FromJesustotheChurch

FromJesustotheChurchTheFirstChristianGeneration

CraigA.Evans

©2014CraigA.EvansFirsteditionPublishedbyWestminsterJohnKnoxPress

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Except asotherwise identified,Scripturequotations are from theRevisedStandardVersionof theBible,copyright 1952 (2nd ed., 1971) by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of theChurchesofChristintheUnitedStatesofAmericaandusedbypermission,allrightsreserved.QuotationsmarkedNRSV are from the NewRevised StandardVersion of the Bible, are copyright© 1989 by theDivisionofChristianEducationof theNationalCouncilof theChurchesofChrist in theU.S.A.,andareusedbypermission,allrightsreserved.Otherversionsbrieflycomparedappearinthelistofabbreviations.

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Coverillustration:RuinsofthegreatsynagogueofCapernaum,Israel,byZvonimirAtletic©shutterstock.com

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Contents

FigureswithCredits

Preface

Abbreviations

Introduction

Chapter1:DidJesusIntendtoFoundaChurch?

Chapter2:FromKingdomofGodtoChurchofChrist

Chapter3:JamesasLeaderoftheJesusCommunity

Chapter4:PhinehanZealandWorksoftheLaw:WhatPaulandJamesAreReallySaying

Chapter5:JerusalemCommunitiesinConflict

Chapter6:TheChurchbetweenPaul,James,andIgnatius

Appendix:RootCausesoftheJewish-ChristianRift:FromJesustoJustin

Notes

SuggestionsforFurtherReading

IndexofAncientSources

IndexofModernNames

IndexofSubjects

FigureswithCredits

Figure1.1.CommunityCompoundatWadiQumranCourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure1.2.SynagogueatMagdalaPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure1.3.KeysPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure2.1.SeaofGalileePhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure2.2.CapernaumPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure2.3.EmptyTombPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure3.1.PillarPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure3.2.HighPriestInscription

PhotographcourtesyofAndersRunesson

Figure3.3.KidronValley

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

Figure4.1.TheNegevWilderness

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

Figure4.2.QumranCave4PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure4.3.Fragmentsof4QMMTPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure5.1.TemplePhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure5.2.Mansion

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

Figure5.3.TempleStonesPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure5.4.SiegeStonesPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure6.1.TempleInscription

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

Figure6.2.NazarethSynagoguePhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure6.3.MenorahPhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de

Figure6.4.Sardis

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

Figure6.5.BarKokhbaVillage

PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans

T

Preface

his small book grew out of the Deichmann Lectures given at the Ben-Gurion University of the Negev in Beersheba, Israel, inMay of 2010. I

thank Dr. Roland Deines of Nottingham University and the DeichmannCommittee for the invitation. I also thank Herr Dr. Heinz-Horst Deichmann,whosegenerousfinancialsupportmakesthelectureseriespossible.IalsothankDr. Cana Werman, who translated the lectures into Hebrew for the Hebrew-speaking students. The purpose of the Deichmann Lectures is to supportscholarshipthatisconcernedwiththeintersectionofJudaismandChristianity.Itwasanhonortotakepartinthisworthyenterprise.Itishardtoimaginehowavisitofthisnaturecouldhavebeenmoreenjoyable

andhowhostscouldhavebeenmorehospitable.Mywife—Ginny—andIweretreatedtowonderfuldinners,musicalevents,receptions,desertwalks,andvisitsto importantarchaeologicalsites,withDr.Deichmannandhismusicallygifteddaughter; with RolandDeines, Pau Figueras, and Anders Runesson; and withProfessor Zipora (“Zipi”) Talshir and her husband (readers should know thatZipiisachefofnomeanaccomplishment—thoughIdoubtshewilleveradmitit!).I am grateful to Greg Monette, who assisted with the preparation of the

indexes; and to Anders Runesson, Alexander Schick, and Ginny, whogenerously gave me permission to use several of their beautiful photographs.Manythanks,colleagues!

CraigA.EvansAcadiaDivinityCollege

Abbreviations

AB AnchorBible(CommentarySeries)Abot Mishnah,AbotAbotR.Nat. AbotofRabbiNathanABRL AnchorBibleReferenceLibraryAGJU ArbeitenzurGeschichtedesantikenJudentumsunddes

UrchristentumsAnt. Josephus,JewishAntiquitiesArBib AramaicBibleAT author’stranslationb. Abod.Zar. BabylonianTalmud,AbodahZarahb.Ber. BabylonianTalmud,Berakhotb.Git. BabylonianTalmud,Gittinb.Pesah. BabylonianTalmud,Pesahimb.Sanh. BabylonianTalmud,Sanhedrinb.Shabb. BabylonianTalmud,Shabbatb.Yoma BabylonianTalmud,YomaBAR BiblicalArchaeologyReviewBBR BulletinforBiblicalResearchBETL BibliothecaephemeridumtheologicarumlovaniensiumBib.Ant. BiblicalAntiquities(Pseudo-Philo)BJRL BulletinoftheJohnRylandsUniversityLibraryof

ManchesterBJS BrownJudaicStudiesBNTC Black’sNewTestamentCommentariesBZ BiblischeZeitschriftCBET ContributionstoBiblicalExegesisandTheologyCBQ CatholicBiblicalQuarterlyCD CairoGenizahcopyoftheDamascusDocumentCEJL CommentariesonEarlyJewishLiterature

CEJL CommentariesonEarlyJewishLiteratureCII Jean-BaptisteFrey,CorpusinscriptionumiudaicarumI–IICIS CopenhagenInternationalSeminarCQ ClassicalQuarterlyCSHJ ChicagoStudiesintheHistoryofJudaismDJD DiscoveriesintheJudaeanDesertDSD DeadSeaDiscoveriesFBBS FacetBooks,BiblicalSeriesFRLANT ForschungenzurReligionundLiteraturdesAltenund

NeuenTestamentsGen.Rab. GenesisRabbahGNS GoodNewsStudiesHel.Syn.Pr. HellenisticSynagogalPrayersHist.eccl. Eusebius,EcclesiasticalHistoryICC InternationalCriticalCommentaryIEJ IsraelExplorationJournalJAL JewishApocryphalLiteratureJBL JournalofBiblicalLiteratureJGRChJ JournalofGreco-RomanChristianityandJudaismJJS JournalofJewishStudiesJSJ JournalfortheStudyofJudaisminthePersian,Hellenistic

andRomanPeriodJSJSup JournalfortheStudyofJudaisminthePersian,Hellenistic

andRomanPeriod:SupplementsJSNT JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestamentJSNTSup JournalfortheStudyoftheNewTestament:Supplement

SeriesJSOTSup JournalfortheStudyoftheOldTestament:Supplement

SeriesJSP JournalfortheStudyofthePseudepigraphaJSPSup JournalfortheStudyofthePseudepigrapha:Supplement

SeriesJTS JournalofTheologicalStudiesJ.W. Josephus,JewishWarsKJV KingJamesVersion

KJV KingJamesVersionLam.Rab. LamentationsRabbahLCL LoebClassicalLibraryLXX Septuagint(GreektranslationoftheOldTestament)m.Sotah Mishnah,Sotahm.Yoma Mishnah,Yomam.Zevah. Mishnah,ZevahimMidr.Pss. MidrashonthePsalmsMidr.Tanh. MidrashTanhumaMT MasoreticTextNETS NewEnglishTranslationoftheSeptuagintNICNT NewInternationalCommentaryontheNewTestamentNICOT NewInternationalCommentaryontheOldTestamentNIV NewInternationalVersion(2011)NKJV NewKingJamesVersionNovT NovumTestamentumNovTSup NovumTestamentumSupplementsNRSV NewRevisedStandardVersionNTL NewTestamentLibraryNTM NewTestamentMonographsNTS NewTestamentStudiesNTTS NewTestamentToolsandStudiesOGIS W.Dittenberger,OrientisgraeciinscriptionesselectaeI–IIOTL OldTestamentLibraryPAST PaulineStudiesPG J.-P.Migne,ed.,PatrologiagraecaPNTC PillarNewTestamentCommentaryP.Yadin PapyriYadin

4Q266sampleref.tonumberedscrollfromQumranCave4

1QMWarScroll,fromQumranCave1

1QpHabPesherHabakkuk,acommentaryfromQumranCave1

1QSRuleoftheCommunity,fromQumranCave1

RevQ RevuedeQumranRILP RoehamptonLondonInstitutePapersRSV RevisedStandardVersionSBL SocietyofBiblicalLiterature(andExegesis[before1963])SBLDS SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureDissertationSeriesSBLMS SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureMonographSeriesSBLSP SocietyofBiblicalLiteratureSeminarPapersSDSSRL StudiesintheDeadSeaScrollsandRelatedLiteratureSifreNum. SifreNumbersSJLA StudiesinJudaisminLateAntiquitySNTSMS SocietyforNewTestamentStudiesMonographSeriesSpec.Laws Philo,OntheSpecialLawsT.Benj. TestamentofBenjamin(sampleref.foratestament)t.Hul. Tosefta,Hullint.Me il. Tosefta,Me ilaht.Sukkah Tosefta,SukkahTBN ThemesinBiblicalNarrativeTg. TargumTg.Onq. TargumOnqelos(sampleref.toaTargum)THKNT TheologischerHandkommentarzumNeuenTestamentTSAJ TexteundStudienzumantikenJudentumTynBul TyndaleBulletinVCSup Vigiliaechristianae:SupplementSeriesVir.ill. Jerome,Devirisillustribus=OnIllustriousMenWBC WordBiblicalCommentaryWUNT WissenschaftlicheUntersuchungenzumNeuenTestament

y.Ber. JerusalemTalmud,Berakhoty.Sotah JerusalemTalmud,Sotahy.Ta an. JerusalemTalmud,Ta anitYJS YaleJudaicaSeriesZNW ZeitschriftfürdieneutestamentlicheWissenschaft

