, 197, 214, 225, 227, 230, 246, 255, 256, 260, 265, 278, 282, 283, 296, 302, 303, 304, 305, 307, 312, 322, 327, 328, 329, 333, 334, 3

variables, ix, 11, 12, 13, 14, 22, 75, 77, 79, 80, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 106, 107, 123, 167, 168, 169, 212, 219, 230, 244, 270, 272, 282, 284, 287

victory, 23, 335 vision, 18, 20, 21, 22, 36,

37, 127, 130, 131, 148, 160, 170, 184, 188, 190, 191, 192, 195, 198, 201, 203, 207, 212, 218, 225, 226, 231, 232, 238, 240, 241, 251, 252, 254, 260, 262, 271, 274, 275, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 291, 294, 306, 312, 313

Vladimir Lenin, 7

W

Warren Bennis, xv, 127 weaknesses, 37, 40, 45, 201,

202, 204, 230, 277, 319 What is Leadership?, 1 What Is Leadership?, 146 Whittleton, 19 William Prentice, 42 Winston Churchill, 170, 190 women, 6, 43, 45, 54, 56,

72, 121, 237, 273, 274, 320, 321, 324

Woodrow Wilson, 288 work, viii, 13, 14, 20, 30,

37, 38, 48, 51, 61, 70, 71, 72, 73, 89, 91, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 107, 116, 124, 127, 132, 143, 144, 145, 146, 156, 157, 158, 169, 170, 207, 213, 216, 221, 227, 243, 244, 245, 247, 257, 267, 269, 270, 285, 312, 313, 314, 327, 330, 336, 340

world, viii, x, xii, xiv, xv, 6, 7, 8, 28, 41, 43, 48, 54, 61, 68, 70, 71, 91, 92, 93, 96, 99, 101, 107, 140, 143, 157, 203, 238, 240, 241, 249, 251, 258, 265, 267, 268, 273, 275, 276, 277, 288, 302, 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 315, 324, 327, 329, 330, 334, 339, 341

Y

Yukl, xv, 10, 13, 14



22

22

Z

Zebra Structure, 298 Zik, 190



23

23

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dele-Israel, Ikeorha is the Chief Executive Officer of Computa-Veritas Corp. and is a Member of the Institute of Management Consultants, and Fellow of the International Leadership Institute. Born on 16 July 1967, Mr. Dele-Israel has authored over ten books in the past decade including The Problem With Nigeria, Forces of Effective Leadership, How To Make Money among others. He I currently working on a new book on leadership: Patterns of Leadership to be released soon.

While concepts abound about the destruction of authority, and fashionable as it is to say that authority is on the decline, the author asserts that authority has become explicit. The kind of leader needed in the new millennium is one who has what the author calls “authority competence” one who knows how to control rather than be controlled by authority. A leaderwho knows how to use power to serve rather than to destroy; one who has competence to avoid arbitrary use of power. The Rise of Authority: Leadership In The New World deals on how to acquire and make authority work for you at all times.

HOW TO ACQUIRE AND MAKE AUTHORITY WORK FOR YOU AT ALL TIMES.

functions of leadership

Documents

function of leadership

leadership thrust

leadership fundamentals

nature of leadership

paradigm of leadership

leadership structures

v functions of leadership

skills of effective