functional options for sustainable shrimp aquaculture in india

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Functional Options for Sustainable Shrimp Aquaculturein IndiaValsa Remony Manoj a & Namasivayam Vasudevan aa Centre for Environmental Studies , Anna University , Chennai , Tamilnadu , IndiaPublished online: 28 Mar 2009.

To cite this article: Valsa Remony Manoj & Namasivayam Vasudevan (2009) Functional Options for Sustainable ShrimpAquaculture in India, Reviews in Fisheries Science, 17:3, 336-347, DOI: 10.1080/10641260802715072

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Reviews in Fisheries Science, 17(3):336–347, 2009Copyright C©© Taylor and Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1064-1262 printDOI: 10.1080/10641260802715072

Functional Options for SustainableShrimp Aquaculture in India

VALSA REMONY MANOJ and NAMASIVAYAM VASUDEVANCentre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

Aquaculture is a fast growing food sector with an annual growth rate of about 10%, outpacing terrestrial livestock and capturefisheries. The Asia-Pacific region alone contributes over 80% of the world’s aquaculture production. It has an important rolein the development of many national economies and a key role in rural development. Poor environmental management has ledto mangrove deforestation, land degradation, habitat loss and disease. If aquaculture is to continue being such an importantsource of livelihood for the community and the market at large, the practices employed must become more sustainable.Sustainable development means the management and conservation of natural resource base and focus on technologicaland institutional charge responsibilities to ensure continued supply of human needs for present and future generations. Theobjectives of such sustainable development would include the optimal allocation of resources, minimization of social conflict,minimization of environmental impact and the conservation of natural resources. While developing sustainable options, italso becomes important to keep the uplift of communities involved in mind and to consider innovative means of capturing amajor share in the world market in aquaculture. This article discusses such issues and the options available. We also proposea comprehensive score-sheet based feedback system for the development of sustainable aquaculture which directly involvesthe farmer as the key player.

Keywords sustainability, aquaculture, sustainability index, India

INTRODUCTION

Globally, stagnating yields from capture fisheries and an in-creasing demand for fish and fishery products have raised expec-tations for increased contribution from aquaculture. By the year2010, global projections for future supplies from aquacultureproduction stand at an estimated 47 million tonnes. Higher pro-ductivity has been made possible through technological changesand economizing production costs. Aquaculture has an impor-tant role in the development of several national economies andplays a key role in rural development. It is expected that aquacul-ture will contribute and strengthen food security and alleviatepoverty in many developing countries. Cultured shrimp cur-rently dominates the global markets as an exotic food product.As of 2006, global production of shrimp reached 2.6 milliontonnes. Shrimp comprised 17% of the global trade in seafoodby 2006. In 2007, the volume of imports was estimated at 1.671million tonnes. EU is currently the largest market for shrimp,

Address correspondence to Namasivayam Vasudevan, Centre for Environ-mental Studies, Anna University, Chennai—600 025, Tamilnadu, India. E-mail:[email protected]

with total imports totaled at Euro 1.6 billion in 2007 (Gabaudan,2008). Aquaculture continues to develop more rapidly in de-veloping countries where Asian aquaculture farmers contributeover 90% of the world’s aquaculture production. It is interestingto note here that 82% of the total aquaculture yield is beingproduced in low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs) (Dar,1999). Aquaculture provides a good opportunity for developingcountries to gain a foothold in the world food market. In India,export of marine products during the first three months of theyear 2008–2009 recorded a growth of 5.26% in terms of dollarearnings. The quantity exported in 2008 was 10276.7 milliontonnes. In this, frozen shrimp accounted for 42% in value. Thetop markets in terms of million dollars were EU (34%), Japan(22%), and USA (10%).

In order for aquaculture to continue as an important sourceof livelihood for communities, and as a viable venture for themarket at large, the practices employed must become more sus-tainable. Sustainable development conserves natural resources,protects the environment, and is technically appropriate, eco-nomically viable, and socially acceptable. This article focuses onshrimp farming in India and the confluence of economic and so-cial factors affecting environmental sustainability in particular.

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SUSTAINABLE SHRIMP AQUACULTURE IN INDIA 337

The authors expect that this article will serve as an additionalresource in gauging policies and technologies with regard to theconcept of sustainability in shrimp aquaculture.

BRIEF ACCOUNT OF SHRIMP FARMING IN INDIA

The potential area available in the coastal region of the coun-try for shrimp farming is estimated between 1.2 million to 1.4million hectares. As of 2002, an area of about 157,000 ha was un-der farming, with an average production of about 100,000 metrictonnes of shrimp per year. The average productivity has beenestimated at 660 kg per hectare per year. According to the FAOFisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service,aquaculture production in India as of 2006 was 312780.3 mil-lion tonnes. However, China harnesses close to 70% of globalproduction in quantity and 50% in value. Comparatively, Indiaharnesses 5% in quantity and 4% in value (Hindu Business Line,Feb. 2006). India’s coastline is 8118 km with 2.02 million km2

of exclusive economic zone, leaving large areas still unexploitedefficiently for aquaculture.

