from the notion of life to an ethics of life
TRANSCRIPT
â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â â PreliminaryâcommunicationâUDCâ17:573[1:573]:608.1
ReceivedâFebruaryâ2nd,â2015
Hrvoje JuriÄUniversityâofâZagreb,âFacultyâofâHumanitiesâandâSocialâSciences,âDepartmentâofâPhilosophy,â
IvanaLuÄiÄa3,HRâ10000Zagrebâ[email protected]
From the Notion of Life to an Ethics of Life
AbstractWhen discussing the concept of life, there is neither a single concept of life, nor absolute consensus about a conceptual barycentre, so that consideration of the notionâofâ life is a precondition for establishing and developing an ethicsâofâlife, i.e. bioethics. This paper tries to sketch the path(s) leading from the notion(s) of life to an ethics of life by recalling some remarkable (proto)bioethical conceptions: Hans Jonasâs integrative philosophy of life (philo-sophical biology and ethics of responsibility), Fritz Jahrâs bio-ethics, Albert Schweitzerâs ethics of reverence for life, and Arne Naessâs deep ecology (ecosophy).
Key wordslife,âbioethics,âHansâJonas,âFritzâJahr,âAlbertâSchweitzer,âArneâNaess
1. The meaning of âlifeâ
Whenâdiscussingâtheâconceptâofâlife,âthereâisâneitherâaâsingleâconceptâofâlife,ânorâ absoluteâ consensusâ aboutâ aâ conceptualâ barycentre.â Despiteâ theâ appar-entâimplicitnessâofââlifeââandâtheâcurrentâinflationâinâusingâtheâwordââlifeâ,âitsâGreekâversionââbiosâ,âandâtheirâderivativesâââfromâbiology,âbiomedicineâandâbiotechnology,âthroughâbioethicsâandâbiopolitics,âtoâbiofoodâandâbiofuelâââtheâquestionâstillâremains:âWhat is âlifeâ?Aâcertainââfogginessââofââlifeââinâeverydayâuseâofâtheâtermâcanâprobablyâbeâtolerated,âbutâifâweâresearchâsuchâaâcomplexâphenomenonâscientificallyâ(life sciences,â e.g.,â biology),â particularlyâ inâ theâ ageâofâ radicalâ andâ extremeâma-nipulationsâofâlifeâonâbothâaâsmallâandâaâlargeâscale,âandâifâweâdealâwithâtheânormativeâaspectsâofâthisâphenomenonâ(ethics of life,âi.e.,âbioethics),âaimingâtoâofferâcompetentâandâplausibleâanswersâtoâtheâquestionâofâhowâtoârelateâtoâlifeâinâgeneralâandâlivingâbeingsâinâparticularâââtheânotionâofâlifeâbecomesâaâkeyâissue,âjustâasâHansâWernerâIngensiepâstatesâinâhisâarticleââWhatâIsâLife?â:
ââŠâtheânotionâofâlifeâisââunclearâ.âBut,âgenerallyâspeaking,âweâcanâliveâwithâthat.âItâisâonlyâwithinâbioethicsâthatâweâareâdealingâwithâaâparticularâproblemâsituationâ(âŠ).âAlthoughâweâareâdealingâwithâdifferentâissuesâofâlife,âweâneedâaânotionâofâlifeâasâaâbridgeâbetweenâtheâdifferentâfieldsâofâdiscussion,âasâwellâasâ itsâ integrationâandâcommunicationâpower,âespeciallyâ ifâ thereâisâ toâbeâaâcontinuousâandâconstructiveâdialogueâaboutââlifeââbetweenâscientistsâfromâtheânaturalâsciencesâandâthoseâfromâtheâhumanities.â1
1
Hansâ Wernerâ Ingensiep,â âWasâ istâ Leben?âââGrundfragenâderâBiophilosophieâ,âin:âJahr-
buch Ăkologie 2002,â C.â H.â Beck,â Munichâ2002,âp.â93.
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Accordingly,âbioethicistsâhaveâaâspecialâmissionâregardingâlifeâandâtheâveryânotionâofâlife,âwhile,âfromâamongstâbioethicistsâofâdifferentâbackgrounds,âtheâmissionâofâphilosophersâisâmostâimportant,âbecauseâtheâvocationâofâphiloso-phersâisâtoâfindâandâpurifyâbothâfundamentalâandâoperationalânotions,âbothâofâwhichâareâofâbothâtheoreticalâandâpracticalâimportance.Firstâ ofâ all,â bioethicistsâ shouldâkeepâ inâmindâ thatâ thereâ isâ aâ terminologicalâdifferenceâbetweenââbiosââandââzoeâ,âbothâofâwhichâexpressâwhatâweâusuallyâreferâtoâasââlifeâ.âEspeciallyâcontemporaryâbiopoliticalâtheorists,âsuchâasâGior-gioâAgamben,âinsistâonâthisâdistinction.âInâhisâbookâHomo sacer,âAgambenâstates:
âTheâGreeksâhadânoâsingleâtermâtoâexpressâwhatâweâmeanâbyâtheâwordââlifeâ.âTheyâusedâtwoâtermsâthat,âalthoughâtraceableâtoâaâcommonâetymologicalâroot,âareâsemanticallyâandâmorpho-logicallyâdistinct:âzoÄ,âwhichâexpressedâtheâsimpleâfactâofâlivingâcommonâtoâallâlivingâbeingsâ(animals,âmen,âorâgods),âandâbios,âwhichâindicatedâtheâformâorâwayâofâlivingâproperâtoâanâin-dividualâorâaâgroup.âWhenâPlatoâmentionsâthreeâkindsâofâlifeâinâtheâPhilebus,âandâwhenâAris-totleâdistinguishesâtheâcontemplativeâlifeâofâtheâphilosopherâ(bios theĆrÄtikos)âfromâtheâlifeâofâpleasureâ(bios apolaustikos)âandâtheâpoliticalâlifeâ(bios politikos)âinâtheâNichomachean Ethics, neitherâphilosopherâwouldâeverâhaveâusedâtheâtermâzoÄ (âŠ).âThisâfollowsâfromâtheâsimpleâfactâthatâwhatâwasâatâissueâforâbothâthinkersâwasânotâatâallâsimpleânaturalâlifeâbutâratherâaâqualifiedâlife,âaâparticularâwayâofâlife.â2
FollowingâAgamben,âtheâwordââzoeââimpliesâlifeâwhichâisâcommonâtoâallâliv-ingâbeingsâ(ânaturalâlifeâ),âwhileââbiosââimpliesâspecificallyâtheâhumanâformâandâwayâofâliving,âincluding,âsoâtoâspeak,âbothâtheââbasisââandââsuperstruc-tureââofâhumanâlifeâ(âsocialâandâpoliticalâlifeââonâtheâbasisâofâhumanâânaturalâlifeâ).âInâthisâsense,ââbio-ethicsââwouldâbeâonlyâanââethicsâofâhumanâlifeâ.âTheâshortâyetâturbulentâhistoryâofâbioethicsâhasâbeenâasâfollows:âbioethicsâhasâbeenâperceivedâmostlyâasâdealingâwithâ theânewâethicalâ issuesâconcerningâhumanâlife,âbody,âandâhealthâ(e.g.,âbiomedicalâresearch,âclinicalâpractice,âhealthcare,âenvironmentalâ conditions,â etc.),â althoughâ theâ firstâ andâ crucialâ conceptionsâofâ bioethicsâ suggestedâ somethingâ different.â Theâ conceptualâ confusionâ wasâcausedâbyâ terminologicalânegligence,âwhichâ resultedâ inâanââethicsâofâbiosââinsteadâofâanââethicsâofâzoeâ.âHadâtheââfoundingâfathersâofâbioethicsââ(suchâasâEuropeâsâFritzâJahrâinâtheâ1920sâandâAmericaâsâVanâRensselaerâPotterâinâtheâ1970s)âandâtheirâfollowersâusedâtheâmoreâappropriateâtermââââzoeââââhistoryâwouldâhaveâbeenâdifferentâ andâweâwouldâ todayâbeâdiscussingââzooethicalââissuesâandâdevelopingâaââzooethicalââapproach,âwithoutâthereâbeingâaâneedâtoâcriticiseâtheâreductionâofâbioethicsâtoââbiomedicalâethicsâ,ânorâwouldâthereâbeââanthropocentricâaberrationsââofâbioethics.âHowever,âasâfarâasâtheâveryâtermââbioethicsââisâconcerned,âitâcanânoâlongerâbeâchanged,âandâtheârespectiveâhis-toryâofâideas,âconceptsâandâtheoriesâshouldâbeârespected.Anyway,âtheâtermsââbiosââandââbio-ethicsâ,âincludingâallâpossibleâderivations,âactuallyâconnoteââzoeââandââzoo-ethicsââinâtheâsenseâgivenâabove.âWhatâhasâbeenâandâcontinuesâtoâbeâtheâquestionâofâbioethicsâisâtheâhuman zoe,âwhichâhasâbecome,â likeâneverâbefore,âanâobjectâofâ technoscientific,âeconomicâandâpoliticalâmanipulations,âinâtheâsameâwayâasâtheâzoeâofânon-humanâbeingsâandâzoeâasâsuch.âAccordingly,âweâshouldâuseâtheâtermsââbiosââandââbio-ethicsââtoâimplyâbothâAgambenianââsimpleânaturalâlifeââandââqualifiedâlifeâ,âespeciallyâbecauseâtheâcentralâquestionâofâbioethicsâcouldâbe:ââhowâisâlifeâitselfâorânaturalâlifeâpoliticised?â,3âinâtheâbroaderâsenseâofââpoliticisationââasâmanipulationâofââbareâlifeâ4âbyâtheâcontemporaryâsystemsâofâ(political,âeconomic,âandâtech-noscientific)âpower.âIfâthereâisâanythingâtoâproperlyâdescribeâtheââbioethicalâsituationâ,â i.e.,â theâcontextâofâ theâemergenceâandâdevelopmentâofâbioethicsâasâopposedâ toâclassicalâ ethicsâ (andâ theâworldviews,â cultures,â societies,â andâ