W

Introduction

hen Jesus of Nazareth entered Jerusalem, shortly before Passover, andquarreledwiththerulingpriests,hesetinmotionachainofeventsthat

wouldchangetheworld.Thepurposeofthisbookistoexaminethefirstlinkinthischain.ThislinkismadeupofthefirstgenerationoftheJesusmovement,amovement centered in Jerusalem. It was almost entirely Jewish andwas verymuchfocusedontheredemptionandrestorationofIsrael.Even during the first forty years, with the Jesusmovement and the temple

establishmentfiercelycompetingfortheheartsoftheJewishpeople, therewasneveranythoughtthattheJesusmovementwassomehownotJewishoroutsidethe boundaries of the nation of Israel and its great heritage. TheMessianists,who up north inAntioch became known asChristianoi, or “Christians,”wereviewed as a Jewish sect (or hairesis), as were the Pharisees, Sadducees, andEssenes.The death of James, the capture of Jerusalem, and the destruction of the

temple changed the dynamics of Jewish society and, along with it, therelationship of the Messianists with their non-Messianist Jewish brothers andsisters. The Gentile branch of the church, energetically planted and deeplywatered by Paul and other Jewish missionaries, rapidly expanding across theRomanEmpire,soondominated.AlthoughtheJewishbranchofthechurchdidnot cease, it did recede and in time exerted little influence. By the secondcentury,especiallyintheaftermathoftheBarKokhbarevolt,themovementthatJesus had launched and that his apostles had spread had become largely aGentileaffair.Thepresentstudyisnotahistoryoftheearlychurch;itisnotevenahistory

ofitsfirstgeneration.Itis,rather,astudynarrowlyfocusedontheclashbetweenthe family of high priest Annas and the family of Jesus of Nazareth, a clashinaugurated by a Jeremiah-related prophecy of the temple’s doom, uttered byJesus, and ended by another Jeremiah-related prophecy of the temple’s doom,uttered by another man named Jesus. My goal is to draw attention to theimportanceofthisprophecy,whatmotivatedit,andtheeffectsithadonboththefollowersofJesusandonthefollowersofAnnas,hisfamily,andallies.EvenasnarrowlyasIhavedefinedthisstudy,severalavenueshavenotbeen

explored,atleastnotfully.Thisisrich,suggestivematerial.ThemoreIprobed,themorequestionswereraised.MyhopeistoalertscholarstotheimportanceofafacetinearlyChristianhistorythathasnotbeeninvestigated.Ibeginwithan“ambiguous” prophecy, which will provide the context for the prophecies ofJesus and others regarding the fate ofHerod’s glorious temple. Discussion ofthisprophecywillcreatethepropercontextfortheremainderofmystudy.

AnAmbiguousProphecy

WritingprimarilyforaneliteRomanreadershipafewyearsafterthedestructionoftheJewishtemple(in70CE),JosephbarMatthias—betterknownasFlaviusJosephus—discusses a number of incidents that presaged the comingwar andcatastrophe (66–73CE).Among thesewere the appearance of numerous falseprophetsandcharlatans,allofwhompromiseddeliverance(J.W.6.285–88);theappearanceofastarover thecityof Jerusalem,whichmanywronglyassumedwas a good omen (6.289–91); a cow that gave birth to a lamb, in the veryprecinctsofthetemple(6.292);thestrangenocturnalself-openingofthemassivebrass eastern gate of the inner temple court (6.293–96); the appearance ofchariotsandarmedbattalions“hurtlingthroughtheclouds”(6.297–99);andtheloudcryofahostheardoneeveningduringPentecost,saying,“Wearedepartingfromhere”(6.300a).Manyofthesestrangeomens,leadinguptothecaptureofJerusalem and the defeat of the Jewish uprising, were also known to Romanwriters.Perhapsrelatedtothestarthatappearedoverthecitywasaprophecy—orin

the words of the politically astute Josephus, “an ambiguous oracle”—which“more than all else incited them to thewar.”This oracle, found in the Jewishsacred Scriptures, foretold “that at that time one from their country wouldbecome rulerof theworld” (J.W. 6.312).Although it is debated, theprophecymostlikelyinviewisthatofNumbers24:17:“Iseehim,butnotnow;Ibeholdhim,butnotnigh:astarshallcomeforthoutofJacob,andasceptershall riseoutofIsrael;itshallcrushtheforeheadofMoab,andbreakdownallthesonsofSheth.” Not only does this prophecy of a “star” cohere with the previouslymentionedstarthatappearedaboveJerusalem;theprophecywasalsointerpretedinroyalandmessianictermsinJewishliteratureoflateantiquity.Indeed,whenthemagiinMatthew’sGospelinquireafterhimwhohasbeenborn“kingoftheJews,”becausetheyhaveseenhisstar(Matt.2:1–2),theyareprobablyalludingtoNumbers24:17(oratleastMatthew’sJewishreaderswouldassumeso).1Naturally, the Jewish people assumed that the prophecy of Numbers 24:17

spokeofthecomingofaJewishruler.TheprophecyisquotedinacollectionofmessianictextsinoneoftheQumranScrolls(see4Q1751.9–13).In1QSb5.20–29 theprophecy is citedalongwith Isaiah11and is applied to the anticipated“leaderofthenation”whowillconquerIsrael’senemies.Inthegreatwaragainstthe “sons of darkness,”Numbers 24:17will be fulfilled (1QM11.5–7). In theDamascusDocumentthetextisappliedtothecomingkingandthe“interpreteroftheLaw”(CD7.18–8:1[=4Q266frag.3,3.20–23;4Q269frag.5,lines3–4]).TheAramaicparaphrasesofJewishScripture(i.e.,theTargumim)regularlyparaphrase and interpret Numbers 24:17 as referring to the anticipated royalMessiah:“WhenthestrongkingfromthoseofthehouseofJacobshallrule,andtheMessiahandthestrongrodfromIsraelshallbeanointed.”It isratherclearhow the prophecy ofNumbers 24:17was understood in Jewish circles in lateantiquity.2Josephus, however, interpreted the prophecy not in reference to a Jewish

redeemer,whether amessiah or something else.Contrary to the Jewish “wisemen”ofhisday,he interpreted it in reference to thevictoriousVespasian, theRoman general: “The oracle, however, in reality signified the sovereignty ofVespasian, who was proclaimed emperor on Jewish soil” (J.W. 6.313).VespasianhaddefeatedtheJewishrebelsinGalilee,thenoccupiedJerichoandawaited developments in Rome in the aftermath of the suicide of Nero. Hispatience paid off.After the rapid succession and failures ofGalba,Otho, andVitellius, Vespasianwas proclaimed emperor. Josephus, who had foretold theaccession ofVespasian (J.W. 3.401; 4.628–29),was vindicated, at least in theeyesoftheRomanelite.3BothTacitusandSuetoniusknowof thisprophecyandagreewith Josephus

that it came to fulfillment inVespasian’s victory and accession to the throne.Tacitusspeaksoftheprophecy,aswellassomeoftheveryomensdescribedbyJosephus:

MessianicPropheciesKnownintheTimeofJesus…ThesceptershallnotdepartfromJudah,northeruler’sstafffrombetweenhisfeet,untilhecomestowhomitbelongs;andtohimshallbetheobedienceofthepeoples.…(Gen.49:8–12)

Iseehim,butnotnow;Ibeholdhim,butnotnigh:astarshallcomeforthoutofJacob,andasceptershall rise out of Israel; it shall crush the forehead ofMoab, and break down all the sons of Sheth.(Num.24:17)

ThereshallcomeforthashootfromthestumpofJesse,andabranchshallgrowoutofhisroots.2Andthe Spirit of the LORD shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit ofcounselandmight,thespiritofknowledgeandthefearoftheLORD.…3Heshallnotjudgebywhat

hiseyessee,ordecidebywhathisearshear;butwithrighteousnessheshalljudgethepoor,anddecidewithequityforthemeekoftheearth;andheshallsmitetheearthwiththerodofhismouth,andwiththebreathofhislipsheshallslaythewicked.…(Isa.11:1–4)

Prodigieshadindeedoccurred.…Contendinghostswereseenmeetingintheskies,armsflashed,andsuddenly the templewas illuminatedwith fire from theclouds.Ofa sudden thedoorsof the shrineopenedandasuperhumanvoicecried:“Thegodsaredeparting”:atthesamemomentthemightystiroftheirgoingwasheard.Fewinterpretedtheseomensasfearful;themajorityfirmlybelievedthattheirancientpriestlywritingscontainedtheprophecythatthiswastheverytimewhentheEastshouldgrowstrongandthatmenstartingfromJudaeashouldpossesstheworld.Thismysteriousprophecyhadinreality pointed toVespasian and Titus, but the common people, as is theway of human ambition,interpreted these great destinies in their own favour, and could not be turned to the truth even byadversity.(Tacitus,Histories5.13.1–2)4