Aquaculture practice in India is invariably extensive farming.Semi-intensive and intensive farming is practiced by relativelysmaller groups of farmers. Traditional methods of shrimp farm-

ing have been in practice in India for a longer period of timebefore the advent of modern shrimp farming. Much of shrimpfarming is still practiced mainly as an enterprise of small andmarginal farmers who depend on backwaters and estuaries onthe coastal zone. About 91% of the shrimp farmers in the countryhave a holding of less than 2 ha, 6% between 2 to 5 ha, and the re-maining 3% have an area of 5 ha and above. The major methodsof shrimp farming practiced are traditional, improved traditionalin farms within the coastal regulation zone, and extensive andmodified extensive farms outside the coastal regulation zone. Apredominant percentage of culture production is that of Tigershrimp (Penaeus monodon), followed sparsely by white shrimp(Penaeus indicus) and banana shrimp (Penaeus merguensis).Development of shrimp farming has also led to a substantialrise in the number of shrimp hatcheries and development of ac-cessory industries such as feed mill and industrial production offarm equipments. Shrimp farming provides direct employmentto about 0.3 million people, and ancillary units provide employ-ment to 0.6–0.7 million people. There is a definite close-knitrelationship between the community and shrimp farming. Aconceptual representation is presented in Figure 1. Since muchof shrimp farming in India is practiced by farmers, dependenceon the governing agencies and independent help groups for re-sources, technology, and technical knowledge is greater.

Figure 1 Conceptual representation of close-knit relationship between community, aquaculture, and regulating bodies.

reviews in fisheries science vol. 17 3 2009

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338 V. R. MANOJ AND N. VASUDEVAN

Figure 2 An integrated view of sustainability determining factors. (Source: What is sustainability anyway? Available at http://www.sustainablemeasures.com/Sustainability/ABetterView.html.)

SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE

Sustainability is a systematic concept, relating to the continu-ity of economic, social, institutional, and environmental aspectsof human society (Figure 2). Sustainability affects every level oforganization starting from the level of local neighborhoods. In ageneral sense, sustainability becomes an important requirementto survive in a world where there is a constant rise in the con-sumption of finite resources (Wurts, 2000). Wurts further statesthat aquaculture industry in developing countries must follow anindependent framework to alter production, market structures,recycle waste effluents, harvest plankton, and stocking densities.Measures must be adopted in production, marketing that allowsgathering of profit, increase in production, and integration intothe social structure. “Sustainable development is developmentthat meets the needs of the present without compromising theability of future generations to meet their needs” (BrundtlandReport, 1987). Sustainable approaches arise from institutional,economic/financial, and ecological sustainability. The optionsfor sustainable development require an integrated approach. Itis intended to be a means of configuring human activity so thatsociety, its members, and its economies are able to meet theirneeds and express their greatest potential in the present, whilepreserving biodiversity and natural ecosystems, and planningand acting for the ability to maintain these ideals indefinitely.The principles and practices of sustainable development mustaddress enhancement of quality of life in the communities. Anevaluation of such progress on the quality of life may be obtainedby calculating the sum of net impacts of a particular develop-ment. The closer the sum is to zero, the more sustainable is thedevelopment. A balanced equation in sustainable developmentis essential for building communities.

Shrimp farming is more of an industrial than an agricul-tural phenomenon. If aquaculture is viewed in an industrialperspective, it can be seen as a highly sophisticated one, espe-cially with regards to production and distribution. Most aqua-culture farmers are constantly engaged in the means to improvetheir production potential, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness.Aquaculture, in common ground with all other major food pro-duction practices, is facing challenges for sustainable develop-ment. The promotion of sustainable aquaculture developmentrequires that the creation and maintenance of “enabling en-vironments,” in particular, those aimed at ensuring continuinghuman resources development and capacity building. The majorfactors affecting aquaculture and thus prompting the need forsustainable aquaculture are environmental, social, and economicfactors. The basic characteristics for any sustainable aquaculturepractice are summarized in Figure 3. Proposed or implemented

Figure 3 Basic characteristics of sustainable aquaculture.


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options of sustainable aquaculture can be evaluated eitherqualitatively or quantitatively. Qualitative approach involvesprovision of the best options for people and the environment—both now and into the future.

SUSTAINABLE METHODS IN AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture can be practiced by different methods, each hav-ing specific advantages and disadvantages. However, there aremethods that directly complement the concepts of sustainability.Some of them are, briefly, as follows:

Organic Aquaculture

Organic aquaculture practices offer solutions to current en-vironmental problems that plague the aquaculture industry. Or-ganic aquaculture is a natural way of growing aquatic farmingwithout the use of chemicals, antimicrobials, etc. Such a cultiva-tion practice also protects the health of consumers by reducingtheir overall exposure to toxic chemicals from pesticides thatcan accumulate in the final products.