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H. JuriÄ, From the Notion of Life to anEthicsâofâLife35
politicsâitâhasâco-created),âthenâitâisâAgambenâsâdescriptionâofâtheâmainâchar-acteristicsâofâmodernâdemocracyâasâopposedâtoâclassicalâdemocracy:âitâisâtheââvindicationâandâliberationâofâzoÄ,âandâ(âŠ)âitâisâconstantlyâtryingâtoâtransformâitsâownâbareâlifeâintoâaâwayâofâlifeâandâtoâfind,âsoâtoâspeak,âbios ofâzoÄâ.5
2. The âethics of lifeâ
Theâbiopoliticalââtransformationâofâzoeâintoâbiosââisâprobablyâtheâmostâseriousâandâdangerousâtrendâofâmodernity,6âwhichâmeansâthatâbioethicalâinvestigationâofâthisâtrendâshouldâbeâthoroughâandâcautiousâsoâasâtoâavoidâanyâreduction-ismâinâtermsâofâconceptâandâcontent,âincludingâbothâtheââde-ethicisationââandââover-ethicisationââofâtheâissuesâofâlife.Weâbelieveâ thatâ theâpluriperspectiveâapproachâofâ integrative bioethics7âcanâsafeguardâusâagainstâtheâperilsâofâreductionism.âSomeâauthorsâwhoâcouldâbeâconsideredâtoâbeâtheâprecursorsâofâtheâideaâofâintegrativeâbioethicsâcanâalsoâhelpâinâourâattemptâtoâcomprehendâtheâphenomenonâofâlifeâinâitsâentiretyâandâtoâemphasiseâitsâethicalâaspects,âbecauseâtheyâhaveâshownâhowâtheâdifferentâapproachesâtoâtheâphenomenonâofâlifeâ(suchâasânatural-scientific,âphilosophi-cal,âandâtheological)âcanâbeâtransformedâintoâaâstrongâethicalâattitudeâtowardsâlifeâwithâmoreâorâlessâclearâsocial-politicalâimplications.
2.1. Hans Jonasâs integrative philosophy of life8
HansâJonasâsâcontributionâtoâbioethicalâdiscussionsâandâtheâveryâfoundationâofâbioethicsâisâusuallyâpointedâoutâbyâlookingâatâhisâethics of responsibility,â
2
Giorgioâ Agamben,â Homo sacer. Sovereign Power and Bare Life,â Stanfordâ UniversityâPress,âStanfordâ1998,âp.â9.
3
CatherineâMills,ââGiorgioâAgambenâ,âin:âIn-ternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource,â 2005,â http://www.iep.utm.edu/agamben/.
4
MillsânoticesâthatâtheâAgambenianânotoriousâfigureâofâ âbareâ lifeâ isâ notâ naturalâ lifeâper se â thoughâitâisâoftenâconfusedâwithâitâinâcriticalâreadingsâofâAgamben,âpartlyâasâaâconsequenceâofâAgambenâsâownâinconsistencyâââbutârather,âitâisâtheâpoliticizedâformâofânaturalâlife.âBeingâneitherâbiosâ norâzoe,â then,â bareâ lifeâ emergesâfromâ withinâ thisâ distinctionâ andâ canâ beâ de-finedâ asâ âlifeâ exposedâ toâ deathâ,â especiallyâinâ theâ formâ ofâ sovereignâ violenceââ (ibid.).âSeeâ also:â Catherineâ Mills,â The Philosophy of Giorgio Agamben,â Acumen,â Stocksfieldâ2008,âpp.â64,â69â71.
5
G.âAgamben,âHomo sacer,âp.â13.
6
InâAgambenâsâwords,ââtheâentryâofâzoÄ intoâtheâsphereâofâthe polis â theâpoliticisationâofâbare lifeâasâsuchâââconstitutesâtheâdecisiveâeventâofâmodernityâ andâ signalsâ aâ radicalâ transforma-
tionâ ofâ theâ political-philosophicalâ categoriesâofâ classicalâ thoughtââ (G.â Agamben,â Homo sacer,âp.â10),âwhileâMichelâFoucaultâprecise-lyâstates:ââForâmillenniaâmanâremainedâwhatâheâwasâforâAristotle:âaâlivingâanimalâwithâtheâadditionalâ capacityâ forâ aâ politicalâ existence;âmodernâmanâisâanâanimalâwhoseâpoliticsâplac-esâhisâexistenceâasâaâlivingâbeingâinâquestionââ(Michelâ Foucault,â The History of Sexuality. Volume 1: An Introduction,âPantheonâBooks,âNewâYorkâ1978,âp.â143).
7
Forâ theâ ideaâofâ integrativeâbioethicsâsee,â forâexample, the following books: Ante ÄoviÄââThomasâSörenâHoffmannâ(eds.),âIntegrative Bioethik / Integrative Bioethics,â AcademiaâVerlag, Sankt Augustin 2007; Ante ÄoviÄ(ed.),â Integrative Bioethik und Pluriper-spektivismus / Integrative Bioethics and Pluri-perspectivism,âAcademiaâVerlag,âSanktâAugustinâ 2011;âAmirâ Muzurâ ââ Hans-MartinâSassâ (eds.),â Fritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bioethics. The Future of Integrative Bioethics,âLITâVerlag,âMĂŒnsterâetâal.â2012.
8
Moreâ extensiveâ reflectionsâ onâ Hansâ Jonasâsâcontributionsâ toâ theâ âethicsâ ofâ lifeââ canâ beâfoundâ inâ myâ paperâ âHansâ Jonasââ IntegrativeâPhilosophyâofâLifeâasâaâFootholdâforâIntegra-tiveâ Bioethicsâ,â in:âA.â Muzurâ ââ H.-M.â Sassâ(eds.),â Fritz Jahr and the Foundations of
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developedâinâtheâlateâstageâofâhisâlife.9âNevertheless,âJonasâsâcontributionâtoâbioethicsâshouldâbeâexploredâinâotherâstagesâofâhisâworkâasâwell,âespeciallyâinâhisâattemptâtoâestablishââphilosophicalâbiologyââasâanâintegrative philosophy of life,â inâwhoseâ centreâ anâ ethicallyâ connotedâphilosophyâofâ natureâ stands,âbasedâbothâonâtheâresultsâofâtheâcontemporaryânaturalâsciencesâandâtheologicalâspeculations.10
Jonasâsâintentionâwasâtoâestablishâaâphilosophical biologyâbyâabolishingâtheââartificialâsplitâbetweenâtheâspheresâofâtheâexternalâandâtheâinternal,âbodyâandâmind,ânatureâandâtheâhumanâ.11âSuchâdualismsâseemâtoâbeâunsustainable,âfirstâandâforemost,âinâtheâcaseâofâorganism,âbecauseâanâorganismââisâaâwholeânotâonlyâinâtheâsenseâofâfunctioningâ(âŠ),âbutâalsoâinâtheâsenseâofâaâbody-mindâuni-tyâ,âwhichâmeansâthatââtheâinnerâaspectâorâtheâsubjectivityâofâorganismâisâasâinevitableâforâbiologicalâunderstandingâasâtheâobjectivityâofâorganismâ.12âHeâdevelopedâhisâanti-dualisticâenterpriseâinâorderââtoâbreakâthroughâtheâanthro-pocentricâconfinesâofâidealistâandâexistentialistâphilosophyâasâwellâasâthroughâmaterialistâconfinesâofânaturalâscienceâ.13âTherefore,âaânewâphilosophyâofâlifeâshouldâembraceâinâitsâsubject-fieldâbothâaââphilosophyâofâorganismââ(whichâstartsâ withâ theâ thesisâ thatâ âtheâ organicâ evenâ inâ itsâ lowestâ formsâ prefiguresâmindâ)âandâaââphilosophyâofâmindââ(whichâstartsâwithâtheâthesisâthatââmindâevenâonâitsâhighestâreachesâremainsâpartâofâtheâorganicâ).14âJonasâthinksâthatâeverythingâweâfindâinâhumansâhasâitsâârudimentaryâtracesâinâevenâtheâmostâprimitiveâformsâofâlifeâ,15âincludingâfreedomâwhich,âaccordingâtoâJonas,âexistsâalreadyâonâtheâbasicâlevelâofâorganicâexistence,âi.e.,âinâprimalâmetabolism.16âJonasâcorroboratesâcomprehensiveâelaborationsâofâ theseâ thesesânotâonlyâbyâscientificâ(e.g.,âDarwinianâevolutionary)âandâphilosophicalâ(e.g.,âAristotelianâteleological)âtheories,âbutâalsoâbyââmetaphysicalâassumptionsâ,âwhenâscien-tificâandâphilosophicalâevidenceââlosesâitsâbreathâ.Theâethicalâ implicationsâofâJonasâsâphilosophyâofâ lifeâareâclearlyâ indicated.âHisâphilosophical biologyâisâaâpreludeâofâsortsâtoâhisâethics of responsibility,âbecauseâitâisâtheâaffirmationâofâtheâinherentâself-purposeâandâvalueâofâbeing,âlifeâandâallâlivingâbeings,âwhichâmakesâthemâtheâobjectsâofâourâmoralâduties.âLifeâitselfâdeliversâpurposesâandâvalues,âwhichâshouldâonlyâbeârecognisedâandârespectedâ inâ termsâofâresponsibilityâbyâhumans,âbecauseâ theâhumanâ isââtheâexecutorâofâaâtrustâwhichâonlyâheâcanâsee,âbutâdidânotâcreateâ.17
However,âânoâpreviousâethicsâ,âsaysâJonas,ââhasâpreparedâusâforâsuchâaâroleâofâstewardshipâ.18âWhichâisâwhyâweâneedâaânewâethicsâasâanââethicsâofâ(entire)âlifeâ,âwhichâshouldâbeâawareâofâtheâtraditionalâethicalâcategories,âprinciples,âandânorms,âbutâwillâattemptâ toâstepâoverâ theâanthropocentricâboundariesâofâtraditionalâethics.