Thevariationsof language (e.g., theplural“gods”and the reference to JewishScriptureas“priestlywritings”)areconsistentwiththatofapolytheisticGentilewhohaslittlefamiliaritywiththereligiousbeliefsoftheJewishpeople.Suetonius speaks of a number of different omens that hinted at the rise of

Vespasian,buthealsomentionstheJewishprophecyandeventheprophecyofJosephushimself:

TherehadspreadallovertheOrientanoldandestablishedbelief,thatitwasfatedatthattimeformencomingfromJudaeatoruletheworld.Thisprediction,referringtotheemperorofRome,asafterwardsappearedfromtheevent,thepeopleofJudaeatooktothemselves;accordinglytheyrevolted.…Whenhe [Vespasian] consulted thegodofCarmel in Judaea, the lotswerehighlyencouraging,promisingthatwhatheplannedorwished,howevergreatitmightbe,wouldcometopass;andoneofhishigh-bornprisoners, Josephusbyname, ashewasbeingput in chains,declaredmost confidently thathewould soon be released by the same man, who would then, however, be emperor. (Suetonius,Vespasian4.5;5.6)5

Inviewofthesestatements,especiallyregardingtheJewishprophecy“spreadall over theOrient,”MenahemStern is justified in saying, “Presumably theseJewishexpectationshadbecomeamatterofcommonknowledgeby the initialstages of the rebellion, and did not sound strange to aworld already familiarwitheschatologicalterminology.”6ThepropheciesofthedestructionofJerusalem’stemplereachbackanywhere

fromonegeneration toacenturyormorebefore their fulfillment.7AveryoldpredictionofthedestructionoftheSecondTempleisfoundintheEthiopicBookofEnoch.Inasectionthatcoulddateasearlyas160BCE,wearetoldthatGodwillpulldownthe“ancienthouse”andabuildanewone,“loftierthanthefirst”(1 Enoch 90:28–29). It is possible that “house” here refers to the city ofJerusalem,butalaterelaborationin1Enochsuggeststhatthetempleitselfisinview:“AtempleshallbebuiltfortheGreatKingforevermore”(91:13;4Q212

4.18).8ThebookofTobit,datingtothesecondcenturyBCE,alsoseemstoanticipate

anewtemple.OnhisdeathbedTobitsaystohissonandgrandsons:

ButGodwillagainhavemercyonthem,andbringthembackintotheirland;andtheywillrebuildthehouseofGod,thoughitwillnotbeliketheformeroneuntilthetimesoftheagearecompleted.Afterthistheywillreturnfromtheplacesoftheircaptivity,andwillrebuildJerusaleminsplendor.Andthehouse ofGodwill be rebuilt therewith a glorious building for all generations for ever, just as theprophetssaidofit.(Tob.14:5)

ThefirstpartoftheverseanticipatesthepostexilicreturntothelandofIsraeland the rebuilding of the temple, what we call the Second Temple. It isacknowledgedthattherebuilttemple“willnotbeliketheformerone,”theonebuiltbySolomon.TheauthorofthebookofTobitknowsthis,ofcourse,forthisinferior templewas standing inhis own lifetime (seeHag. 2:3).But hewritesfromtheperspectiveofrighteousTobit,anexileineighth-century-BCEAssyria.HeforeseestheinferiorSecondTemplestanding“untilthetimesoftheagearecompleted.”ThenalloftheJewishpeoplewillreturntoIsrael,and“thehouseofGodwillberebuilt therewithagloriousbuildingforallgenerationsforever.”Clearly this house of God is an eschatological temple that will replace theSecond Temple, built soon after the end of the exile.9 It is not clear that theSecondTemplewouldbedestroyed,buttheanticipationthatitwillbereplacedisquiteclear.Aprophecyof thetemple’sdestructionisfoundin theTestamentofLevi. In

thispseudepigraphalwork(ca.100BCE)theagedpatriarchLeviisportrayedonhisdeathbed,givinghisfinaltestamenttohissons.Hetellsthem,“AttheendoftheagesyouwilltransgressagainsttheLord”(14:1).Thedescriptionofpriestlywickedness that followsmatches the complaints that we find in the literatureleadinguptothetimeofJesus,asseeninsomeoftheDeadSeaScrolls(mostlydatingtothefirstcenturyBCE)andintheTestamentofMoses(datingca.25–30CE).Priestlywickednesswillresultinthedestructionofthetemple:“Thereforethe temple, which the Lord shall choose, shall be laid waste through youruncleanness, and you shall be captives through throughout all nations.… Allwhohateyouwillrejoiceatyourdestruction”(T.Levi15:1,3).AlthoughChristianeditingispresentelsewhereintheTestamentofLevi(e.g.,

at10:3;14:2;and16:3,5),theprophecyofthetemple’sdestructioninchapter15isprobablygenuine.10Thereisnothingintheprophecythatreflectsknowledgeofthetemple’sdestructionin70CE(e.g.,nomentionofsiegeorfire),whereasthe anticipation that the priesthood will be hated by the Gentiles standssomewhat in tension with what actually happened. After all, the ruling

priesthood was for the most part collaborating with Rome; the Jewish rebelsattackedandkilledsomeoftherulingpriests,includingthehighpriesthimself;andJosephus,alsoofaristocraticlineage,becameaclosefriendandconfidantoftheFlavian family. If anything, thedispersion foretold in16:5 isbasedon theearlierBabyloniansackofJerusalem,notontheRomancaptureofthecity.The fictional patriarch Judah also predicts the destruction of Jerusalem’s

temple,againduetothewickednessofIsrael’sleadership.ManyevilswillbefallIsrael, including“consumptionofGod’s sanctuaryby fire” (T.Judah23:3). Inthis case the prediction could be a Christian gloss and not a genuinepredestructionprediction.11Some of the Qumran scrolls show evidence of anticipating the temple’s

destruction. In reference to the corrupt high priesthood, the Commentary onHabakkuk (Pesher Habakkuk) asserts that “in the last days their riches andplunderalikewillbehandedover to thearmyof theKittim” (1QpHab9.6–7).Mostscholarsunderstandthe“Kittim”asareferenceeithertotheGreeksortotheRomans.Laterthecommentaryaddsthat“Godwillcondemn”thehighpriestof the lastdays to“utterdestruction”(12.5).Thedestructionof thehighpriestdoesnot,ofcourse,necessarilyimplythedestructionofthetempleitself.ThecommentaryonNahumreviewssomeofIsrael’sintertestamentalhistory,

explainingthatNahum2:11b(“Wherevertheliongoestoenter,therealsogoesthewhelpwithout fear”) refers to “Demetrius, king ofGreece,who sought toenter Jerusalem through the counsel of the Flattery-Seekers; [but it never fellinto the]powerof thekingsofGreecefromAntiochusuntil theappearanceofthe rulersof theKittim;but afterward itwillbe trampled [by theGentiles…](4QpNah frags. 3–4, 1.1–4, with restorations).12 The expected trampling ofJerusalemmaywellhaveincludedanassaultonthetempleitself,perhapsevenitsdestruction.DestructionordefilementofthetemplewouldbeconsistentwithanexpectationthatthetempleofthelastdayswillbecreatedanewbyGod,aswe find expressed in theTemple Scroll: “I shall sanctifymy templewithmyglory,forIwillcausemyglorytodwelluponituntilthedayofcreation,whenImyselfwillcreatemytemple;IwillestablishitformyselfforeverinfulfillmentofthecovenantthatImadewithJacobatBethel….”(11Q1929.8–10).AneschatologicaltempleseemstobeinviewinanotherscrollfromQumran:

This“place”isthehousethat[theyshallbuildforhim]inthelastdays,asitiswritteninthebookof3[Moses:“Atempleof]theLordareyoutopreparewithyourhands;theLordwillreignforeverandever”[Exod.15:17].Thispassagedescribesthetemplethatno[manwitha]permanent[fleshlydefect]shall enter, 4nor Ammonite,Moabite, bastard, foreigner, or alien, forevermore. Surely his holiness5shallberev[eal]edthere;eternalgloryshalleverbeapparentthere.Strangersshallnotagaindefileit,astheyformerlydefiled6thetemp[leofI]sraelthroughtheirsins.(4Q1741.2–6,withrestorations)

Several Qumran scrolls speak of a “new Jerusalem” (e.g., 1Q32, 2Q24,4Q554,4Q555,5Q15,11Q18),thoughwhetheranewtempleisalsoenvisionedisnotclear.Inthesefragmentarytextsthetempleismentionedonlyafewtimes(e.g.,4Q554frag.1,1.4;2.18).TheNewTestament’sbookofRevelationalsospeaks of a “new Jerusalem,” which comes down from heaven, along with a“tabernacle ofGod” (Rev. 21:2–3). Is this “tabernacle” or “dwelling” (Greek:skēnē), which probably alludes to Ezekiel 37:27 (“My dwelling place [Greek:kataskēnōsis]shallbewiththem”),theequivalentofanewtemple?Inasense,itprobablyis.However,itisprobablybettertosaythattheverypresenceofGodin the new Jerusalem renders a temple building unnecessary.Of course,whenthe book of Revelationwas composed (near the end of the first century CE),Jerusalem’s famous temple had been long destroyed. All that is prophetic inRevelationistheanticipationofanewJerusalemandtheverypresenceofGod.First-century texts and individuals foretold the coming doomof the temple.