Organic shrimp promises to be a value added commodity inthe international market. The main markets for organic seafoodproducts are Europe, the U.S., and Japan. Although no officialstatistical data are available concerning the global productionof certified organic aquaculture products, it is estimated thattotal production in the year 2000 was only 5000 tonnes, pri-marily from European countries (FAO). The slow initial growthof organic aquaculture has been due to the absence of interna-tionally accepted regulations and standards for producing andhandling organic aquaculture products. Realizing the need toadd this issue, the International Federation Of Organic Aqua-culture Movements (IFOAM) drafted basic standards for organicaquaculture production. Organic certification is given to farm-ers who practice organic aquaculture, and this opens up specificmarkets where produce is purchased only from certified farmers.The major advantages of such certifications is that they providesmall rural farmers the opportunity to command fair prices fortheir products and continual access to markets where trade bar-riers often restrict sales. A major initiative toward certificationbegan in the late 1990s by certification bodies such as Naturland.Naturland was established in 1982 and is a German associationof organic aquaculture. Naturland has also initiated the first pilotproject for the organic production of shrimp in Ecuador. Othersuch certification bodies include BIOGRO (New Zealand), Bio-suisse (Switzerland), KRAV (Sweden), and Bioemte (Austria).Most of the certifying bodies have proposed a set of commonstandards to be applied to an ideal form of organic aquacul-ture. Recently, in India, the MPEDA (Marine Products ExportDevelopment Authority) have been implementing schemes fororganic farming of Black tiger shrimp and scampi in brack-ish water and freshwater areas. Some scampi farms located inKuttanad Alappuzha, Kerala state, where the culture of organic

scampi has done well, have been awarded with certificates ofregistration from Naturland, Germany (MPEDA, 2008b).

The main markets for organic seafood products are Europe,the U.S., and Japan. Organic shrimps are extensively beinggrown in Ecuador and Peru. A popular commercial productof organically grown shrimp is “Greenaqua Bio Shrimp,” man-ufactured by Ristic AG from Germany. This sells for as highas 4.99 Euros for 200 gm. This shows that organic shrimppromises to be a value-back commodity in the internationalmarket. Organic certification is given to farmers who practiceorganic aquaculture, and this opens up specific markets whereproduce is purchased only from certified farmers. The majoradvantages of such certifications are that it offers small ruralfarmers to command fair prices for their products and continualaccess to markets where trade barriers often restrict sales.

Rice Fish Culture

Traditional aquaculture practiced in conjunction with agri-culture is popular and well established in most rice-growing andfish-eating countries in Asia. Brackish water rice-fish-shrimpfarming is practiced in coastal areas of Vietnam and Thailand.Rice fish farming is also practiced exclusively in the irrigatedareas of North Perak (Malaysia). In India, traditional paddy cumprawn culture is popular in Kuttanad, Vypeen, and Narakkal re-gions of Kerala. During the monsoon months of June to Septem-ber, when the water in the fields is almost fresh, paddy is culti-vated, and, during the rest of the year, the fields are utilized forprawn culture operations. Similar practices are also followed inWest Bengal in the Bhasabadha fishery of Sunderbans. Rice fishfarming also creates a reliable source of protein for the farmers,off-setting the decreased availability of wild fish in many coun-tries. This form of culture can actually increase the yields ofrice up to 25% to 30% and provide extra income to farmers. Theadvantage with traditional forms of aquaculture is that they areeasier in process and usually are less taxing on the environment.

Wastewater Aquaculture

Wastewater aquaculture is an alternate type of urban aqua-culture serving the dual purpose of recycling organic wastewaterfor fish production and environmental protection. In India, ur-ban aquaculture has shown incredible promise in the easternsuburbs of Calcutta. The wider benefits accorded to society dueto urban aquaculture include managed waste reuse, leading toimproved public and environmental waste management, andnon-renewable resource recovery (Buntling and Little, 2001).

The most challenging constraints to traditional aquacultureare their limitation in terms of economic profit and the need forhighly specialized markets that pay higher prices for lower pro-duction. It would therefore be better if such conventionally tradi-tional methods of aquaculture are adopted on a large scale by in-corporating modern methods such as active biological filtration.


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SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS

The introduction of social values to sustainability goals im-plies a much more complex and contentious debate, and thosefocused on ecology tend to strongly resist non-ecological in-terpretations. A fundamental set in the concept of sustainabil-ity is a parallel care and respect for the ecosystem and forthe people within it. At its most basic level, it is a positiveconcept that has much to do for achieving a well being forpeople and ecosystems, as it has to do with reducing ecolog-ical stress or environmental impacts. It is vital to follow upthe study of the socio-cybernetic or systems (theory) processes,which, it seems, primarily control what happens to commu-nity. We should use the social science-based insights alreadyavailable to evolve forms of public management that will acton information in an innovative way in the long-term publicinterest. The most important factor is that the village commu-nity, which contributes labor, resources, and energy for aqua-culture production, must benefit from the substantial profitsobtained.