2.2. Fritz Jahrâs bio-ethics
Aâfar-reachingââethicisationâofâtheâquestionâofâlifeââcanâalsoâbeâfoundâinâtextsâbyâFritzâJahr,âwhoâwas,âasâfarâasâweâknow,âtheâfirstâauthorâwhoâcoinedâtheâtermââbio-ethicsââandâattemptedâtoâdevelopâanâoriginalâbioethicalâconcept.âHeâdidâsoâprimarilyâinâtwoâarticlesâfromâ1926âandâ1927,âbutâthisâtermâandâthisâideaâalsoâappearâinâsomeâofâhisâlaterâarticles.19âTheâkeyâtextâinâthisâsenseâisâhisâarticleââBio-ethics:â Reviewingâ theâ Ethicalâ Relationsâ ofâ Humansâ towardsâAnimalsâandâPlantsâ.20
Startingâ fromâ theâ factâ thatâmostâpartâofâhistory,â asâwellâ asâofâ science,âphi-losophyâandâreligion,âwasâmarkedâbyâanthropocentrismâââJahrâthinksâthatâaâchanceâtoâchangeâthisâstateâofâaffairsâappearedâwhenânewâinsightsâinâtheânatu-
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ralâsciencesâappearedâ(fromâCharlesâDarwinâonwards),âshowingâusâ thatâ theâgulfâbetweenâhumansâandâotherâlivingâbeingsâisânotâsoâhugeâasâitâhadâusuallyâbeenâpresented.âHeâmentionsâWilhelmâWundtâandâhisâresearchâinâtheâfieldâofâexperimentalâphysiologyâ(theânervousâsystemâofâplants,âanimalsâandâhumans),âwhichâwasâaâlinkâofâsortsâbetweenâphysiologyâandâpsychology,âthenâGustavâFechnerâ andâ hisâ researchâ ofâ theâ âpsychicâ lifeâ ofâ plantsââ and,â laterâ on,â hisâconceptionâofââpsycho-physicsâ,âasâwellâasâRudolfâEislerâandâhisââbio-psy-chologyâ,âwhichâtakesâpsychicâfactsâasâbiologicalâfactorsâseriously.âAllâtheseâauthorsâraisedâtoâtheâsameâlevelâofâpsychologicalâresearchâhumans,âanimalsâandâplants.âJahrâregardsâthisâresearchâandâitsâresultsâwithâmuchâhope.âFocusingâonâanimals,âheâsays:
âTheâstrictâdistinctionâbetweenâanimalâandâhumanâbeing,âdominantâinâourâEuropeanâcultureâupâtoâtheâendâofâ18thâcentury,âcannotâbeâsupportedâanymore.â21
Heâstatesâthatâthereâisâonlyâoneâstepâfromââbio-psychologyââtoââbio-ethicsââor,âinâotherâwords:âregardingâtheâfindingsâofâbiologyâandâpsychologyâofâtheâtime,âweâshouldâtakeâupâresponsibilityânotâonlyâforâfellowâhumanâbeings,âbutâalsoâforâotherâlivingâbeings,âbecause,âbasicallyâââweâareâallâtheâsame.Jahrâ saysâ thatâ thisââbio-ethicsââ shouldânotâbeâ seenâasâ somethingâabsolutelyâoriginal,âbutâratherâasâaâkindâofâwideningâtheâtraditionalâethicalâframework.âAlso,âitâisânotâaâdiscoveryâofâmodernity,âi.e.,âhisâtimes.âAsâaâdevotedâChristian,âhe,âofâcourse,âmentionsâSaintâFrancisâofâAssisi,âbutâalsoâphilosophersâwhomâheâregardsâasâhisâfellowâbiocentrists,âsuchâasâRousseau,âHerder,âSchleiermacher,âSchopenhauer,âEduardâvonâHartmannâandâothers.âSchopenhauerâsânameâshouldâbeâhighlighted,âbecauseâheâisâcloselyâassociatedâwithâtheâso-calledââEuropeanâdiscoveryâofâIndianâthoughtâ,âwhichâisâveryâimportantâtoâJahrâbecauseâofâtheâconceptâofâcompassionâwithâeverythingâlivingâandânotâonlyâwithâhumans.
Global Bioethics,âpp.â139â148,âasâwellâasâinâmyâbook,âpublishedâinâCroatian,âEtika odgo-vornosti Hansa Jonasaâ(Hans Jonasâs Ethics of Responsibility),âPergamena,âZagrebâ2010.
9
Seeâ Hansâ Jonas,â The Imperative of Respon-sibility. In Search of an Ethics for the Techno-logical Age,â Universityâ ofâ Chicagoâ Press,âChicagoâ1984.
10
SeeâHansâJonas,âThe Phenomenon of Life. To-ward a Philosophical Biology,âNorthwesternâUniversityâPress,âEvanstonâ2001.
11
Hansâ Jonas,â Erkenntnis und Verantwortung. GesprĂ€ch mit Ingo Hermann in der Reihe âZeugen des Jahrhundertsâ,â LamuvâVerlag,âGöttingenâ1991,âp.â105.
12
Ibid.,âpp.â105â106.
13
H.âJonas,âThe Phenomenon of Life,âp.âxxiii.
14
Seeâibid.,âp.â1.
15
Ibid.,âp.âxxiii.
16
Jonasâsaysâthatâmetabolismâitselfâisâtheââfirstâformâofâfreedomâ,âwhichâmeansâthatâtheâprin-cipleâofâfreedomâcanâbeâfoundâalreadyâinâtheââdarkâstirringsâofâprimevalâorganicâsubstanceââ(ibid.,âp.â3).
17
Ibid.,âp.â283.
18
H.â Jonas,â The Imperative of Responsibility,âp.â8.
19
SeeâA.âMuzurâââH.-M.âSassâ(eds.),âFritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bioethics,âasâwellâasâ theâbook,âpublishedâ inâCroatian,â IvaâRinÄiÄ âAmirMuzur,Fritz Jahr i raÄanje europske bioetike (Fritz Jahr and the Emer-gence of European Bioethics),â Pergamena,âZagrebâ2012.
20
FritzâJahr,ââBio-ethics:âReviewingâtheâEthicalâRelationsâ ofâ Humansâ towardsâ Animalsâ andâPlantsâ,â in:â A.â Muzurâ ââ H.-M.â Sassâ (eds.),âFritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bioethics,âpp.â1â4.
21
Ibid.,âp.â1.