TheLives of Prophets, probably pre-70 CE,13 contains two prophecies of thedestructionofthefirst-centuryTemple:

Andhe[Jonah]gaveaportentconcerningJerusalemand thewhole land, thatwhenever theyshouldseeastonecryingoutpiteously,theendwasathand.AndwhenevertheyshouldseealltheGentilesinJerusalem,theentirecitywouldberazedtotheground.([LifeofJonah]10:10–11)

Andconcerningtheendofthetemple,he[Habakkuk]predicted,“Byawesternnationitwillhappen.”“At that time,” he said, “the curtain of theDabeir [i.e., theHoly ofHolies]will be torn into smallpieces,andthecapitalsofthetwopillarswillbetakenaway,andnoonewillknowwheretheyare;andtheywillbecarriedawaybyangelsintothewilderness,wheretheTentofWitnesswassetupinthebeginning.”([LifeofHabakkuk]12:11)14

These prophecies are probably not based upon the events of 70 CE. InreferencetotheprophecycreditedtoJonah,DouglasHarethinksthatratherthanpointing to theRomansspecifically, theprophecyseems“to reflectuneasinessregarding the increasing number of Gentile visitors and/or residents, whichthreatened to change the character of Israel’s holy city.” Hare adds that the“prophecyof10:11isbesttakenasreflectinganearliersituation,notthebitterexperience” of 70 CE. In reference to Habakkuk’s prophecy of the temple’sdestructionatthehandsofa“westernnation,”Haresimilarlyconcludesthatthe“prediction of [Lives] 12:11 that the temple will be destroyed by a WesternnationwasprobablyunderstoodasreferringtotheRomans,butnothingrequiresthatitbetakenasaprophecyafterthefact; theaccompanyingstatementshavetheringofunfulfilledpredictions.”15JesusofNazarethiswellknownforhispredictionsofthesiegeofJerusalem

andthedestructionofitsfamoustemple:

OJerusalem,Jerusalem,killingtheprophetsandstoningthosewhoaresenttoyou!HowoftenwouldIhavegatheredyourchildrentogetherasahengathersherbroodunderherwings,andyouwouldnot!35Behold,yourhouseisforsaken.(Luke13:34–35)

Andwhenhedrewnearandsawthecityheweptoverit,42saying,“Wouldthateventodayyouknewthethingsthatmakeforpeace!Butnowtheyarehidfromyoureyes.43Forthedaysshallcomeuponyou,whenyourenemieswillcastupabankaboutyouandsurroundyou,andhemyou inoneveryside,44anddashyoutotheground,youandyourchildrenwithinyou,andtheywillnotleaveonestoneuponanotherinyou;becauseyoudidnotknowthetimeofyourvisitation.”(Luke19:41–44)

Andashecameoutofthetemple,oneofhisdisciplessaidtohim,“Look,Teacher,whatwonderfulstones andwhat wonderful buildings!” And Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great buildings?Therewillnotbelefthereonestoneuponanother,thatwillnotbethrowndown.”(Mark13:1–2)

Other textscouldbecited (e.g.,Mark14:58;Luke21:20–24;23:27–31).OfspecialimportancewasJesus’appealtoJeremiah7:11(“denofrobbers”)ontheoccasion of his demonstration in the temple precincts (Mark 11:15–18).Jeremiah7 constitutes sharp criticismof the rulingpriests of theFirstTempleandawarning that destruction is at hand. (Morewill be said about this later.)Today scholars are inclined to think that Jesus did actually warn of comingjudgmentuponJerusalemand the temple.Jesus’demonstration in the temple’sprecincts, along with a prophecy or two that the temple would be destroyed,easily explains the actions taken against him by the ruling priests. It alsoexplains the charge that Jesus had been heard threatening the temple (Mark14:58),atraditionthatresistsdatingtoapost-Eastersetting.Probablytheweightiestfactorinfavoroftheauthenticityofthepropheciesis

theobservationthattheydonotreflectspecificdetailsofthedestructionofthetemple.Thereisnomentionofthedevastatingfirethatswepttheprecinctsandwas much emphasized in the graphic description narrated by Josephus (J.W.6.165–68, 177–85, 190–92, 228–35, 250–84, 316, 346, 353–55, 407, 434).Almost poetically, Josephus says, “You would indeed have thought that theTempleMountwas boiling over from its base, being everywhere onemass offlame” (J.W. 6.275). And Jesus’ admonition to pray that the destruction “nothappeninwinter”(seeMark13:18)wouldbeirrelevantandcuriousinlightofthe fact that the city was captured and the temple burned in August andSeptember.16Josephushimselfalsoclaims tohavepredicted thedestructionof the temple

andthedefeatoftheJewishrebels:

Butas…Josephusoverheardthethreatsofthehostilecrowd,suddenlytherecamebackintohismindthose nightly dreams, in which God had foretold to him the impending fate of the Jews and the

destiniesoftheRomansovereigns.…Hewasnotignorantofthepropheciesinthesacredbooks.(J.W.3.351–52)

This prophecy clarifies Josephus’s occasional fatalistic statements: “Thatbuilding,however,God, indeed longsince,hadsentenced to the flames” (J.W.6.250).Butwhat“propheciesinthesacredbooks”didJosephushaveinmind?Herelatestwoofthem,albeitinverycrypticterms:

Whodoesnotknowtherecordsoftheancientprophetsandthatoraclewhichthreatensthispoorcityandisevennowcomingtrue?Fortheyforetoldthatitwouldthenbetakenwheneveroneshouldbegintoslaughterhisowncountrymen.(J.W.6.109)

ThustheJews,after thedemolitionofAntonia, reducedthe temple toasquare,althoughtheyhaditrecorded in their oracles that the city and the sanctuary would be taken when the temple shouldbecomefoursquare.(J.W.6.311)

What prophecies Josephus had inmind is difficult to decide.Hemay haveseen in prophecies that originally concerned the destruction of First Templefurtherpropheciesforthetempleofhisownday.Weactuallyhaveanexampleof this in the remarkable activityofone Jesus, sonofAnanias,who for sevenandahalfyearsproclaimedthedoomofJerusalemanditstemple.AccordingtoJosephus:

Fouryearsbeforethewar…oneJesus,sonofAnanias,…standinginthetemple,suddenlybegantocryout:

“Avoicefromtheeast,Avoicefromthewest,Avoicefromthefourwinds,AvoiceagainstJerusalemandtheSanctuary,Avoiceagainstthebridegroomandthebride,Avoiceagainstallpeople.”(J.W.6.301)“WoetoJerusalem!”(J.W.6.306)“WoeoncemoretothecityandtothepeopleandtotheSanctuary,…andwoetomealso”(J.W.6.309)

WeagainhearanallusiontoJeremiah7,thistimetoverse34(“Iwillmaketocease…thevoiceofgladness,thevoiceofthebridegroomandthevoiceofthebride….”).AsintheearlierdemonstrationbyJesusofNazareth,theallusiontoJeremiahwasrightlyunderstoodasathreatagainstthetemple.JosephustellsusthattheJesusofhistime,a“rudepeasant,”wasarrestedbyleadingcitizensandseverelybeaten.Whenhecontinuedtocryoutasbefore,hewastakenbeforetheRoman governor, Albinus, who had him “flayed to the bone with scourges”(J.W. 6.302–4). The governor decided that the man was a maniac, and so hereleasedhim(6.305).Jesuscontinuedtoproclaimhisforebodingoracleuntilhe

waskilledbyasiegestonecatapultedoverthecitywall(6.309).LaterIwillgivemoreaboutthisinterestingcharacterandwhatmotivatedhim.In not especially early rabbinic traditionwe are told that at least two early

rabbispredictedthedestructionoftheHerodianTemple:

Forty years before the destruction of the temple the western light went out, the crimson threadremainedcrimson,andthelotfortheLordalwayscameupinthelefthand.Theywouldclosethegatesofthetemplebynightandgetupinthemorningandfindthemwideopen.SaidRabbanYohananbenZakkaitotheTemple,“OTemple,whydoyoufrightenus?Weknowthatyouwillendupdestroyed.For it has been said, ‘Open you doors, O Lebanon, that the fire may devour your cedars!’ [Zech.11:1].”(y.Sotah6.3;cf.b.Yoma39b;Lam.Rab.1:5§31)

RabbiZadokobserved fasts for fortyyears inorder that Jerusalemmightnot bedestroyed, [andhebecamesothinthat]whenheateanythingthefoodcouldbeseen[as itpasseddownhis throat].(b.Gittin56a)

Zadok,YohananbenZakkai,andotherrabbis,wearetold, triedtopersuadetherebelstosurrendertotheRomans.Nearlymurderedforhisfailuretosupportthe rebellion, Yohanan finally escaped the city, being carried out in a coffin(Lam. Rab. 1:5 §31; b. Git. 56a–b; Abot R. Nat. [A] 4:5). According to thetraditioninLamentationsRabbah,Zadok’slifewassparedatYohanan’srequest.Howmuch(ifany)ofthisishistoricalishardtosay.Examination of these traditions and oracles that speak of the coming

destruction of theHerodianTemple reveals that they are almost always basedupon the language andoracles of the classical prophets of theOldTestament.ThisobservationalsoappliestothepredictionsofJesus.VirtuallyeveryphrasereflectsthelanguageandimageryoftheprophetswhospokeofthedestructionoftheSolomonicTemple.Indeed,thedestructionoftheFirstTempleseemstohavelaidthegroundworkfortheemergenceofatypology,whichattimescouldbeexploitedbycriticsofthetempleestablishment.Reviewofthesetraditionsleadsmetothefollowingfourconclusions:1. As did many others, Jesus of Nazareth predicted the destruction of the