Mitigation of social issues can most often be resolved by anactive participation and consultation by all stakeholders (publicand private) in the planning, development, and management ofaquaculture. Conflict resolution and enabling environments at alocal community level should exist for common resources suchas the seafront and freshwater resources to both aquacultureunits and coastal communities. Access to information wouldalso be a major increment.

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS INSUSTAINABILITY OF AQUACULTURE

Environmental sustainability is a key factor in sustainableaquaculture. Security to the environment from intensive aqua-culture practices is an important concern from both an ecocentricand an anthropocentric view.

Discharge of Wastewater

Both intensive and semi-intensive practices of aquacultureinvolve large volumes of water. For example, a typical one-hectare semi-intensive shrimp aquaculture pond with an av-erage depth of 1 m holds an approximate volume of 10,000m3. Production processes involved in aquaculture generate sub-stantial volumes of wastewater, containing mostly uneaten feedand feces. Therefore, the release of untreated wastewater intosurrounding water bodies is a rather serious concern. Dis-charged wastewater contains nutrients, various organic and inor-ganic compounds such as ammonium, phosphorus, and organicmatter.

Analysis of nitrogen budgets in intensive shrimp farming hasindicated that 63–78% of nitrogen and 76–86% of phosphorusinputs through feeds are lost as wastes (Phillips et al., 1993).

In shrimp ponds, 63–78% of the total nitrogen, ammonia, andphosphorus can result in nutrient enhancement in the open waterwhere such wastes are released. Such high levels of nutrientscause environmental deterioration of the receiving water bod-ies. In addition, the drained water may increase the occurrenceof pathogenic microorganisms and introduce pathogen species.However, the large volumes of water/wastewater released fromshrimp aquaculture may be a serious concern.

Since untreated voluminous discharges from aquaculturewastewater is a serious concern, several researchers around theworld have focused their efforts on developing cost-effectivemeasures to treat aquaculture wastewater that conform to na-tional/international water quality guidelines. The stress oncost-effectiveness of a given treatment system is imperative.Sustainable aquaculture practices must address the treatment ofwastewater.

WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS

Depending on the location and the local regulations, an aqua-culture facility may have only limited and costly methods ofwaste disposal. Therefore, it is important to review the impor-tant options. Some of the more common options in treating thewastewater are discussed here as follows:

Recirculation Systems

Most research on wastewater treatment is centered on ef-fective reuse of the discharged water. Such systems are called“recirculation systems.” Recirculating systems are gaining inpopularity because they are very space and resource efficient andoffer control over the rearing environment of the aquatic animalscultured. Basically, a recirculation system is a closed system thatis a combination of different treatment processes, which mainlyinclude solids removal, biofiltration, and additional water treat-ments such as ozonation or UV treatment and re-oxygenation.Because recirculating systems usually use tanks for aquacultureproduction, substantially less land is required than for pond cul-ture. However, 100% water exchange is usually not achieved,as it is difficult to ensure that all waste products are convertedor removed by the treatment process.

Water Probiotics

A popular means of treating wastewater during culture periodis the use of microbial probiotics that include specific combi-nations of microorganisms, which break down chemicals suchas ammonia, which are toxic to aquatic life. Probiotics degradecomplex chemicals to simpler substances. Probiotics are usedeither by direct administration into the water or as part of bio-logically based recirculation and treatment systems. The use of


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such probiotics ensures that discharge water has a significantlyreduced nutrient load.

Constructed Wetlands

If land application is not available adjacent to the facility,on-site treatment of the concentrated solids discharge with anuncomplicated, low-maintenance, plant-based system could bean alternative to reduce solids disposal costs (Outwater, 1994).Constructed wetlands are a viable technology for treating re-circulating wastewater used in shrimp aquaculture production(Negroni, 2000) . Aquaculture wastes are good candidates foruse in both crop and constructed wetlands. Constructed horizon-tal flow wetland systems have been used to treat high-strengthaquaculture wastewaters. Summerfelt et al. (1999) has investi-gated the disposal and treatment within constructed wetlandsof an aquaculture sludge produced during clarifier backwash.However, there is a need for greater research on such wastewa-ter technologies, as most of them are not cost-effective when itcomes to use in the field.

