From Warlord to Restorer of From Warlord to Restorer of the Golden Agethe Golden Age

End of Civil Wars and End of Civil Wars and Augustan Settlement Augustan Settlement

Prima Porta Statue

““Rome’s tradition of Rome’s tradition of government, down to Julius government, down to Julius

Caesar, was characterized by Caesar, was characterized by distributed power and multiple distributed power and multiple sources of decision. That was sources of decision. That was

never to return.”never to return.”

J.A. Crook, J.A. Crook, Cambridge Ancient Cambridge Ancient HistoryHistory (10, 2 (10, 2ndnd ed. [1996] 113) ed. [1996] 113)

Aftermath of IdesAftermath of IdesRenewal of Civil War Renewal of Civil War

(Liberators vs. Caesarians)(Liberators vs. Caesarians)

Octavian, great-nephew/adopted son Octavian, great-nephew/adopted son of Caesar; M. Antonius, consul for 44 of Caesar; M. Antonius, consul for 44 BCEBCE

““The Second Triumvirate”: November The Second Triumvirate”: November 43 43 BCEBCE (Octavian, Antony, M. Lepidus) (Octavian, Antony, M. Lepidus)

Caesarians defeat Brutus and Cassius Caesarians defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in Macedonia (42 at Philippi in Macedonia (42 BCEBCE))

Antony in East; Octavian in ItalyAntony in East; Octavian in Italy

Towards Renewal of Civil WarTowards Renewal of Civil War

Antony abandons Octavia for Antony abandons Octavia for Cleopatra VII of EgyptCleopatra VII of Egypt

Retirement of Lepidus (37-36 Retirement of Lepidus (37-36 BCEBCE))

Antony divorces OctaviaAntony divorces Octavia Propaganda wars between Propaganda wars between

Octavian and Antony (33-32 Octavian and Antony (33-32 BCEBCE)) Battle at Actium (31 Battle at Actium (31 BCEBCE)) New Province of EgyptNew Province of Egypt

The BattleOf Actium31 BCE

Provinces of the Roman Provinces of the Roman EmpireEmpire

From Republic to From Republic to PrincipatePrincipate

Constitutional ArrangementsConstitutional ArrangementsFrom Octavian to AugustusFrom Octavian to Augustus

Octavian/Augustus (born 63 Octavian/Augustus (born 63 BCEBCE))

Triumvir (with Antony and Triumvir (with Antony and Lepidus) for restoring the Lepidus) for restoring the RepublicRepublic

Consul 31-23 Consul 31-23 BCEBCE

Settlement of 27 Settlement of 27 BCEBCE

Settlement of 23 Settlement of 23 BCEBCE

Settlement of 27Settlement of 27 BCEBCE

Octavian returns control of state to Octavian returns control of state to the Roman Senate and Roman the Roman Senate and Roman PeoplePeople

Ten-year Ten-year imperiumimperium over super- over super-province of Egypt, Gaul, Spain, and province of Egypt, Gaul, Spain, and SyriaSyria

Dedicatory Shield voted by Senate Dedicatory Shield voted by Senate (valor, clemency, justice, piety)(valor, clemency, justice, piety)

Title “Augustus”Title “Augustus”

Settlement of 23Settlement of 23 BCEBCE

Resignation of ConsulshipResignation of Consulship Control over elections (Control over elections (commendatiocommendatio)) Appointment of Generals in Senatorial Appointment of Generals in Senatorial

ProvincesProvinces Appointment of Legates in “Imperial” Appointment of Legates in “Imperial”

ProvincesProvinces Imperium Maius ProconsulareImperium Maius Proconsulare

(“powers greater than a proconsul’s”)(“powers greater than a proconsul’s”) Tribunicia PotestasTribunicia Potestas (“tribunician (“tribunician

powers”)powers”)

Augustan Settlement and the Augustan Settlement and the Roman Peace (Roman Peace (pax Romanapax Romana))

27 27 BCE-CEBCE-CE 14 14

Cui Bono?Cui Bono?

Beneficiaries of the Beneficiaries of the Pax Pax RomanaRomana

Roman plebs: “Bread and Roman plebs: “Bread and Circuses”Circuses”

Senatorial aristocracy: Senatorial aristocracy: Preservation of Republican Preservation of Republican trappings and traditional honorstrappings and traditional honors

Equestrian order: secure trade Equestrian order: secure trade and markets empire-wideand markets empire-wide

Partisans and Supporters: Partisans and Supporters: successful careers and honors successful careers and honors (Agrippa, Maecenas)(Agrippa, Maecenas)

Methods of ControlMethods of Control

Legions: reduction from about 75 Legions: reduction from about 75 to 28to 28

Personal appointment of generalsPersonal appointment of generals Aerarium militareAerarium militare (military (military

pension fund) from pension fund) from CECE 6 6 Urban Control in RomeUrban Control in Rome

Praetorian Guard (9 cohorts: 3 Praetorian Guard (9 cohorts: 3 billeted in city; remainder in nearby billeted in city; remainder in nearby towns from 27 towns from 27 BCEBCE; two praetorian ; two praetorian prefects from 2 prefects from 2 BCEBCE))