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Asâ such,â bio-ethicsâ shouldâ ââ becauseâ ofâ theâ (logical)â connectionâ betweenâethics,âpoliticsâandâlawâââbeâincludedâinâcivilâandâlegalâsystems,âandâcivilâandâlegalâcultures.âFromâJahrâsâperspective,âtheâmainâdifferenceâbetweenâtheâIn-dianâandâEuropeanâ(orâWestern)âapproachâboilsâdownâtoâthis.âHeâsays:
âThus,âweâstartâfromâaâtotallyâdifferentâpointâofâviewâthanâtheâIndianâfanatics,âwhoâdoânotâwantâtoâhurtâanyâlivingâentity.âAlso,âourâregulationsâbyâlawâandâpoliceâprotectingâcertainâplantsâandâflowersâinâspecificâareasâ(âŠ)âareâbasedâonâtotallyâdifferentâassumptions.âTheâpoliceâstateâintendsâtoâprotectâthoseâplantsâfromâbeingâextinctâinâthoseâareas,âalsoâforâpeopleâtoâenjoyâthemâinâlaterâtimes.â(âŠ)âAlso,âourâconceptâofâanimalâprotectionârestsâonâanâessentiallyâdifferentâfoundationâthanâtheâattitudeâofâtheâIndians.â(âŠ)âOurâanimalâprotection,âthus,âhasâaâutilitarianâaspect,âwhichâisâbravelyâoverlookedâbyâtheâIndians,âwhileâweâareâcontentâwithâatâleastâavoidingâunnecessaryâsuffering.â22
However,âFritzâJahrâsâbasicâethicalâassumptionâcanâbeâfoundâinâaâpassageâfromâhisâtextâonâbio-ethics,âwhereâheâcommentsâthat
ââŠâtheârequestsâ toârespectâeachâandâeveryâlivingâbeingâandânotâ toâdestroyâitâwithoutâreason.âBecause,â theyâall,âplantsâandâanimals,âalsoâhumans,âhaveâsimilarârights,âbutânotâEqualâRight,âdependingâonâtheârequirementsâforâreachingâtheirâspecificâdestiny.â23
Jahrâ presentâ hisâ âcategoricalâ imperativeââ asâ theâ âbio-ethicalâ imperativeâ,âwhichâ isâ aâ re-formulationâ ofâ Kantâsâ categoricalâ imperative,â namelyâ Kantâsââhumanityâformulaâ:
âRespectâeveryâlivingâbeingâinâprincipleâasâanâendâinâitselfâandâtreatâit,âifâpossible,âasâsuch!â24
or,âinâanotherâversion:
âRespectâeveryâlivingâbeing,âincludingâanimals,âasâanâendâinâitselfâandâtreatâit,âifâpossible,âasâsuch!â25
RegardingâplantsâJahrâsays:
âThus,âinâregardâtoâanimalsâsuchâaâruleâhasâbecomeâevident,âatâleastâasâfarâasâneedlessâtortureâisâconcerned.âWithâplantsâitâisâdifferent,âso.âForâsome,âatâtheâfirstâmomentâitâmightâsoundâunreason-ableâtoâhaveâcertainâethicalâobligationsâtowardsâplants.âButâalreadyâ(Apostle)âPaulâdirectedâourâcompassionâtowardsâanimalsâandâplants.â26
Anyway,âJahrâtriesâtoâreconstruct,âalthoughâthroughââshortcutsâ,âKantianâethicsâââfirstâofâall,âbyâusingâSchopenhauerâsânotionâofâcompassionâwhichâwasâasso-ciatedâwithâIndianâthought,âbutâalsoâonâtheâbasisâofâChristianity,âfindingâsomeâbioethicalâtraitsânotâonlyâinâtheâfragmentsâofâFrancisâofâAssisi,âbutâalsoâinâtheâOldâandâNewâTestaments.âHisâ theologicalâbackgroundâbecomesâevenâmoreâobviousâinâhisââThreeâStudiesâonâtheâFifthâCommandmentâ,âaâtextâinâwhichâheâre-thinksâandâre-interpretsâtheâBiblicalâFifthâCommandmentââThouâshaltânotâkillâ.âHeâsays:
ââŠâtheâtermâkillingâalwaysâmeansâkillingâsomethingâwhichâisâalive.âLivingâentities,âhowever,âareânotâonlyâhumans,âbutâanimalsâandâplantsâasâwell.âBecauseâtheâ5thâcommandmentâdoesânotâexpressivelyâprohibitâtheâkillingsâofâhumansâexclusively,âshouldâitânotâbeâappliedâtowardsâani-malsâandâplantsâanalogously?â27
Jahrâ saysâ thatâ nobodyâ canâ consistentlyâ followâ aâ bioethicallyâ re-interpretedâFifthâCommandment;âitâisâaâtypeâofâutopia.âNevertheless,âitâshouldâalwaysâbeâuponâusâasâanâimperative,âguidingâourâreflectionsâonâhumansâandâotherâlivingâbeings,âourâgeneralârelationshipâtowardsâthem,âasâwellâasâourâeverydayâbehaviourâtowardsâthem.
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2.3. Albert Schweitzerâs ethics of reverence for life
Theâthirdâauthorâ inâ theâchainâofâanââethicsâofâ lifeâ,âwhichâweâareâ tryingâ toâoutline,âisâAlbertâSchweitzer,âwhoseââethicsâofâreverenceâforâlifeââsharesâcer-tainâessentialâfeaturesâwithâotherâauthorsâwhoâweâhereâconsiderâtoâbeââproto-bioethicistsâ.Schweitzerâsâveryâentranceâinâtheâdomainâofâanââethicsâofâlifeââwasâspecificâandâunusual.âAlthoughâaâmanâofâdiverseâandârichâeducationâandâactivityâ(inâphilosophy,âtheology,âmedicineâandâmusic),âhisâbioethicalâconceptâappearedâtoâhimâalmostââbyâaccidentââandâasâaââsurpriseâ.âNamely,âduringâWorldâWarâI,âSchweitzerâwasâinâAfrica,âwhereâheâsetâupâaâhospitalâhelpingâpeopleâwhoâwereâveryâpoorâandâwithoutâanyâmedicalâcare.âOneâday,âduringâaâtripâalongâtheâOgoouĂ©âRiver,âanâinterestingâandâforâSchweitzerâhimselfâaâveryâimportantâthingâhappened:
âLateâonâtheâthirdâday,âatâtheâveryâmomentâwhen,âatâsunset,âweâwereâmakingâourâwayâthroughâaâherdâofâhippopotamuses,âthereâflashedâuponâmyâmind,âunforeseenâandâunsought,âtheâphraseââreverenceâforâlifeâ.âTheâironâdoorâhadâyielded.âTheâpathâinâtheâthicketâhadâbecomeâvisible.âNowâIâhadâfoundâmyâwayâtoâ theâprincipleâ inâwhichâaffirmationâofâ theâworldâandâethicsâareâ joinedâtogether!âIâwasâatâtheârootâofâtheâproblem.âIâknewâthatâtheâethicalâacceptanceâofâtheâworldâandâofâlife,âtogetherâwithâtheâidealsâofâcivilizationâcontainedâinâthisâconcept,âhasâitsâfoundationâinâthought.â28
Theâcrucialâthoughtâofâhisâethics,âwhichâheâlaterâdeveloped,âis:
âIâamâlife,âwhichâwillsâtoâlive,âinâtheâmidstâofâlife,âwhichâwillsâtoâlive.â29
Anâexplanationâofâitâcouldâbeâtheâfollowingâquote:
âEthicsâconsists,âtherefore,âinâmyâexperiencingâtheâcompulsionâtoâshowâtoâallâwillâtoâliveâtheâsameâreverenceâasâIâdoâtoâmyâown.âThereâweâhave,âgivenâus,âthatâbasicâprincipleâofâtheâmoral,âwhichâisâaânecessityâofâthought.âItâisâgoodâtoâmaintainâandâtoâencourageâlife;âitâisâbadâtoâdestroyâlifeâorâtoâobstructâit.â30
Whatâ itâactuallyâmeansâwithinâtheâcomplexânetworkâofâ lifeâandâonâtheâlevelâofâeverydayâpracticeâisâââifâweâunderstandâSchweitzerâcorrectlyâââaâsecondaryâquestion.âTheâprimaryâquestionâis:âWhatâideasâguideâourâthinking,âactionâandâlivingâinâgeneral?âJustâlikeâinâJahrâsâimperative,âunderâSchweitzerâsâimperativesâthereâisâalwaysâaâseeminglyâpragmaticââifâpossibleââclause,âwhichâisâalwaysâil-luminatedâbyâtheâregulativeâideaâofâaââreverenceâforâlifeâ;âatâtheâveryâleast,ââtoâdestroyâlifeâorâtoâobstructâitââkeepingâinâmindâthatâitâ isâbasicallyâevilâcausesâ
22
Ibid.,âp.â3.
23
Ibid.,âp.â2.
24
Ibid.,âp.â4.
25
FritzâJahr,ââAnimalâProtectionâandâEthicsâ,âin:âA.âMuzurâââH.-M.âSassâ(eds.),âFritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bioethics,âp.â12.
26
F.âJahr,ââBio-ethicsâ,âp.â3.
27
FritzâJahr,ââThreeâStudiesâonâtheâFifthâCom-mandmentâ,âin:âA.âMuzurâââH.-M.âSassâ(eds.),â
Fritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bioethics,âp.â33.