ESTIMATING ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY INAQUACULTURE

A ready reckoner of examining environmental sustainabilityis to analyze how much of the nutrients fed into the systemare used to make the product and how much is wasted. If toomuch is lost, then the practice is not sustainable. It also becomesessential to make a full cost accounting or “environmental ac-counting.” This kind of accounting assumes that all aspects ofa system can be measured and audited (environmental audits).The fundamental drawback in environmental accounting is thatit can only be a limited biological interpretation as in an eco-logical footprint analysis. Indian shrimp aquaculture is heav-ily based on brackish water aquaculture practiced as extensive,semi-intensive, and intensive. Each form of aquaculture bringswith it its own set of challenges to environmental sustainability.With an increasing demand for an increased livestock yield inthe culture pond, there is a transition from extensive culture tosemi-intensive and intensive culture. Such transitions also meanan increased use of fertilizers and feed, which consequentlyleads to increased organic loads in the form of nutrients andorganic matter. The Indian government has strictly advised theincorporation of an Environment Monitoring Plan and Environ-ment Management Plan (EMMPS) for shrimp culture units witha net water area of 40 hectares or more and should incorporate itsimpact on several inter-linking factors such as impact on surfacewater sources, ground water resources, agricultural activity, soilsalinization, and wastewater treatment. Environmental impactassessments should be submitted for approval by the appropri-ate authority, for example: the Central Pollution Control Boardin India. Apart from the obvious environmental impact, thesealso result in social and economic impacts.

CONFLUENCE OF SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTALISSUES

The debate currently focuses on sustainability betweenthe economy and the environment, which can, in otherwords, be considered as between “natural capital” and“manufactured/man-made capital.” Efficient aquaculture incor-porating good investment and sound scientific culture can gen-erate substantially high profits. However, aquaculture practice,especially in India, is highly sensitive to extraneous factors suchas disease outbreaks. In such circumstances, the recovery of in-vestments is difficult due to lapses in acquisition of proper in-surance. In India, aquaculture is mainly practiced in semi-urbanand rural areas by famers who obtain money for investmentfrom bank loans and through credit systems with vendors. Over67% of culture is also largely practiced on leased land on a part-time basis, leading to non-standardized culture practices. Sincethere are usually no permanent installations such as wastewatertreatment units, culture is often dispersed and discontinuous.Such reasons make farmers reluctant to make long-term in-vestments resulting in the majority of culture ponds remainingunderutilized. Within the domestic markets, lack of standard-ized certification, price structure makes it difficult to place aconsensus or compulsory need for practicing aquaculture sus-tainably. It is noted that a major portion of aquaculture produceis slated for the international markets, where there is a hugedemand especially for exotic shrimp. The U.S. is the largestimporter of farmed shrimps from India. However, on Novem-ber 4, 2005, in order to protect its own domestic markets andfarmers, the U.S.-based International Trade Commission (ITC)decided not to revoke its anti-dumping duty on shrimp importsfrom India and Thailand. This creates the twin challenges ofidentifying alternative markets and more stringent measures ofproduce control for competency in such markets.

Development of sustainable options involves social, eco-nomic, environmental policy, and institutional issues. Most im-portantly, most sustainable options implemented in the interna-tional competitive markets are streamlined and have key issues,including precise guidelines that qualify any given aquacul-ture practice as sustainable. Several independent organizationshave developed benchmark standards for sustainable aquacul-ture. The Global Aquaculture Alliance (GAA), an internationalnon-profit organization formulated “Codes of Practice for Re-sponsible Shrimp Farming.” These codes developed into a quan-titative set of “Best Aquaculture Practices” (BAP).

SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE AND THE INDIANGOVERNMENT

In India, apart from the local legislations and ordinancespassed by the State Government, the Central Government haspassed key laws and regulations. In 1995, the Ministry ofAgriculture issued guidelines for sustainable development and


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Table 1 Water quality standards prescribed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India

Final discharge point

S. No. Parameters Coastal marine waters Creeks/estuaries—when the sameinland water courses are used aswater source and disposal point

General standards for discharge ofenvironmental pollutants inMarine coastal areas

1 pH 6.0–8.5 6.0–8.5 5.5–9.02 Suspended solids mg/l 100 100 1003 Dissolved oxygen mg/l Not less than 3.0 Not less than 3.0 —4 Free ammonia (as NH3-N) mg/l 1.0 0.5 55 BOD (5 day @ 20◦C) mg/l 50 20 1006 COD 100 75 2507 Dissolved phosphate (as P) mg/l 0.4 0.2 —8 Total nitrogen (as N) mg/l 2.0 2.0 —

management of brackish water aquaculture, whose overall pur-poses were to assist in formulation of (a) appropriate shrimpfarming management practices, (b) adopting measures for mit-igating the environmental impacts of shrimp pond waters, and(c) judicious utilization of land/water resources. In December1996, the Supreme Court of India passed a ruling that prohib-ited the construction/set-up of shrimp culture ponds within thecoastal regulation zone (CRZ). The Aquaculture Authority ofIndia was set up as a consequence. This body formulated guide-lines for adopting technologies and to optimize yield levels ona sustainable basis in traditional, modern aquaculture systems.It has been made mandatory that all shrimp farms of 5 hectareswater area within the CRZ and 10 hectares outside the CRZshould have an effluent treatment system. Such a system is alsoprescribed by the Authority. Establishment of such a system isnecessary to bring the shrimp farm wastewater within the pre-scribed standards (Table 1) and mitigate any adverse impacts onthe ecology of the open waters.