HerodianTemple.ThistraditioniswellattestedandiscorroboratedinavarietyofwaysintheNewTestamentGospels.2.Asdidmanyothers,Jesusemployedthelanguageoftheclassicalprophets,

particularly Jeremiah and Ezekiel, whose oracles were concerned with theBabylonian destruction of the Solomonic Temple, in predicting the HerodianTemple’s destruction. Moreover, Jesus even alluded to some of the samecomplaintsvoicedbytheprophetsofold(e.g.,Jer.7:11).3. There is substantial evidence of corruption in the Herodian Temple

establishment. Furthermore, there is evidence of sectarian and peasantresentment toward the ruling establishment (i.e., ruling priests, Roman

authorities). Jesus’ action in the temple (the so-called “cleansing”) was in allprobability related to, and indeed possibly the occasion for, a prophetic wordagainstthetemple.174.Thefact that thefirst-centurytemplewasconstructedbyHerodmayhave

beenafactorinanticipatingitsdestruction.BuiltbyHerodandadministeredbycorruptnon-Zadokiterulingpriestlyfamilies,thetemple—inthemindsofsome—facedcertaindestruction.Wemaybeskepticalofsomeofthesepropheciesandsuspectthemofbeing

littlemorethanvaticiniaexeventu(“propheciesfromtheevent”),buttoclassifyallofthemthiswaystrikesmeasspecialpleading.Therearesimplytoomanyofthem,andmostof themshownoknowledgeofwhat actuallyhappened in thesummerof70CE.Weareencouragedtoacceptthemasgenuine,forthedetailsofthepropheciessimplydonotmatchwellthedetailsoftheactualevent.

AFamilyFeud

What we have is a generation, of approximately forty years, of competitionbetweenthefamilyofJesusontheonehand,andthefamilyofAnnasandtheiraristocraticalliesontheotherhand.ThistumultuoushistorybeginswithJesus’entryintoJerusalemintheyear30(orperhaps33)CE.Aftersharplycriticizingthe temple establishment, Jesus is himself confronted by the establishment.Before theweekconcludes, Jesus isbroughtbeforeAnnas, formerhighpriest,and his son-in-lawCaiaphas, current high priest (Matt. 26:57; John 18:13–14,24,28;Josephus,Ant.18.63–64,“thefirstmenamongus”).Jesusiscondemnedand sent to the Roman governor Pontius Pilate, who orders Jesus’ death bycrucifixion.The Easter event transformed the remnants of the movement into what

becamethechurch.TheprincipaldisciplesofJesusbeganproclaimingthegoodnews of the resurrection of Jesus and soon encountered aggressive oppositionfrom the ruling priests (Acts 4:1–4). Peter and others are brought before theJewish rulers, among them“Annas thehighpriest andCaiaphas and JohnandAlexander,andallwhowereofthehigh-priestlyfamily”(Acts4:6).Hereonceagain high priest (emeritus) Annas and his son-in-law Caiaphas, current highpriest, confront the Jesus movement.With them is a priest called “John” (or“Jonathan”), one of the sons of Annas, who in 37 CE served as high priestbriefly after Caiaphas was deposed (Josephus,Ant. 18.95). The ruling priestsorderPeterandhiscolleaguestoceasespeakingofJesus,buttheyremaindefiant(Acts4:14–22).Theycontinuetopreach,andthechurchcontinuestogrow.

HighPriestAnnasandHisFamilyAnnassonofSeth(6–15CE)EleazarsonofAnnas(16–17CE)Joseph,calledCaiaphas,son-in-lawofAnnas(18–37CE)JonathansonofAnnas(37CE)TheophilussonofAnnas(37–41CE)MatthiassonofAnnas(?)AnnassonofAnnas(62CE)

(SeeLuke3:2;John18:13–14;Acts4:6;Josephus,Ant.18.26,33–35,95;20.197–200.)

The opposition to the church, however, also continues. Not long after thecouncil (Sanhedrin) had warned Peter, the deacon-turned-evangelist Stephensuffersmartyrdom.Criticized bymembers of the Synagogue of the Freedmen(Acts6:9),Stephenisbroughtbeforethecouncil(6:12–15),whichincludes“thehighpriest”(7:1),whocanonlybeCaiaphas.Stephenisstonedtodeath(7:58–60). After the brief administration of Jonathan, son of Annas, another son ofAnnasnamedTheophilus isappointed to thehighpriesthood in37CE.At thebeginning of his administration, Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the Great,acquiredthetetrarchiesofPhilipandLysanius.AfterthedeathofCaligulain41CE,EmperorClaudiusappointedAgrippaIoverthewholeofIsraelas“kingofthe Jews.” It was during his reign, perhaps influenced by Theophilus and hisfamily,thatAgrippaIputstodeathJamesthesonofZebedeeandarrestsPeter(Acts 12:1–5). After his escape from prison, Peter removes himself fromJerusalem, and James the brother of Jesus becomes the leader of the church(12:17).James manages to remain alive and active in Jerusalem for about twenty

years. But with the sudden death of the Roman governor Festus, recentlyappointed Annas (or Ananus), son of Annas, seized the opportunity to haveJamesandsomeothers(likelyChristians)puttodeathbystoning.WhenAlbinusthenewgovernorarrived,heremovedAnnas(Josephus,Ant.20.197–203).Whathappensnextisveryinteresting.NotlongafterthedeathofJamesandarrivalofAlbinus,oneJesusbenAnaniasenteredJerusalem(perhapsin63CE)andbeganuttering an oracle of woe based on Jeremiah 7. Not surprisingly, the rulingpriestswereoutraged,wanted themanput todeath, andnodoubtwouldhavekilled him had it not been for the Roman governor. Albinus interrogated theman,whippedhim,andthenreleasedhim(Josephus,J.W.6.300–309).OnemustwonderifJesusbenAnaniaswasaChristianprophetwhotookup

hisoracleinprotestagainstthekillingofJamesand,likeJesusofNazarethsome

thirty years earlier, applied the grim Jeremiah 7 to his aristocratic priestlycontemporaries. In any event, Josephus tells us that this man proclaimed thedoomofthecityandsanctuaryforsevenyearsandthendiedduringthesiegeinthesummerof70CE.With thedeathofJesusbenAnanias, thecaptureof thecityof Jerusalem,and thedestructionof the temple, the firstgenerationof thechurchcametoasuddenandviolentconclusion.Itwasagenerationthatbeganandendedamidconflictwiththerulingpriests.ItwasaconflictthatbeganandendedamidpropheciesinspiredbyJeremiah7.Intheremainderofthisbook,Iwanttofollowthisinterestingthread,fleshing

out various components along the way. My treatment is admittedly quiteselective;anumberof important issuesarepassedover.Mygoal is toexploremorefullythedynamicsoftheconflictbetweenJesusandhisfollowersontheonehand,andAnnasandhis followerson theotherhand. Ibelieve thatbetterunderstandingof thesedynamicswillhelpusunderstandbetter thehistoryandachievementoftheChristianchurchinJerusaleminthatcrucialfirstgeneration.Ibring this introduction toaclosewithaquickpreviewof thechapters that

follow.Inchapter1Iaskafundamentalquestion:DidJesusintendtofoundtheChristianchurch?Thegeneralpublicwouldprobablyanswerintheaffirmative;mostbiblicalscholarsandhistorianswouldanswer in thenegative.Apartfromcareful qualification, neither answer is correct. There can be little doubt thatJesusenvisionedthecreationofacommunityorsociety,butitismostunlikelythat he envisioned something outside of or over against Israel itself. So whatexactly then did Jesus envision? The answer to this question will help usunderstand thedynamicsof the firstgenerationofhismovement, including itsrelationshiptothetempleestablishment.Chapter2inquiresintoJesus’proclamationofthekingdomofGodandasks

inwhatway,ifatall,the“kingdomofGod”relatestotheChristianchurch.WeshallfindthatJesus’conceptofthekingdomisdeeplyrootedinIsrael’sancientScripture,especiallyinthebookofIsaiah.ThecomingkingdomofGodbringstoanendthehumankingdomsofoppressionandinjustice.ThatIsrael’sGentileoppressors face judgment is indeed good news for Israel, but in Jesus’conceptionofthekingdom,evenIsraelitselfissubjecttoacriticalreview.Jesuswill challenge assumptions of election, warning that even the “sons of thekingdom”facejudgmentunless theyrepent.Jesusknowstoothat thismessageof judgmentwill eventuate inhis death and that throughhis death a repentantremnant, his community or church, will be established. In his teaching andexamplearehintsthatthisremnantwillincludeGentiles.Chapter3looksattheroleofJamesthebrotherofJesusasleaderofthenew

movement inJerusalem.Anumberofquestionswillbeexplored,suchaswhy

James, who was not one of his brother’s original disciples, rose to suchprominence in the church; how it was that James could remain in Jerusalem,whenPeterfounditnecessarytoflee;andhowJamesrelatedtoPaul—accordingtotheir lettersandaccordingtothebookofActs—andinwhatwaystheymayhavedifferedover“worksofthelaw.”Chapter 4, which more or less serves as an excursus, explores further the

apparenttensionbetweenPaulandJamesonthematteroflawandworks.Attheheart of this debate is the question of why “works” are in view in theserespectiveauthorities.Wewillexaminethezealotmodel, typifiedbythepriestPhinehas; the teaching on works of law found in the Halakic Letter fromQumran(4QMMT=4Q394–99);andthedominicalcommandmenttoloveone’sneighborasone’sself.Chapter5examines theconflictbetween thefamiliesandfollowersofJesus