28
Albertâ Schweitzer,â Out of My Life and Thought. An Autobiography,â Johnsâ HopkinsâUniversityâPress,âBaltimoreâââLondonâ1998,âp.â155.
29
AlbertâSchweitzer,ââReverenceâforâLifeâ,â in:âAlbert Schweitzerâs Ethical Vision. A Source-book,âed.âbyâPredragâCicovacki,âOxfordâUni-versityâPress,âNewâYorkâ2009,âp.â137.
30
Ibid.,âpp.â137â138.
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muchâlessâevilâthanâthoughtlessâexploitation,âtorture,âandâkilling.âAnyhow,âweâshouldâbeâawareâofâ theâfactâ thatâwe,âasâhumans,â liveânotâonlyâ inâ theâhumanâworld,âbutâalsoâinâtheânaturalâworld,âinâtheâworldâofâlivingânature,âwhichâhasâitsâownâdignity,âorâatâleastâvalue,âwhichâshouldâbeârecognisedâandârespected.Theâ backgroundâ ofâ Schweitzerâsâ ethicsâ isâ hisâ conceptâ ofâ âworld-affirmingâcultureâ,31âwhichâisâsupportedâbyâhisâoptimisticâviewâofâhumanânature:âOnceâmoreâweâdareâtoâappealâtoâtheâwholeâman,âtoâhisâcapacityâtoâthinkâandâfeel,âexhortingâhimâtoâknowâhimselfâandâtoâbeâtrueâtoâhimself.âWeâreaffirmâourâtrustâinâtheâprofoundâqualitiesâofâhisânature.âAndâourâlivingâexperiencesâareâprovingâusâright.â32
Foundingâaâânewâethicsââ(bioethicsâasâaâbiocentricâethics)âonâtheâbasisâofâanââoldâ ethicsââ (traditionalâ ethicsâ asâ anâ anthropocentricâ ethics),â asâ theâ latterâsâreinterpretationâandâextension,âisâinâSchweitzerâaâveryâsimilarâattemptâtoâbothâHansâJonasâandâFritzâJahr:âToâtheâoldâethics,âwhichâlackedâthisâdepthâandâforceâofâconviction,âhasâbeenâaddedâtheâethicsâofâreverenceâforâlife,âandâitsâvalidityâisâsteadilyâgainingâinârecognition.âItâisâconvincedâthatâcompas-sion,âinâwhichâethicsâtakesâroot,âdoesânotâassumeâitsâtrueâproportionsâuntilâitâembracesânotâonlyâmanâbutâeveryâlivingâbeing.â33
2.4. Arne Naessâs ecosophy
ArneâNaessâsâconceptâofââdeepâecologyââorââecosophyââcanâalsoâbeâconsideredâtoâbeâoneâofâtheâconceptsâthatâcouldâbeâusedâinâfoundingâanâintegrativeâethicsâofâlife,âbothâbecauseâofâhisâbroaderâ(orâbroadest)ânotionâofâlife,âi.e.,âhisâeco-centricâposition,âandâhisâmultidisciplinaryâandâpluriperspectivalâapproach.âHisâfoundingâ aâ non-anthropocentricâ âmacro-ethicsââ in/forâ theâ technoscientificâageâremindsâofâJonas;âhisârespectingâSpinozaâsâphilosophy,âBuddhism,âandâGandhiâsâtheoryâandâpracticeâofânon-violenceâremindsâofâSchweitzer;âwhileâhisââecosophicalâimperativeâââââYouâshallâneverâuseâanyâlivingâbeingâonlyâasâaâmeansâ34âââremindsâofâJahrâsââbioethicalâimperativeâ.TheâbasicâprincipleâofâNaessâsâphilosophyâofâlifeâcouldâbeâdefinedâasâfollowsâââequal rights for all living beings and every living being in principle.35âThisâprincipleâisâbasedâonâfurtherâtwoâprinciples:âself-realisation36âandâbiospheric egalitarianism (orâbiocentric equality).37
Theâprincipleâofâself-realisationâimpliesâtheâequalâpossibilityâofâself-realisa-tionâforâanybodyâwhoâhasâthisâkindâofâability.âAsâGeorgeâSessionsâandâBillâDevallâpreciselyâpointâout:âInâkeepingâwithâtheâspiritualâtraditionsâofâmanyâofâtheâworldâsâreligions,âtheâdeepâecologyânormâofâself-realizationâgoesâbeyondâmodernâWesternâSelfâwhichâisâdefinedâasâanâisolatedâegoâstrivingâprimarilyâforâhedonisticâgratificationâorâforâaânarrowâsenseâofâindividualâsalvationâinâthisâlifeâorâtheânext.â38
Itâisâaâkindâofâuniversal Self (orâecological Self),âwhichâisâfarâmoreâcompre-hensiveâthanâtheânotionâofâselfâinâclassicalâanthropocentricâindividualismâandâsimpleâbiocentricâindividualism,âgivenâthatâindividualsâ(humansâandânon-hu-mans)âareâseenâasâpartâofâaâbiggerâwhole.âWeâshouldârespectâthisââbigâpictureââandâactâaccordingly,âascribingâaâcertainâmoralâstatusâtoâeveryoneâandâevery-thingâwhichâisâpartâofâthisâwhole.Theâ secondâ principleâ ââ biospheric egalitarianism (orâ biocentric equality)âââimpliesâtheâfollowing:âTheâintuitionâofâbiocentricâequalityâisâthatâallâthingsâinâtheâbiosphereâhaveâanâequalârightâtoâliveâandâblossomâandâtoâreachâtheirâownâindividualâformsâofâunfoldingâandâself-realizationâwithinâtheâlargerâSelf-realization.âThisâbasicâintuitionâisâthatâallâorganismsâandâentitiesâinâtheâecosphere,â
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asâpartsâofâtheâinterrelatedâwhole,âareâequalâinâintrinsicâworth.â(âŠ)âTheâpracticalâimplicationsâofâthisâintuitionâorânormâsuggestâthatâweâshouldâliveâwithâminimumâratherâthanâmaximumâimpactâonâotherâspeciesâonâtheâEarthâinâgeneral.â39
ArneâNaessâandâGeorgeâSessionsâsâeight-pointââplatformâofâtheâdeepâecologyâMovementââcanâbeâusedâasâaâsummaryâofâtheâentireâNaessianâandâdeep-eco-logicalâeffortâinâtheâfieldâofâtheoreticallyâfoundingâandâpracticallyâpromotingâanâessentiallyâdifferentâandâepochalâethicalâview,âwhichâshouldâbeâbasedâonâaânewâontologyâandâextendedâtoâaânewâformâofâsocietalâandâpoliticalâlife,âasâaâsetâofânormsâofâsorts,âaimingâtoâbeâacceptableâtoâaâbroadâspectrumâofâdifferentâworldviews:
â1.â Theâwell-beingâandâflourishingâofâhumanâandânonhumanâLifeâonâEarthâhaveâvalueâinâthem-selvesâ(synonyms:âintrinsicâvalue,âinherentâvalue).âTheseâvaluesâareâindependentâofâtheâuse-fulnessâofâtheânonhumanâworldâforâhumanâpurposes.
2.â Richnessâandâdiversityâofâlifeâformsâcontributeâtoâtheârealizationsâofâtheseâvaluesâandâareâalsoâvaluesâinâthemselves.
3.â Humansâhaveânoârightâtoâreduceâthisârichnessâandâdiversityâexceptâtoâsatisfyâvitalâhumanâneeds.
4.â Theâflourishingâofâhumanâlifeâandâculturesâisâcompatibleâwithâaâsubstantialâdecreaseâofâhu-manâpopulation.âTheâflourishingâofânonhumanâlifeârequiresâsuchâaâdecrease.
5.â Presentâhumanâinterferenceâwithâtheânonhumanâworldâisâexcessive,âandâtheâsituationâisârap-idlyâworsening.
6.â Policiesâmustâ thereforeâbeâchanged.âTheseâpoliciesâaffectâbasicâeconomic,â technological,âandâideologicalâstructures.âTheâresultingâstateâofâaffairsâwillâbeâdeeplyâdifferentâfromâtheâpresent.
7.â Theâideologicalâchangeâisâmainlyâthatâofâappreciatingâlifeâqualityâ(dwellingâinâsituationsâofâinherentâvalue)âratherâthanâadheringâtoâanâincreasinglyâhigherâstandardâofâliving.âThereâwillâbeâaâprofoundâawarenessâofâtheâdifferenceâbetweenâbigâandâgreat.