The Aquaculture Authority has also constituted State LevelCommittees (SLCs) and District Level Committees (DLCs). Ap-plications submitted by farmers are received by the DLCs. Afterverification of the information and field level inspections, wher-ever necessary, the applications are forwarded to the SLCs forconsideration. After recommendation of the SLC, the applica-tions are forwarded to the Aquaculture Authority for approval.Any approval will be given in a Form IV for a period of threeyears and will be subject to certain conditions (Table 2).

The Indian Council for Agricultural Research, a nodal agencyfor agricultural research, has eight principal fisheries researchinstitutes. Principal among them are CIFA, CIBA, CMFRI, andthe National Research Center for Coldwater Fisheries. The in-stitutes carry out research program and develop innovative tech-nologies based on national priority and from farmers’ feedback.Farmers’ feedback is obtained through a number of extensionprojects such as the National Development Program. New tech-nology is disseminated back to the farmers by program such asthe Krishi Vigyan Kendra. Especially interesting is the organi-zation and objectives of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, which was setup as a solid base of transfer of technology from laboratory tofarmer’s field (Figure 4).

Such projects aim to develop sustainable technologies thatcan be applied in field conditions to help farmers improve theiryields without compromising on community welfare or the in-tegrity of the environment. These efforts have led to the devel-opment of cost-effective technologies for the farmer. A goodexample is the field diagnostic kit for detection of white spotsyndrome virus developed by the Central Institute of BrackishWater Aquaculture.

At the international level, the code of conduct on responsi-ble fisheries (CCRF) adopted by the FAO conference in 1995identifies a number of key issues. At the fundamental level, thecode recognizes the importance of activities that support thedevelopment of aquaculture at different levels such as:

1. The producer level.2. The local area, i.e., the farm and its integration into local area

management and rural development schemes.3. The national institutional and policy environment.4. International and trans-boundary issues.

Despite guidelines, the markets do not have a direct wayof knowing that the products reaching them adhere to theguidelines of production (market economy). Assurance requires

Table 2 Conditions for approval of aquaculture farms by AquacultureAuthority of India

• The farm should restart operation/be set up/constructed only afterobtaining authorization/approval from the Aquaculture Authority.

• The farm should not deviate from the approved design and operation.• The farm should not cause salinization of soil or drinking water or wells.• The farm should not cause increased sedimentation and health hazards.• The farm should not cause siltation, turbidity of watercourse and estuaries

with detrimental implications on local fauna and flora.• The farm should establish and operate an Effluent Treatment Plant and

ensure that the effluent quality at discharge point conforms to thespecific standards prescribed by the Pollution Control Board of theconcerned state/union territory.

• This authorization/approval be exhibited in the premises and produced forchecking whenever demanded by an inspection officer.

• The authorization/approval not being transferable.


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Figure 4 Working mechanisms of the Krishi Vigyan Kendra by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research.

proper certification. The Aquaculture Certification Council is aninternational non- governmental body that exclusively appliesto BAP developed by GAA to offer “process” certification toshrimp production facilities with a primary orientation towardseafood buyers.

SUSTAINABLE AQUACULTURE AND THECOMMUNITY

Most of the basic requirements for sustainable aquaculture(Figure 4) have a direct bearing on the community within whichaquaculture is performed. It should not be overlooked that thefundamental reason underlying the need for sustainable aquacul-ture is for economic benefits to continue without placing unduestress on the communities involved. The build-up of structurestarts at the community and ends at the global market, wheredifferent forms of aquaculture compete. The sustainable ap-proaches are mainly from three different sides of sustainability,namely institutional, economical/financial, and ecological sus-tainability. Many approaches to sustainability have overlappingpoints. If this is the case, then options for sustainable aquaculturerequire an integrated approach.

Sustainability is a crucial concept for aquaculture. At present,aquaculture is growing at an annual rate of 10%. If this

growth trend is to continue, then communities have to foregothe negative impressions of aquaculture. There is a needfor increased clarifications through awareness generation andcompromises.