and Annas the high priest. This conflict is traced from the initial encounterbetweenJesusandCaiaphas,theson-in-lawofAnnas,onwardtothemurderofJames,thebrotherofJesus,atthehandsofAnnas,sonofAnnastheelder.HereIwillalsosuggestthatthe“rudepeasant,”oneJesusbenAnanias,whowarnedofapproaching judgment, was a member of the Jesusmovement and rose up inprotest of the murder of James. With the death of ben Ananias and thedestructionofthetemple,thefirstgenerationoftheJesusmovementcomestoanend.Thebookcouldhaveconcludedwithchapter5.ButIbelieveitisimportantto

examine the post-70-CE period in order to gain a better perspective of theproblems and trends that emerged in the first generation and came to fullerexpressioninfollowinggenerations.Accordingly,chapter6tracestheaftermathof the Jewish rebellion, an aftermath that saw the churchmove away from itsJewish roots and Jewish leadership in Jerusalem. I look at the growingestrangementbetweenthefollowersofJesusandthesynagogue,asweseeitinMatthew,John,Revelation, Ignatius,andJustinMartyr.ThechapterconcludeswiththeBarKokhbarevolt(132–135CE)andthebitterpolemicbetweenJewsandChristiansthatensued.I have also added an appendix that further explores the factors—both

historicalandtheological—thatledtotheriftbetweentheJesusmovementandthesynagogue.Ihopetoclarifywhatitreallywasthatdrovethewedgebetweenthe Jewishcommunity thathad reservations about themessianic credentialsofJesusandtheJesuscommunity,whichinitsfirstcenturyorsoheldinveryhighregardtheScripturesofIsraelandtheheritageoftheJewishpeople.

D

ChapterOne

DidJesusIntendtoFoundaChurch?

idJesusintendtofoundtheChristianchurch?Thisinterestingquestioncanbe answered in the affirmative and in the negative. It depends on what

precisely isbeingasked. IfbychurchonemeansanorganizationandapeoplethatstandoutsideofIsrael,thentheanswerisno.IfbyacommunityofdisciplescommittedtotherestorationofIsraelandtheconversionandinstructionof theGentiles,thentheanswerisyes.1SowhatexactlydidJesusfound?Thewordusuallytranslated“church”intheGreekNewTestamentisekklēsia.

IntheNewTestamentthewordoccurssome114times.Butitalsooccurssome100timesintheSeptuagint,theGreektranslationoftheHebrewBible.Mostofthe occurrences of ekklēsia in the Septuagint translate forms of qahal, whosebasicmeaningas anoun is “assembly”or “congregation”andas averb is “toassemble.” The Christian word “church” comes from the Greek adjective,kyriakos, which means “of the Lord” or “the Lord’s” (cf. 1 Cor. 11:20, “theLord’s supper”;Rev. 1:10, “on theLord’s day”).Accordingly, “church” is ananglicized and abbreviated form of hē ekklēsia hē kyriakē, “the Lord’sassembly.”

TheLanguageofAssemblyinJesusThewordekklēsiaoccurs threetimesin theGospels,all threeintheGospelofMatthew.AfterPeteridentifiesJesusastheMessiah,SonofGod,Jesusdeclares:“AndItellyou,youarePeter,andonthisrockIwillbuildmychurch[ekklēsia],andthepowersofdeathshallnotprevailagainstit”(Matt.16:18).Twochapterslater, in the discourse on community discipline, Jesus instructs his disciplesregardingonewhohassinnedandinitiallyrefusestohearouttheoffendedparty:“Ifherefusestolistentothem,tellittothechurch[ekklēsia];andifherefusestolisten even to the church [ekklēsia], let him be to you as aGentile and a taxcollector”(18:17).HowmuchofthismaterialderivesfromJesusand,assumingthatsomeofit

does, in what form Jesus originally uttered it—these matters are not easy to

determine.Thefirstpart(Matt.16:17–19),Jesus’responsetoPeter’sconfession,mayhavebeenaddedtothetraditionthatMatthewfoundinMark8:27–30.Thenagain,Mark8:27–30mayrepresentanabridgedversionofalonger,fuller,moreprimitive version of the story. In favor of the latter view is the presence of anumber of Semitisms, as well as vocabulary that Matthew does not useelsewhere.2Thesecondandthirdreferencestothe“church,”inMatthew18:17,arepartoftradition(i.e.,Matt.18:15–17)thatprobablyderivesfromQ(cf.Luke17:3–4), a source preserving Jesus’ teachings, on which both evangelistsMatthewandLukedrew.At least it seems that Jesus envisioned and spoke of an assembly, or

community,ofdisciples,whoadhere tohis teachingandembracehismission.AndIthinkwhatheenvisionedwasmorethanmerelyabandofdisciples,suchasgatheredaroundseveralrabbisinhisapproximatetime.Jesus’assembly,hisqahal or ekklēsia, was perhaps somewhat analogous to the yahad (ya ad), or“community,”wehearaboutinsomeoftheQumranscrolls.Inthescrolls,whicharesometimesdubbed“sectarian,”inthesensethattheywerecomposedbythemenofQumran(probably tobe identifiedwith theEssenesect),weencounterdozens of references to the community. These men are said to constitute the“communityofGod”(1QS1.12),a“communitywhoseessenceistruth,genuinehumility, love of charity, and righteous intent” (1QS 2.24), and the like. Thiscommunity was guided by the prophetic command of Isaiah 40:3, “In thewildernesspreparethewayoftheLORD…”(1QS8.13–14).Indeed,justliketheearlyChristianmovement,themenofQumrancalledtheirmovement“theWay”(1QS9.17–18;10.21;cf.Acts9:2;19:9,23;22:4;24:14,22),anunmistakableallusiontothepassagefromIsaiah.TheQumrancommunityalsocalleditselfaqahal,or“assembly”or“congregation,”manytimesintheDamascusCovenant(=DamascusDocument[CD]7.16–17;12.5–6;14.17–18),theWarScroll(1QM4.10; 14.5), and other sectarian texts (e.g., 1QSa 1.4, 25; 2.4). If theHebrewscrolls from Qumran had been translated into Greek, it is probable that theoccurrencesofqahalwouldhaveappearedasekklēsia.

Figure1.1.CommunityCompoundatWadiQumran.TheruinsatWadiQumran,westoftheDeadSea,wereexcavatedinthe1950sbyRolanddeVaux.Furtherworkinthe1990sunderthedirectionJamesF.Strangeresultedinthediscoveryofanostracon(apotsherdthatbearswriting)onwhichproperty(giventotheQumrancommunity?)islisted.Picturedaboveisanartisticreconstructionofthecommunitycompound.CourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

Qumran’scommunitywasorganized.TherewasaRighteousTeacher,whoseinstructionwasauthoritative(CD1.11;20.14,28,32;1QpHab1.13;7.4;4Q165frags.1–2, line3).Therewasagroupof“twelve”men(nonpriests),whowereimportantintheYahad(1QS8.1;4Q2592.9),aswellastwelve“commanders”(4Q471frag.1,line4)andtwelverulingpriests(1QM2.1;4Q471frag.1,line2). The twelve tribes/sons of Israel are frequentlymentioned (1QM3.14; 5.1;4Q365 frag. 12b, 3.12; 11Q1921.2–3; 23.3, 7; 11Q206.11).All of this has acounterpart in the Jesus circle: Jesus appoints twelve men, whom he callsapostles(Matt.10:2;Mark3:14;Luke6:13);hespeaksofthetwelvesitting“ontwelvethrones,judgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael”(Matt.19:28=Luke22:28–30).Morewillbesaidbelowabouttheimportanceofthetwelvetypology.Qumran speculated about the seating arrangements when the Messiah

appeared.Theybelieved theyknewwhowould sitwith theMessiah andwhattypesofpersonswouldbeexcludedfromthisexaltedcompany(e.g., thelame,blind,andpersonswithotherphysicaldefects;cf.1QSa2.3–9).ThedisciplesofJesusbickeredoverwhowouldsitintheplacesofhonor(Matt.20:20–28;Mark10:35–45;Luke22:24–27)andJesushimself, inhiswell-knownparableof theBanquet(Luke14:15–24,esp.v.21),impliedthatthelame,blind,andphysicallydefectiveinfactwouldsitintheplacesofhonor.Thecoherenceofcommunityandorganizationallanguageisremarkable,tobe

sure,butitdoesnotrequireustothinkthatJesus“gothisideasfromQumran”orthat he had at one time been an Essene. It shows that Jesus and the men ofQumran belong to the same culture but not to the same community. Thecoherence also reveals the presence of traces of community, even communitystructure,intheJesuscirclepriortoEasterandthelaunchofthechurch.We see no radical, non-Jewish changes in the organization of the Jesus

movementinitsearlyyears.InthebookofActs(at6:1–6),theappointmentofdeacons (from the Greek diakonein, “to serve”) to assist the apostles iscompletelyinstepwithJewishculture.ThecontinuitywithJewishtraditionsofcommunity and social organization is reflected in the language of Paul, Peter,James,andothers,asweshallseeinthefollowingsections.