8.â Thoseâwhoâsubscribeâtoâtheâforegoingâpointsâhaveâanâobligationâtoâdirectlyâorâindirectlyâtryâtoâimplementâtheânecessaryâchanges.â40
3. The âmeaningâ of life?
ByâlayingâoutâaâbriefâoverviewâofâJonas,âJahr,âSchweitzerâandâNaessâsâviews,âweâhaveâalreadyâexposedâimplicitlyâanâanswerâtoâtheâquestionâofâwhatâlifeâac-tuallyâis,âandâwhatâitsââmeaningââorââpurposeââisâwhichâshouldâbeârecognised,âvaluedâandâeventuallyârespected.âNevertheless,âthereâremainsâtheâquestionâofâ
31
See,âforâexample,âAlbertâSchweitzer,ââWesternâandâIndianâThoughtâ,âin:âAlbert Schweitzerâs Ethical Vision,âpp.â33â43.
32
Albertâ Schweitzer,â âTheâ Problemâ ofâ PeaceâinâtheâWorldâTodayâ,â in:âAlbert Schweitzerâs Ethical Vision,âp.â224.
33
Ibid.
34
ArneâNaess,â Ecology, Community, and Life-style,â Cambridgeâ Universityâ Press,â Cam-bridgeâ2001,âp.â174.
35
âEachâlivingâbeingâisâunderstoodâasâaâgoalâinâitself,â in principle onâ anâ equalâ footingâ withâoneâsâownâegoââ(ibid.).
36
Seeâibid.,âpp.â84â85.
37
Seeâibid.,âpp.â174â175.
38
Billâ Devallâ ââ Georgeâ Sessions,â Deep Ecology. Living as if Nature Mattered,âPeregrineâSmith,âSaltâLakeâCityâ1985,âpp.â66â67.
39
Ibid.,â67â68.
40
Ibid.,â p.â 70.â Seeâ alsoâ Naessâ andâ Sessionsâsâcommentsâonâpp.â70â73.
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theâphilosophical-ethicalâconceptsâwhichâhaveâ traditionallyâbeenâconnectedâwithâethicalâ respect,âvaluesâandârecognition:â theâconceptsâofâautonomyâandâdignity.Ifâtheâconceptâofââautonomyââmeansââself-legislationââandâif,âadditionally,âitâisânecessarilyâconnectedâwithârationality,âthereâcannotâbeââautonomyââoutsideâofâtheâhumanâworld,âbecauseâwhatâweâcallâârationalityââisâanâexclusivelyâhumanâtraitâand,âadditionally,ââtheâlawâofâlifeâ,âwhichâregulatesâtheâlifeâofânon-hu-manâbeings,âisâgivenâtoânon-humanâbeingsâonlyâbyânatureâandânotâbyâtheirâownâactivities,âefforts,âcreativity,âetc.âHowever,âJonasâ(withââfreedomâ)âandâNaessâ(withââself-realisationâ)âmakeâusârethinkâtheâconceptâofâautonomyâasânecessarilyâhuman/rationalâself-legislation.âTheâquestionâis:âCouldâtheâcon-ceptâofâautonomyâbeâderivedâfromâlife itself (e.g.,âalongâtheâlineâofâtheâintrin-sicâânormativityâofâlifeâ41) andânotâfromâaâcertain feature, form, or way of life?Furthermore,âifâtheâconceptâofââdignityââisânecessarilyâconnectedâwithâtheâcon-ceptâofââautonomyââasâanâexclusivelyâhumanâkindâofâautonomyâ(whichâis,âmoreâorâless,âaâtraditionalâview,âe.g.,âinâKantianâethics),ââdignityâofâlifeââimpliesâonlyââdignityâofâhumanâlifeâ.âCould,âaccordingâtoâtheâabovementionedârelativisa-tionâofâtheâanthropocentric-rationalâconceptâofâautonomy,âtheâconceptâofâdig-nityâbeâthoughtâofâandâappliedâdifferentlyâââfromâtheâveryâfactâofâlife?Letâusâimagineâaâdifferentâethicalâgeometryâandâplaceâonâtheâleftâsideâofâtheâschemeâ theâ traditionalâconceptâofâhumanâdignity,âwhichâ includesâ theâ tradi-tionalâconceptsâofâfreedomâandâautonomy,âasâwellâasâtheâabilityâandâtheârightâtoâ self-determination,â andâwhichâ impliesâ certainâ rightsâ andâduties.â (Asâhasâalreadyâbeenâsuggested,âthisâtypeâofââexcellenceââofâhumanâbeingsâisâbasedâonâtheirârationality,âratherâthanâonâtheirâmereâgeneticâbelongingâtoâtheâhumanârace.)âInâcontrastâtoâtraditionalâviews,âwhichârestâuponâtheâpresentedâscheme,âletâ usâ placeâ onâ theâ rightâ sideâ ofâ theâ schemeâ somethingâ thatâ weâ couldâ callââdignityâofâtheâlivingââ(orâtheââdignityâofâlifeâ),âbecauseâweâcanâempirically,âphenomenologicallyâandâspeculativelyâfindâthatânon-humanâbeingsâalsoâhaveâaâcertainâabilityâtoârealiseâthemselvesâandâtheirâpotentialsâinâdifferentâways.âThisâkindâofâabilityâisâinherentâtoâanyâformâofâlife,âandâitâcouldâleadâusâtoâtheâconclusionâthatâanyâformâofâlifeâhasâaâcertainâpurpose,âwhichâimpliesâaâcertainâvalueâwhichâshouldâbeârespectedâbyâhumansâasâspecificâandââexcellentââthink-ingâandâmoralâagents.âIfâthisâisâso,âweâhaveâaâcertainâresponsibilityânotâonlyâtoâfellowâhumanâbeings,âbutâalsoâtoâotherâlivingâentities;âweâoughtâtoâcareâforâthemâinâgeneralâandâwhenâtheirâexistenceâdirectlyâcollidesâwithâourâ(human)âactionsâinâparticular.âSuchâaâtwo-sidedâschemeâallowsâusânotâonlyâtoâincludeânon-humanâbeingsâinâtheâhorizonâofâhumanâethicalâduties,âbutâalsoâtoâresolveâtheâ issuesâwhichâareâusuallyâ suppressedâ inâ (bio)ethicalâ theoryâandâpracticeâwhenâfacedâwithâtheâproblemâofâtreatingâhumanâbeingsâdeprivedâofâârational-ityâ,âregardlessâofâwhetherâbyâbirthâorâduringâtheâcourseâofâlife,âregardlessâofâwhetherâpersistentlyâorâtemporarily.Theseâ twoâ sidesâofâ theâproposedâ schemeâareânotâmutuallyâ exclusive.âTheyâshouldâbeâseenâasâtwoâsourcesâofâdignityâratherâthanâasâtwoâtypesâofâdignityâwhichâwouldâneedâtwoâseparateâethicalâconceptions.âHumanâdignityâis,âfun-damentally,âbasedâonâtheâfactâofâlife,ânotâonâtheâfactâofâreason.â(Itâcouldâevenâbeâsaidâthatârationalisticâargumentsâinâfavourâofâhuman dignityâââinsteadâofâtheâdignity of lifeâââisâonlyâaâkindâofârationalisationâofâirrationalâanthropocen-tricâbiases.)âNevertheless,âtheseâtwoâtypesâofââdignityââdemandâaânewâethicalâconception,âwhichâisâdifferentâfromâtraditionalâethicalâconceptionsâââanâasym-metric ethics,âwhichâwouldâalsoâbeâaâbiocentric ethics.