Disputes arising from land allocation can be minimized ifshrimp farms are set up nearer to brackish water sources or siteswhere further agriculture is not feasible. Shrimp farming is notalways the sole cause for the decline of agriculture. Accord-ing to the Aquaculture Authority of India’s report on shrimpaquaculture and the environment, an Environment Impact As-sessment Report (2001): “Salinization of soils due to seepagefrom shrimp farms is very site-specific. It also depends on thesoil quality, the level compaction of the dykes, the elevation ofthe shrimp farm, and the distance and location of the neighbor-ing agricultural field. Seepage occurs if the soil is sandy and theshrimp farm operator does not undertake enough compactionor protective measures during construction. Presently, permis-sion by the Aquaculture Authority of India is not accorded toshrimp farms that are located in areas that have poor soil qual-ity and are prone for seepage. In areas with clayey soil, theeffects due to seepage are negligible, and aquaculture farmsand paddy fields are in close proximity without any problem ofsoil salinization.” Improved culture management and scientificsite selection can improve the odds of a given area to sustainaquaculture development. The identification of appropriate sites


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can be performed accurately by combining socio-economic con-siderations in combination with geographical information sys-tems (GIS). Generally, such procedures should ideally result inthe generation of detailed master plans which clearly delineatelands as suitable and unsuitable for aquaculture. Site-selectioncriteria should also accommodate for the long-term capacity ofthe area to sustain aquaculture development. Successful prac-tice of aquaculture alongside agriculture in close proximity canbe easily achieved if these measures are undertaken along withawareness generation to the community. However, the clearingof misconceptions in aquaculture does not undermine the oblig-atory requirement of stringent guidelines such as the treatmentof wastewater.

Sustainable development principles and practices, when ap-plied in the real world of building communities, should ad-dress initiatives and development practices that really protectand enhance the quality of life of its members. The formulafor measuring such success calculates the sum of the net im-pacts of a particular development on quality of life. The closersuch a sum is to zero, the more sustainable the development.It becomes increasingly important to look at issues affectingsustainability in an objective angle in order to arrive at practicalconclusions.

SUSTAINABLE GROWTH OF SHRIMP AQUACULTUREAS AN INDUSTRY

The concept of sustainability has now become an absolutenecessity for the successful description of any process. Its ap-plication in aquaculture thus comes without exception. At itspresent growth rate of 10% per year, aquaculture is slated tobecome the foremost food industry. As a body or industry, aqua-culture should employ measures in production and marketingthat allows it to both achieve profit, increase production, as wellas integrate itself back into the social structure. Wurts (2000) ob-serves, “Whether the word sustainability has become overusedor not, it has catalyzed a forum for oversight of the growth anddevelopment of aquaculture on a global scale.” Wurts furtherstates that the aquaculture industry must be able to adapt if itis to survive and grow. The blueprint for a modern industrialsociety may not work well as a template for developing nations.Therefore, it may be necessary to alter production and marketstructures, recycle waste effluents, harvest plankton, or reducestocking densities. In countries such as India, the entire pro-cess in the market economy of shrimp aquaculture is dispersedand mostly decentralized. Much of the processes, including pro-curement, culture, processing, and harvest, is highly dispersedand not organized as a singular functioning unit. Although theremay be enough production in terms of quanitity, there may beno further value addition to the produce owing to disorganiza-tion in terms of processing. This leads to loss in the numberof exploitable markets. Lack of a centralized commitment totreatment of wastes from the practice continues to affect the

long-term standing in terms of environmental and social sus-tainability to the immediate community and beyond.

QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE SUSTAINABILITYINDICES AND THE SCORESHEET MODEL

The major objective in any sustainable aquaculture practiceis achieving a fine balance between positive and negative im-pacts. However, there must be an important consideration givento decide if the options for sustainable aquaculture that havebeen implemented or proposed are truly sustainable. This couldbe answered by two ways. One would be to seek sustainablegoals as qualitative and the other is to seek it as a quantitativeway. Qualitative goal approaches to sustainable aquaculture in-volves provision of the best possible options for people and theenvironment, both now and into the indefinite future. However,qualitative approaches do not hold a true picture of sustainabilityas it may often serve only as a visual reference point that cannotbe entirely validated. Quantitative goal approaches usually in-volve calculable ratios based on several factors. One of the mostpopular forms is the SWOT analysis (systematic weightage ofopportunities and threats). Quantitative approaches are a morereliable way of predicting or describing whether a system is trulysustainable. Jain (2005) argues, “The ability to analyze differentalternatives or to assess progress towards sustainability will thendepend on establishing measurable entities or metrics used forsustainability.” Quantification of sustainability is usually doneby using metrics, through specific indicators or by developingframeworks for preference. An example of such quantificationis the “Emergy Sustainability Index” (ESI) developed by sys-tems ecologists Brown and Ulgiati (1997), which is the mostwell known. This is seen as a ratio of the emergy yield ratio(EYR) to the environmental loading ratio (ELR). It is an indexthat accounts for yield, renewability, and environmental load.The Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy Report(Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005) suggests that sus-tainability is a characteristic of many dynamic systems. Thus,metrics used for sustainability have to respond to interconnec-tions and variations. Specific indicators can be seen as variables,which could be used to develop such indexes. Such indicatorshave to address issues relating to economic development, eco-nomic growth, and international competitiveness (Jain, 2005).Frameworks for preference index can be drawn from multipleobjectives, preferences, and value tradeoffs (Keeney and Raifa,1976).