Ideology: Ideology: Aurea AetasAurea Aetas Moral and Social Legislation in the Moral and Social Legislation in the

Golden AgeGolden Age Julian laws on marriageJulian laws on marriage

Punishes celibates and widowers who do not Punishes celibates and widowers who do not remarry: ineligibility for inheritances and remarry: ineligibility for inheritances and legacies; prohibited from public gameslegacies; prohibited from public games

Marriages between senators and freedwomen Marriages between senators and freedwomen prohibitedprohibited

Laws against adulteryLaws against adultery Laws rewarding child rearing (Laws rewarding child rearing (ius trium ius trium

liberorumliberorum)) Restrictions on slave manumissionsRestrictions on slave manumissions

Lex Fufia CaniniaLex Fufia Caninia (2 (2 BCEBCE); ); Lex Aelia SentiaLex Aelia Sentia ( (CECE 4) 4) Ludi saecularesLudi saeculares: Horace composes : Horace composes carmen carmen

saecularesaeculare for 17 for 17 BCEBCE

PrincepsPrinceps and andPater PatriaePater Patriae (2 (2 BCEBCE))

Augustus as Super-Patron Augustus as Super-Patron of Roman Stateof Roman State

““When I held my thirteenth When I held my thirteenth consulship [2 consulship [2 BCEBCE], the Senate, the ], the Senate, the equestrian order, and the entire equestrian order, and the entire

Roman people gave me the title of Roman people gave me the title of ‘father of the country’ and decreed ‘father of the country’ and decreed that this title should be inscribed that this title should be inscribed

in the vestibule of my house, in the in the vestibule of my house, in the Julian Senate house, and in the Julian Senate house, and in the

Augustan forum on the pedestal of Augustan forum on the pedestal of the chariot which was set up in my the chariot which was set up in my

honor by decree of the Senate.”honor by decree of the Senate.”

Augustus, Augustus, Res GestaeRes Gestae, 35, 35

Conflicting ViewpointsConflicting Viewpoints

Assessments of Augustus’ Assessments of Augustus’ ReignReign

““In my sixth and seventh consulships [28 and 27 In my sixth and seventh consulships [28 and 27 BCE], after I had put an end to the civil wars, BCE], after I had put an end to the civil wars, having attained supreme power by universal having attained supreme power by universal consent, I transferred the state from my own consent, I transferred the state from my own

power to the control of the Roman Senate and power to the control of the Roman Senate and the people. For this service of mine I received the people. For this service of mine I received the title of Augustus by decree of the Senate, the title of Augustus by decree of the Senate, and the doorposts of my house were publicly and the doorposts of my house were publicly decorated with laurels, the civic crown was decorated with laurels, the civic crown was

affixed over my doorway, and a golden shield affixed over my doorway, and a golden shield was set up in the Julian Senate house, which, as was set up in the Julian Senate house, which, as

the inscription on this shield testifies, the the inscription on this shield testifies, the Roman Senate and people gave me in Roman Senate and people gave me in

recognition of my valor, clemency, justice, and recognition of my valor, clemency, justice, and devotion. After that time I excelled all in devotion. After that time I excelled all in

authority, but I possessed no more power than authority, but I possessed no more power than the others who were my colleagues in each the others who were my colleagues in each

magistracy.”magistracy.”

Augustus, Augustus, Res GestaeRes Gestae, 34, 34

““It was said… ‘that filial duty and state necessity It was said… ‘that filial duty and state necessity were merely assumed as a mask. It was really from were merely assumed as a mask. It was really from a lust of sovereignty that [Augustus] had excited a lust of sovereignty that [Augustus] had excited

the veterans by bribery, had, when a young man and the veterans by bribery, had, when a young man and a subject, raised an army, tampered with the a subject, raised an army, tampered with the

consul’s legions, and feigned an attachment to the consul’s legions, and feigned an attachment to the faction of Pompey….Citizens were proscribed, lands faction of Pompey….Citizens were proscribed, lands divided, without so much as the approval of those divided, without so much as the approval of those who executed the deeds. Even granting that the who executed the deeds. Even granting that the

deaths of Cassius and the Brutii were sacrifices to deaths of Cassius and the Brutii were sacrifices to the hereditary enmity…still Sextus Pompey had the hereditary enmity…still Sextus Pompey had

been deluded by the phantom of peace, and Lepidus been deluded by the phantom of peace, and Lepidus by the mask of friendship. Subsequently, Antony by the mask of friendship. Subsequently, Antony

had been lured on by the treaties of Tarentum and had been lured on by the treaties of Tarentum and Brundisium, and by his marriage with the sister, Brundisium, and by his marriage with the sister,

and paid by his death the penalty of a treacherous and paid by his death the penalty of a treacherous alliance. No doubt there was peace after all this, alliance. No doubt there was peace after all this,

but it was a peace stained with blood.”but it was a peace stained with blood.”

Tacitus, Tacitus, AnnalsAnnals, 1.10, 1.10