TheLanguageofAssemblyinPaulThewordekklēsia,inreferencetotheChristianassembly,occursmanytimesinthebookofActsandmanytimesinPaul’sLetters.InhislettertotheChristiansinRome, Paul speaks of “the churches of theGentiles” (Rom. 16:4) and “thechurches of Christ” (16:16). In his letters to the Christians of Corinth, theaddress reads:“To thechurchofGodwhich isatCorinth” (1Cor.1:2;2Cor.1:1);alsoinhisLettertotheGalatians:“TothechurchesofGalatia”(1:2);andin the Thessalonian correspondence: “To the church of the Thessalonians” (1Thess.1:1;2Thess.1:1).ElevenofthethirteenlettersthatbearthenameofPaulassenderrefertothechurch,theekklēsia,withsome60or61occurrencesinall,or just over half of all occurrences of the word in the writings of the NewTestament. Indeed,mostof the23occurrencesofekklēsia in thebookofActsinvolve themissionary activities ofPaul. From these datawemay justly inferthat thelanguageandconceptof thechurchwereofmajor importancetoPaul,theapostletotheGentiles.Thenominalandverbalformsofqahaloccursome65timesintheDeadSea

Scrolls.OneoccurrenceoffersastrikingparallelwithPaul’susage.IntheWarScrollsomebannersaretohaveinscribedonthemthewords“TheAssemblyofGod [qahal ’el]” (1QM 4.10). In Greek this would be rendered ekklēsia toutheou,thatis,“assembly/churchofGod.”ComparisonofPaul’secclesiasticalororganizationallanguagewiththescrollsfromQumranrevealsseveralinterestingparallelpoints.Paulspeaksofactionstaken“bythemany[hypotōnpleionōn]”(2 Cor. 2:5–6), which approximates references to the “many” or “generalmembership” in theCommunityRule (e.g.,1QS6.11b–12,“During thesessionofthegeneralmembership[harabim]nomanshouldsayanythingexceptbythepermission of the general membership [harabim]”). In Philippians 1:1 Paul

mentions “bishops”or “overseers” (episkopoi),whichhas its equivalent in theverypassage in theCommunityRule thathas justbeenmentioned:“…who istheoverseer [hamebaqqer] of thegeneralmembership [harabim]” (1QS6.12).TheHebrew’smebaqqerappearstobetheequivalentofPaul’sepiskopos.TherearealsoseveralimportanttheologicalparallelsbetweenPaul’slanguage

and the language of the Scrolls. Paul speaks of the “righteousness of God”(Rom. 1:17; 3:21: hē dikaiosynē theou); so do the Scrolls (1QS 1.21; 10.23:tsedekot’el;1QS10.25;11.12: tsedeket’el).Paulspeaksof the“graceofGod”(Rom. 5:15; 1Cor. 3:10:hē charis tou theou); so do the Scrolls (1QS 11.12,hasdei ’el). Paul also speaks of the “works of theLaw” (Rom. 3:20, 28;Gal.2:16; 3:2, 5, 10: erga nomou); so do the Scrolls (1QS 6.18,ma’esey betorah;4Q398 frags. 14–17, 2.3 = 4Q399 frag. 1, 1.11:ma‘esey hatorah). And Paulspeaksofthe“newcovenant”(2Cor.3:6,kainēdiathekē);sodotheScrolls(CD19.33–34;20.12;1QpHab2.3:berithha adashah).3Fromthisbrief surveywesee thatPaul’secclesiastical language is indebted

nottosomeforeignHellenisticterminologybuttothelanguageofhispeople—theJewishpeople,alanguagethatisreflectedinsomecasesintheoldScripturesandinothercasesinthemoreorlesscontemporarywritingsfromQumran.TheuseofekklēsiaintheSeptuagint,Philo,Josephus,andvariouswritingsfromtheNewTestamentperiod (e.g., Jdt.6:16;7:29;T.Job32:8;Pss.Sol.10:6)bearsthisout.Theuseoftheword“church”andrelatedterminologybytheearlyfollowers

of Jesus gives no indication that this new community thought of itself asstandingoutsideof Israel.But thepreference forand repeateduseof“church”(ekklēsia),insteadof“synagogue”(synagōgē),makeclearthattheassembliesofChristians—almostalwaysmadeupofJewsandGentiles—normallyfunctionedoutsidetheestablishedsynagogues.ThisseemsclearinPaul’sLettersandinthenarrativesofhismissionarytravelsandactivitiesrecountedinthebookofActs.

TheLanguageofAssemblyinPeterandJamesThe language and orientation of the Letters of Peter and James, however, arenoticeably different fromwhat we have seen in Paul. Although I cannot heredebatequestionsofdateandauthorshipof theseletters,I takethepositionthatbothJamesand1Peterareauthenticandearly letters, theformerdating to thelate40sorearly50s,andthelatterdatingtotheearly60s.BothlettersreflectanunmistakablyJewish,Palestinian flavor,even if the latter, that is, theLetterofPeter,wascomposedinornearRome.FirstPeterisaddressed“totheexilesoftheDispersion”(or“Diaspora”),who

are“chosenanddestinedbyGodtheFatherandsanctifiedbytheSpirit”(1Pet.1:1–2a).SuchlanguageisrightathomeintheworldofJewishthoughtandself-understanding.Theword “exile” (also “alien” or “sojourner”) isparepidēmos,thatis,theforeignerwhoresidesalongsideapeoplenotone’sown.IntheGreektranslationoftheHebrewBible,thegreatpatriarchAbrahamappliesthistermtohimself when he says, “I am a resident alien and a sojourner [paroikos kaiparepidēmos]amongyou”(Gen.23:4AT).Thepsalmistalludestothispassageandtothehistoryofthegreatpatriarchs,allofwhomweresojourners,whenhecriesouttoGodinprayer:“Listentomyprayer,OLord,andtomypetitiongiveear;donotpassbymytearsinsilence,becauseIamasojourner[paroikos]withyou,andavisitingstranger[parepidēmos],likeallmyfathers”(Ps.38:13LXX,NETS=39:12RSV).Peteralsodescribeshis readers,his fellowaliens, as“of theDispersion,”or

“Diaspora.” The Greek word diaspora occurs about one dozen times in theGreek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, including occurrences in somebooks of the Apocrypha that may have originated in the Greek language.Scripture reassures the people of Israel that the scatteredwill be gathered: “Ifyourdispersionbefromanendof theskytoanendof thesky,fromthere theLORD your God will gather you” (Deut. 30:4 AT; Neh. 1:9; Ps. 147:2). Theprophet Jeremiah warned a sinful and disobedient people: “Send them awayfrommypresenceandletthemgo!…Iwilldispersetheminadispersioninthegatesofmypeople”(Jer.15:1,7AT).ButaforgivingGodpromisestorestore“the tribes of Jacob and to turn back the dispersion of Israel” (Isa. 49:6AT).ThissamehopeisexpressedinthestruggleagainstAntiochusIV,whereweheartheprayer:“Gathertogetherourscatteredpeople,setfreethosewhoareslavesamongtheGentiles[nations],lookonthosewhoarerejectedanddespised,andlettheGentiles[nations]knowthatyouareourGod”(2Macc.1:27).Thusalsoprays the authorof thePsalmsof Solomon: “Gather together thedispersionofIsraelwithpityandkindness,foryourfaithfulnessiswithus”(8:28).Peter’s description of his addressees as “exiles of the dispersion” would

immediatelybring to themindsofhis readersandhearers—mostofwhomweshould assume were Jewish—these themes and images expressed in Israel’ssacredwritings.Justassurelyasthepatriarchslongagoweredispersedamongthe nations, away from the land promised by God, living as exiles andsojourners, so thosewho hope in Jesus theMessiah are scattered about in thedistrictsofAsiaMinor,farawayfromthelandofIsrael.Implicitinthistypologyis the hope, expressed in the prophets, that someday God will gather hisscatteredpeople.

ExcavatedPre-70-CESynagoguesCapernaum(probable:basaltfoundationsbeneathlimestonesynagoguesuperstructure)

Gamla

Herodium

Jericho

Magdala

MasadaModi‘in(orModein)

QiryatSeferShuafat(unconfirmed)

TheJudaiccharacteroftheLetterofJamesisquiteevident.Theletterbeginswiththesewords:“James,aservantofGodandoftheLordJesusChrist,Tothetwelve tribes in theDispersion: Greeting” (1:1). There are several features ofinterest.First,James’sself-designationas“aservantofGod”(theou…doulos)echoes the languageofScripture.WethinkofJonahtheprophet,whoanswersthefrightenedsailors:“IamaservantoftheLord[douloskyriou],andIworshiptheLord”(Jonah1:9LXX).WerecallJeremiah’sprophecyofarepentantIsraelthatwill declare, “Behold,we shall be your servants [douloi hēmeis esomethasoi],becauseyouaretheLordGod”(Jer.3:22bLXX).WearealsoremindedoftheconfessionoftheJudeans,whoarerebuildingthetempleofJerusalem,whenqueriedbytheking’sofficer:“WearetheservantsoftheGod[douloitoutheou]ofheavenandearth,andwearerebuildingthehousethatwasbuiltmanyyearsago” (Ezra 5:11).And of courseMoses the lawgiver is called the “servant ofGod”(Neh.10:30LXX=10:29RSV).As inPeter’s letter, James refers to the“dispersion,”orDiaspora.However,

unlike Peter, who refers to several specific geographic and political regions,Jamesoffersnoqualification.HereferstotheDispersioninitstotalityandthuswritestoallbelieverswholiveoutsidethelandofIsrael.Inthissensehereflectsmoreexactly thepropheticvisionandhope—often implicit inJewish literature—thatallofGod’speople,wherevertheymayreside,willsomedaybegathered.Inthisrespect, theLetterofJamesstrikesamoreuniversalnote thanthemorenarrowlyfocusedPetrineletter.