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Itâshouldâprimarilyâbeâdifferentâ inârespectâofâ theâdutiesârightsâbalance.âTheâquantityâandâtheâqualityâofârightsâshouldânotâdependâonâtheâquantityâandâtheâqualityâofâdutiesâoneâcanâtakeâup.âInâthisâregard,âanâasymmetricâethicsâshouldâmakeâmoreâexplicitâtheâdifferenceâbetweenâtheâsubjectâandâtheâobjectâofâethi-calâ duties,â althoughâ itâ wouldâ haveâ toâ emphasiseâ exactlyâ theâ basicâ equalityâbetweenâ allâ ethicallyâ relevantâ entitiesâ (Naessianâ âbiocentricâ equalityâ).â Ofâcourse,âthereâisânoâotherâwayâofârecognisingânon-humanâbeingsâbutâfromâtheâperspectiveâofâanthropos.âAccordingâtoâit,âanthropomorphismâisâepistemicallyâinevitable.42âHowever,â itâdoesânotâ implyâtheâclaimâthatâanthropocentrismâisâinevitableâandânecessaryâinâanâethicalâsense.âEvenâthoughâweâcanâstate,âwithâcertainty,âthatâonlyâaâârationalânatureâ,âaââpersonââorââhumanââcanâbeâanâethi-calâsubject,âweâshouldânotâconcludeâthatânon-rational,ânon-personal,ânon-hu-manâentitiesâcannotâbeâperceivedâasâethical objects.âTheâfactâthatâweâcannotâascertainâthatâsomeâanimalâorâplantâorâanyâotherâlivingâbeingâpossessesâsomeâcharacteristicâwhichâweâusuallyâconsiderâtoâbeâethicallyârelevantâ(byâanalogyâwithâhumanâbeings)âdoesânotâmeanâthatâweâshouldâdismissâitâasâanâethicallyâirrelevantâentity;âquiteâtheâcontrary,âweâshouldâtreatâallâlivingâbeingsâasâethi-callyârelevantâââinâgeneral,âinâprincipleâââbeâitâbyâanalogyâwithâhumanâbeingsâorâbyâteleologicalâresearchâofâlifeâandâitsâdifferentâmanifestations.âIfâtheâfactâofâlifeâisâhighlyâvaluedâ(orâevenââsacredâ)âinâtheâcaseâofâhumanâbeings,âthenâitâshouldâhaveâatâleastâsomeâkindâofâvalueâinâtheâcaseâofânon-humanâentitiesâwhichâareâalsoâlivingâbeings.âTherefore,âweâcouldâsimultaneouslyâclaimâthatâmoralsâandâethicsâareâeminentâhumanâenterprises,âandâthatâmoralsâandâethicsâshouldâincludeânon-humanâbeingsâasâobjectsâofâourâmorallyârelevantâreflec-tionsâandâactions.âNevertheless,âweâshouldâbeâawareâofâgreatâproblemsâthatâareâinherentâtoâanyâkindâofâaâbiocentricâposition,âsuchâasâtheâinevitableâconflictsâofâinterests,âbut,âasâSchweitzerâsays,
âTrueâreverenceâforâmoralityâisâshownâbyâreadinessâtoâfaceâtheâdifficultiesâcontainedâinâit.â43
Finally,â theâ âasymmetryââofâ anâasymmetricâ ethicsâ alsoâ relatesâ toâ theâ tradi-tionalââsymmetryââofâethicsâandârationality.âNewâethicalâissuesâarticulatedâbyâbioethicsâurgeâusâtoârethinkâtheâroleâofâânon-rationalâelementsââofâmoralâandâethicalâreflection,âprimarilyâinârespectâofâtheâmotivationâtoâaction.âTheâratio-nalityâofâaâmoralâandâethicalâagentâis,âofâcourse,âtheâconditio sine qua nonânotâonlyâofâethicsâasâaâtheory,âbutâalsoâofâmoralâreflection.âHowever,ârationalityâisânotâtheâonlyâsourceâofâourâmoral-ethicalâreflectionâandâaction.âTakingâthisâlineâofâthought,âmanyâauthorsâemphasiseâtheâissueâofâcompassionâandâfeelings,âandâaffectivityâandâsensibilityâinâgeneral.âJonasâdedicatedâanâimportantâpartâofâhisâImperative of Responsibilityâtoâthisâissue,44âasâwellâasâNaessâinâEcology, Com-
41
SeeâThomasâSörenâHoffmannâsâpaperâinâthisâissueâofâSynthesis philosophica.
42
SeeâJonasâsâcriticismâofâ theâmodernââbanâofâanthropomorphismââ in:â H.â Jonas,â The Phe-nomenon of Life,âespeciallyâpp.â33â37.
43
AlbertâSchweitzer,âIndian Thought and Its De-velopment,âPeterâSmith,âGloucesterâ1977,âp.â84.âââInâthisâsense,âveryâinstructiveâisâNaessâsâtextââSelf-realizationâinâMixedâCommunitiesâofâHumans,âBears,âSheep,âandâWolvesâ,âThe Trumpeter,âVol.â22â(2006),âNo.â1,âpp.â89â99.
44
See,â forâ example,â theâ chapterâ âTheâ âSecondâDutyâ:âSummoningâUpâaâFeelingâAppropriateâtoâWhatâHasâBeenâVisualizedâ,âwhereâJonasâcallâuponââaânewâkindâofâĂ©ducation sentimen-taleâ,âwhichâisââtheâsecond,âpreliminaryâdutyâofâtheâethicâweâareâseeking,âsubsequentâtoâtheâfirstâdutyâtoâbringâaboutâthatâmereâthoughtâit-selfââ(H.âJonas,âThe Imperative of Responsi-bility,âp.â28).
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munity, and Lifestyle.45âJahrâwasâtryingâtoâdevelopâhisâbio-ethicsâbyârecalling,âamongstâothers,âSchopenhauerâsâconceptâofâcompassionâasâaâbasisâofâethics.46âSimilarlyâtoâJahr,âSchweitzerâthinksâthatââethicsâisâcompleteâonlyâwhenâitâex-actsâcompassionâtowardâeveryâlivingâthingâ47âandâthat:
âTheâprincipleâofânot-killingâandânot-harmingâmustânotâaimâatâbeingâindependent,âbutâmustâbeâtheâservantâof,âandâsubordinateâitselfâto,âcompassion.âItâmustâthereforeâenterâintoâpracticalâdis-cussionâwithâreality.â48
Accordingâtoâallâtheâauthorsâreferredâto,âunifyingârationalityâandâsensibilityâis,âoneâwayâorâanother,ârelatedâtoâunifyingâtheâtheoreticalâandâpracticalâdimen-sionsâofâ(bio)ethics,âwhichâisâparticularlyâvisibleâinâtheâconceptsâofârespon-sibility andâcare.âLeonardoâBoffâusesâtheâtermââessentialâcareââtoâaddressâthisâissueâandâtheâcorrespondingârequest:
âToâcareâisâmoreâthanâaâmereâact;âitâisâratherâanâattitude.âTherefore,âitâencompassesâmoreâthanâaâmoment ofâawareness,âofâzealâandâofâdevotion.âItârepresentsâanâattitude ofâactivity,âofâconcern,âofâresponsibilityâandâofâanâaffectiveâinvolvementâwithâtheâother.âAnâattitudeâisâlikeâaâfountain;âitâservesâasâtheâsourceâforâactsâwhichâexpressâtheâattitudeâinâtheâbackground.â49
Theâquestionâofâwhichâelementâprecedesâwhichâisâlessâimportant;âmoreâimpor-tantâisâtheâquestionâofâwhetherâweâadmitâtheirârolesâinâethicalâthoughtâandâac-tion,âandâhowâtheyâareâbalanced.âItâisâexactlyâbioethicalâissuesâandâapproachesâthatâshowâusâthatâtheâclassicalâsharpâdistinctionâbetweenârationalityâandâsen-sibility,âjustâlikeâtheâclassicalâoppositionâbetweenâtheoryâandâpractice,âcannotâbeâjustifiedâanymore.âNeitherâshouldâbeâdeniedâorâoveremphasised;âtheârealâquestionâis:âHowâshouldâweâdimensionâthemâsoâasâtoâthink,âactâandâliveâasâcomprehensivelyâasâpossible?50
4. The âexhibitionâ of life
ByârecallingâJonas,âJahr,âSchweitzerâandâNaess,âweâcanâatâleastâconcludeâthatâtheâpathâfromâaânotion of lifeâ(theoreticalâreflectionâonâlife)âtoâanâethics of lifeâ(practicalâreflectionâonâlifeâandâactionâinâregardâtoâit)âisâaâdirectâpathâwhichâcouldâleadâusâfurtherâtowardsâaââbioethicalâhighwayââwhichâmustâbeâbuilt.InâhisâpoemââInâpathsâuntroddenâ,âWaltâWhitman,âaâgreatâAmericanâpoetâandâthinker,âsays:
âInâpathsâuntrodden,Inâtheâgrowthsâbyâmarginsâofâpond-waters,Escapedâfromâtheâlifeâthatâexhibitsâitself,Fromâallâtheâstandardsâhithertoâpublishâd,âfromâtheâpleasures,â â â â â â â profits,âconformities,WhichâtooâlongâIâwasâofferingâtoâfeedâmyâsoul,Clearâtoâmeânowâstandardsânotâyetâpublishâd,âclearâtoâmeâ â â â â â â thatâmyâsoul,ThatâtheâsoulâofâtheâmanâIâspeakâforârejoicesâinâcomrades,Hereâbyâmyselfâawayâfromâtheâclankâofâtheâworld,â(âŠ)Strongâuponâmeâtheâlifeâthatâdoesânotâexhibitâitself,â â â â â â â yetâcontainsâallâtheârestâ(âŠ).â51
AâdifferentlyâsetâapproachâtoâlifeâââwhichâcanâalsoâbeâfoundâinâJonas,âJahr,âSchweitzerâandâNaessâââcouldâstartâwithâaâWhitmanianââphenomenologicalâreductionââofâ lifeâ toââlifeâ thatâdoesânotâexhibitâ itselfââ throughâ theâmatricesâfixedâ byâ traditionalâ anthropocentricâ ethicsâ andâ modernâ formsâ ofâ science,âeconomyâandâpolitics.âSuchâaânewâandâ freshânotionâofâ life,âwhichâexhibitsâitselfâprimarilyâbyâitself,ââcontainingâallâtheârestâ,âcouldâbeâtakenâasâaâstartingâ
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pointâofâaâbio-logical,âbio-philosophical,âbio-philicâandâbio-ethicalâapproachâtoâtheâphenomenonâofâlife.âInâHansâJonasâsâwords:
âTheâmeaningâofâexistence,âofâmatterâ itself,âperformsâitselfâbyâ itself,âbecauseâweâcomeâfromâitâandâweâareâpartâofâit.âPrimarily,âthen,âtoâattainâbeingâandâtoâintuitâit;âthenâtoâfathomâitâandâtoâloveâit;âfinally,âtoâreflectâitâandâtoâtestifyâit:âthisâisâtheâwholeâofâwisdomââââeverythingâelseâisâcommentaryâ.âUndoubtedly,âthisâisânotâanâabilityâsharedâbyâallâpeople;âonlyâaâfewâareâableâtoâdoâitâfully.âThisâisâanâidealâââanâanthropologicalâimperative.âHowever,âtheâfirstâpartâcanâbeâfulfilledâbyâvirtuallyâanybody,âbecauseâitâbelongsâtoâtheâgenericâequipmentâofâHomoâsapiens.âTheâsecondâpartâcouldâbeâfulfilledâbyâmoreâpeopleâonlyâifâtheyâwereâtoâtryâtoâdoâitâ(âŠ).âTheâthirdâpartâisâonlyâforâaâchosenâfew,âtheâwitnessesâofâhumankind,âwhoâindulgeâthemselvesâevenâinâtheâmostâdifficultâofâthings.â52
Suchâaânotionâofâlifeâcouldâalsoârevealâusâinâaânewâandâfreshâlight,âwhatâisâactu-allyâatâstakeâtoday,âwhatâandâwhoseâlifeâshouldâbeâembracedâbothâbyâhumanârationalityâandâsensibility,âasâwellâasâbyâhumanâresponsibilityâandâcare,âbothâofâwhichâdependâonâtheârationalâandâtheâsensible.âInâotherâwords,âsuchâaânotionâofâlifeâcouldâpointâusâtoâlifeâwhichâshouldâbeâprotectedâfromâtheâencroachmentâofâtheâtechnoscientific-economic-politicalâmanipulativeâpowerâbyâanâethics of life,âregardlessâofâwhetherâitâisâcalledâzoo-ethics orâbio-ethics.