While such ways of quantifying sustainable aquaculture areextremely promising, we find that much of these systems ishardly being used on a practical basis. Though we see a lotof proposals and suggestions to achieve sustainable aquacul-ture, much of this information hardly reaches the aquaculturefarmer or communities that could be directly benefited. Cur-rently, good evaluation methods for the individual aquaculturefarmer do exist in the form of score sheets (Manoj, 2005), whichtake into account factors such as farm facilities, bio-security,


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Table 3 Example of a common score sheet model used by aquaculture farmers (Manoj, 2005)

S. No. Item Risk Particulars Marks allotted Marks obtained

1 Farm facilities 20% a. Good pond size and design 5b. Reservoir, settlement pond ratio to culture ponds 5c. Pond depth and slope. 5d. Pumping capacity per hectare 5

2 Bio-security 45% a. Crab net 5b. Bird net 5c. Water filter system (4 steps) 5d. Water treatment (disinfection) 5e. Disinfection of equipment (daily use) 5

3 Farm environment 15% a. Farm cleanliness 3b. Store room and warehouse 3c. Drain canal 3d. Hand wash basin for visitor 3e. Labor and staff quarters 5

4 Seed stocking 10% a. Tank facility and aeration 105 Harvesting facility b. Shade, tank, and nets. 10

Total 100

farm environment, seed stocking, and harvesting facilities, andgrade them accordingly. However, there is a definite pause inthe flow of such accessed information in the form of a feed-back loop between the governing agencies and the aquaculturefarmer. Since sustainability in aquaculture heavily relies on uni-formity of protocols and standards followed, there must exist

an evaluation system that ensures the presence of a feedbackloop between the aquaculture farmer, the government, and themarket. Such a system ensures transparency in the processesfollowed to the community. In this article, the authors wouldlike to propose a simple merger in light of the sustainabil-ity factors discussed so far, on an evaluation system that can

Figure 5 Concept of the proposed sustainability system that can be used to improve sustainability in aquaculture practices.


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Table 4 Audit result (score card)

S. No. Marks obtained Grade Success

1 >80–100 A 80%2 >60–80 B 60%3 >50–60 C 50%4 <50 F Failed

Source: Practical tips to successful shrimp farming (Manoj, 2005).

ensure dynamic correspondence between feedback receivedfrom the aquaculture field/market and standards maintained byinternational regulatory bodies. This could be conceptualizedas a simple score sheet-based system where the internationalbody uses the available principles of quantifying sustainablepractices to assign specific “sustainability numerals” for spe-cific quality and quantity of culture practices. The score sheetmust ensure that there are three principal tools, namely: (1)regulatory tool (to define decentralized systems), (2) decisionsupport tool (to evaluate and qualify technologies), and (3) ratingschemes (arranged at different hierarchies starting from the landlevel). The farmers in the field/market would then use this scoresheet as a benchmark to compare their own practice with the“sustainability numeral” to assess where they stand. Thegoverning agencies could in turn collect the data from the farm-ers through the outreach program already in place (for exam-ple, the National Development Program in India). The collecteddata could then be integrated onto a computerized real-timedatabase by the respective governments, leading to the genera-tion of a detailed dynamic inventory. The presence of such aninventory shall help in knowing how much of aquaculture prac-ticed is really progressing in a sustainable manner. It shall alsohelp in the development of a decision support tool. Such a sys-tem should be also flexible, allowing the introduction of newersustainable technologies and policies/regulations. The majoradvantages of developing a database of such systems are asfollows:

1. Comparative outlook on sustainable aquaculture practices ata quantifiable level.

2. Market analysis is made easier with sustainable indexes.Profits reaped can be compared against sustainability in-dexes, which would give an indication on the growth of sus-tainable practices. An example of such a score sheet for costsin a typical aquaculture operation is depicted in Table 3.

The sustainability numeral is then compared to the interna-tionally reached sustainability numeral scale, where a gradingof whether the processes adds up to a sustainable practice ornot becomes evident. Alternatively, each individual factor couldalso be subjected to the formula and compared against stan-dardized scale indexes. A model of this concept is explained inFigure 5.

CONCLUSION

Many of the options presented for sustainable aquaculture inthis article are already being practiced. However, these optionsshould be encouraged with minimal strain on the environment.Newer technologies to complement the sustainable nature ofsuch options should also be developed, which will circumventthe deficiencies in the current practice. The proposal in this ar-ticle presents an improved score sheet-based system to evaluateand improve aquaculture sustainability, which could be visual-ized as a template for the development of a broad-based system.Any framework or procedure charted for sustainability mustinvolve direct participation by the farmer, feedback, and follow-up action. Otherwise, the concept of sustainability may remainnon-practicable.

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functional options for sustainable shrimp aquaculture in india

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