45
See,â forâ example,â theâ chapterâ âEmotion,âValue,â andâ Realityââ bringingâ theâ followingâpassage:â âInâ aâ discussionâ ofâ valueâ thinking,âitâ isâ essentialâ toâ clarifyâ theâ relationshipâ be-tweenâspontaneousâfeelings,âtheirâexpressionâthroughâ ourâ vibrantâ voices,â andâ statementsâofâ valueâ orâ announcementâ ofâ normsâ moti-vated byâ strongâ feelingsâ butâ havingâ aâ clearâcognitiveâ function.â (âŠ)â Inâ theseâ statements,âfeelingsâareâcloselyâtiedâtoâintention.â(âŠ)âInâshort,â valueâ statementsâ areâ normallyâ madeâwithâpositiveâorânegativeâfeeling,âandâitâwouldâbeânonsensicalâtoâaskâforâneutrality.â(âŠ)âItâisâthusâ unwarrantedâ toâ requireâ thatâ feelingâ beâeliminatedâ inâ anâ impartialâ discussion.â Ifâ theâdebateâ isâ toâproceedâ inâdepth,â theseâ feelingsâshouldâbeâclarified,âandâmadeâexplicitâasâtheâneedâ arises.â Specificâ personal,â idiosyncraticâcomponentsâmustâbeâsortedâoutâifâtheâdebateâisâconcernedâwithâmoreâorâlessâgeneralânorms.ââ(A.â Naess,â Ecology, Community, and Life-style,âpp.â64â65.)
46
Talkingâaboutâcompassionâasââtheâcentralâmo-tiveâ ofâ theâ ideaâ ofâ animalâ protectionâ,â Jahrâsaysâ thatâ âcompassionâ withâ animalsâ showsâupâ asâ anâ empiricallyâ givenâ phenomenonâ ofâtheâhumanâsoulââ(FritzâJahr,ââAnimalâProtec-tionâandâEthicsâ,âin:âA.âMuzurâââH.-M.âSass,âFritz Jahr and the Foundations of Global Bio-ethics,âp.â9).
47
AlbertâSchweitzer,ââTheâProblemâofâEthicsâinâtheâEvolutionâofâHumanâThoughtâ,âin:âAlbert Schweitzerâs Ethical Vision,âp.â173.48A.âSchweitzer,âIndian Thought and Its Devel-opment,âp.â84.
49
Leonardoâ Boff,â Essential Care. An Ethics of Human Nature,â Baylorâ Universityâ Press,âWacoâ2008,âp.â14.
50
Schweitzerâ dimensionsâ theseâ twoâ aspectsâ ofâethicsâasâfollows:ââCompassionâisâtooânarrowâtoârankâasâtheâtotalâessenceâofâtheâethical.â(âŠ)âButâethicsâincludesâalsoâfeelingâasâoneâsâown,âallâ theâ circumstancesâ andâ allâ theâ aspirationsâofâ theâ willâ toâ live,â itsâ pleasure,â too,â andâ itsâlongingâ toâ liveâ itselfâ outâ toâ theâ full,â asâ wellâasâitsâurgeâtoâself-perfecting.ââ(A.âSchweitzer,ââReverenceâforâLifeâ,âp.â139.)
51
WaltâWhitman,ââInâPathsâUntroddenâ,âin:âThe Works of Walt Whitman,â Wordsworthâ Edi-tions,âWareâ1995,âp.â106.
52
Hansâ Jonas,â Erinnerungen,â Insel,â Frankfurt/MâââLeipzigâ2003,âp.â370.
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H. JuriÄ, From the Notion of Life to anEthicsâofâLife46
Hrvoje JuriÄ
Od pojma ĆŸivota do etike ĆŸivota
SaĆŸetakNema jednog i jedinstvenog pojma ĆŸivota, a nema ni apsolutnog konsenzusa oko konceptualnog teĆŸiĆĄta u raspravama o pojmu ĆŸivota, tako da je razmatranje pojmaĆŸivota preduvjet utemeljenja i razvijanja etikeĆŸivota, tj. bioetike. U ovom radu nastojimo ocrtati put koji vodi od pojma ĆŸivota do etike ĆŸivota, uzimajuÄi u obzir nekoliko upeÄatljivih (proto)bioetiÄkih koncepcija: inte-grativnu filozofiju ĆŸivota (filozofijsku biologiju i etiku odgovornosti) Hansa Jonasa, bio-etiku Fritza Jahra, etiku strahopoĆĄtovanja prema ĆŸivotu Alberta Schweitzera te dubinsku ekologiju (ekozofiju) Arnea Naessa.
KljuÄne rijeÄiĆŸivot,bioetika,HansJonas,FritzJahr,AlbertSchweitzer,ArneNaess
Hrvoje JuriÄ
Vom Lebensbegriff bis zu einer Ethik des Lebens
ZusammenfassungEs gibt keinen einen und einzigartigen Lebensbegriff, und es gibt keinen absoluten Konsens ĂŒber den konzeptuellen Schwerpunkt in den Abhandlungen ĂŒber den Lebensbegriff, sodass die Betrachtung des Lebensbegriffs eine Vorbedingung zur Grundlegung und Entwicklung einer EthikâdesâLebens bzw. Bioethik ist. In dieser Arbeit streben wir an, den Weg vom Lebensbegriff bis zu einer Lebensethik auszumalen, indem wir etliche einprĂ€gsame (proto)bioethische Kon-zeptionen berĂŒcksichtigen: integrative Philosophie des Lebens (philosophische Biologie und Verantwortungsethik) Hans Jonasâ, Bio-Ethik Fritz Jahrs, Ethik der Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben Albert Schweitzers sowie Tiefenökologie (Ăkosophie) Arne Naessâ.
SchlĂŒsselwörterLeben,âBioethik,âHansâJonas,âFritzâJahr,âAlbertâSchweitzer,âArneâNaess
Hrvoje JuriÄ
Du concept de vie Ă lâĂ©thique de vie
RĂ©sumĂ©Il nây a pas un seul et unique concept de vie, et il nây a pas non plus de consensus absolu autour du noyau conceptuel dans les dĂ©bats sur le conceptâdeâvie, de telle maniĂšre que lâexamen de ce concept est une prĂ©condition pour fonder et dĂ©velopper une Ă©thiqueâdeâvie, Ă savoir une bioĂ©thique. Nous nous appliquons dans ce travail Ă tracer le chemin qui mĂšne du concept de vie au concept Ă©thique de vie, en prenant en considĂ©ration quelques conceptions sensibles de (proto)bioĂ©thique: la philosophie intĂ©grative de la vie (la biologie philosophique et lâĂ©thique de responsabilitĂ©) de Hans Jonas, la bioĂ©thique de Fritz Jahr, lâĂ©thique du respect de la vie dâAl-bert Schweitzer et lâĂ©cologie profonde (lâĂ©cosophie) dâArne Naess.
Mots-clĂ©svie,âbioĂ©thique,âHansâJonas,âFritzâJahr,âAlbertâSchweitzer,âArneâNaess