Figure1.2.SynagogueatMagdala.In2009asynagogue,datedtothefirstcenturyBCE,wasdiscoveredatMigdol(or,intheAramaicofthetimeofJesus,Magdala),onthenorthwestshoreoftheSeaofGalilee.Itwas excavated by Dina Avshalom-Gorni and Arfan Najar. Photograph courtesy ofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

Of great interest is James’s address “to the twelve tribes” (tais dōdekaphylais). Although we should assume that the primary audience in viewcomprisesJewswhoshareJames’sfaithinandcommitmenttothe“LordJesusChrist,”orinlessHellenisticterms,“theLordJesustheMessiah,”itispossiblethatawideraudienceisinview.JamesmaywellhavebeenaddressingallJewswillingtohearhim,asareligiousvoiceofauthorityemanatingfromJerusalem.It will be argued in chapters 3 and 5 that formore than twenty years, JamescompetedwiththereligiousleadershipofJerusalemfortheheartsandmindsofthe Jewish people. James was not interested in founding a church as aninstitutionoutsideofIsrael.Inanycase,wemustunderscoretheinterestingfactthat James addressedhis letter to the “twelve tribes” andnot tomembersof achurch, inwhich are presentGentiles aswell as Jews. In otherwords, JamesbeginshisletterinamannerthatisconspicuouslydifferentfromPaul’sLetters.Theconceptof“twelvetribes”goesrighttotheheartofthestoryportraying

the origin of the people of Israel. The twelve tribes spring from the twelvebrothers, the twelve sons of the patriarch Jacob, son of Isaac and grandson of

Abraham, as the brothers themselves say: “We, your servants, are twelvebrothers,thesonsofonemaninthelandofCanaan”(Gen.42:13;cf.42:32).Asdeath approached, Jacob gathered his sons for their respective blessings. Thenarrator introduces the scene thus: “All these are the twelve tribes of Israel”(Gen.49:28).Not surprisingly, the concept of twelve sons and twelve tribes took on

symbolic significance.4We see this in the design of the holy garments to beworn by the high priest: “There shall be twelve stones with their namesaccording to the names of the sons of Israel; they shall be like signets, eachengraved with its name, for the twelve tribes” (Exod. 28:21; cf. 39:14). Thesymbolism of the twelve tribes is underscored in dramatic fashion as theyprepare to cross the Jordan River and enter the promised land. Joshua iscommandedtoerectamonumentatthesiteofthecrossing,amonumentmadeoftwelvestones,“accordingtothenumberofthetribesofthepeopleofIsrael”(Josh. 4:8). The prophet Ezekiel recalls this symbolism in his vision of therestoration of Israel, when the promised land is recovered: “These are theboundariesbywhichyoushalldividethelandforinheritanceamongthetwelvetribesofIsrael”(Ezek.47:13).James’saddresstothe“twelvetribesintheDispersion/Diaspora”couldhardly

fail to evoke the traditions and hopes expressed in these Scriptures. James’smanner of speaking suggests, moreover, that he conceives of the Jesuscommunity as standing fully in continuity with Israel. There is no hint ofopposition from “the Jews” or of disagreement with “Judaism,” as seen, forexample,inPaul’sreferencetohis“formerlifeinJudaism”(Gal.1:13–14).Butinspeakingthisway,JameshasnotjumpedoverJesus,asitwere,andreachedback to the ancient Scriptures of Israel. On the contrary, James has givenexpression to an important typology that lies at the very heart of the Jesusmovementitself.

TheTypologyoftheTwelveTribesThe typology of the twelve tribes of Israel is seen in Jesus’ appointment oftwelve disciples, initially to be with him, but in time to be “sent out”(apostellein)as“apostles”(apostoloi)whoproclaimhismessageofGod’srule,asweseeinthefourNewTestamentGospels(cf.Matt.10:1–2,5;11:1;Mark3:14; 4:10; 6:7; Luke 6:13; 9:1, 12; 18:31; John 6:67, 70; 20:24). But thetypologyisalsoattestedinanimportantsayingpreservedinsomewhatdifferentformsinMatthewandLuke:

Truly,Isaytoyou,inthenewworld,whentheSonofmanshallsitonhisgloriousthrone,youwhohavefollowedmewillalsositontwelvethrones,judgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael.(Matt.19:28)

Youarethosewhohavecontinuedwithmeinmytrials;andIassigntoyou,29asmyFatherassignedtome,akingdom,30thatyoumayeatanddrinkatmytableinmykingdom,andsitonthronesjudgingthetwelvetribesofIsrael.(Luke22:28–30)

This saying of Jesus draws upon two important passages from Scripture:Daniel 7:9–14 and Psalm 122:1–5. The first passage constitutes a vision inwhichthronesofjudgmentaresetup,Godtakeshisseat,andafigure“likeasonofman” is presented and receives authority and an everlasting kingdom. ThesecondpassagecelebratesworshipinthetempleinJerusalem,where“thetribesgoup,”where“thronesforjudgment”havebeensetup,“thronesofthehouseofDavid.” These interesting passages are brought together in an old rabbinicmidrashthatinquiresintothesignificanceoftheplural“thrones”inDaniel7:9.ItisdecidedthatoneofthethronesisforGodhimself,andtheothersareforthe“elders of Israel,” who will judge the peoples of the earth (Midr. Tanh.Qedoshim§1,onLev.19:1–2).Theparallelsareremarkable.BothJesusandanotherrabbinicauthorityhave

linked two passages that speak of thrones and judgment and have understoodtheminapproximatelythesamemanner.ForJesus,the“elders”whowill“sitonthethronesjudging”willbehistwelvedisciples.Forthelaterrabbinicauthority,the“elders”areothers,whowill judgenot thetribesofIsraelbut theGentiles.Jesus’ interpretation is older, it seems to me, for it correspondsmore closelywiththeoriginalideaofPsalm122:5.Thejudgmentofwhichthispsalmspeaksis not punitive, and it is not directed against Gentiles (as in the old rabbinicmidrash);itisadministrativeandjudicial,anditisforthebenefitofthepeopleof Israel. The analogywould be that of the ancient judges of Israel (as in thebookofJudges),whoadministeredanddefendedthetribesofIsrael.Jesus’appointmentoftwelvedisciplesandhiseschatologicalsayinginwhich

heenvisionshisdisciples’servingasprincesandadministratorsoverthetwelvetribesofIsraelstronglysuggest that therestorationofIsrael is inview.Onthebasisofthesetraditionsalone,wemayrightlyconcludethatJesusforesawandintendednobreakwith Israel.His intentionwasnot tobring intoexistenceanorganization that would stand outside of and perhaps even over against thepeopleofIsraelanditslegacyofpatriarchs,promises,andprophecies.Butmoreneedstobesaidaboutthesymbolismoftwelve.Jesus’ twelve symbolism harks back to John the Baptist, whose baptizing

activitiesandcallsforrepentancewerepartofaJoshuatypologythatfromtimetotimewasgivenexpressioninIsraelinthefinaldecadesoftheSecondTemple

period.CrossingtheJordanRiver,traditionallyunderstoodtodividetheforeignland to the east from the promised land to thewest, set inmotion a symbolictypologythatinthetimeofJesusinspiredcallsforrenewalandpromisedsignsthatstrikeusmodernsasquitestrange.Twoofthemostinterestingexamplesareseen inTheudasand theunnamedJewishman fromEgypt.With regard to thefirstindividual,first-centuryhistorianandapologistJosephussays:

AcertainimpostornamedTheudaspersuadedthemajorityofthepopulacetotakeuptheirpossessionsandfollowhimtotheJordanRiver.Hestatedthathewasaprophetandthatathiscommandtheriverwouldbepartedandwouldprovideeasypassage.Withthistalkhedeceivedmany.(Ant.20.97–98)

Josephus goes on to say that the Roman governor Fadus (44–46 CE)dispatched the cavalry, which scattered Theudas’s following and killedmany.Thewould-beprophetwashimselfcapturedandbeheaded.Hissummonstohisfollowing to “take up their possessions and follow him to the Jordan River,”which they would then cross (back into Israel, not away from Israel), is anunmistakable allusion to the crossing of the Jordan under the leadership ofJoshua (cf. Josh. 3:14–17). In all probability Theudas (Acts 5:36) understoodhimself as the promised “prophet likeMoses” (cf. Deut. 18:15–19; cf. also 1Macc. 4:45–46; 9:27; 14:41), who, like Joshua, would lead the righteous ofIsraelinanewconquestofthepromisedland.WithregardtotheJewishmanfromEgypt(Acts21:38),Josephussays:

AtthistimetherecametoJerusalemfromEgyptamanwhosaidthathewasaprophetandadvisedthemassesofthecommonpeopletogooutwithhimtothemountaincalledtheMountofOlives,whichliesoppositethecity.…ForheassertedthathewishedtodemonstratefromtherethatathiscommandJerusalem’swallswouldfalldown,throughwhichhepromisedtoprovidethemanentranceintothecity.(Ant.20.169–70)

The Roman governor Felix (52–60 CE) promptly dispatched the cavalry,which routed and dispersed the Egyptian’s following, though the Egyptianhimselfescapedandwasneverheardfromagain.Onceagain,Joshuatypologywasapparentlyatwork,withtheEgyptian’spromiseofthecollapseofthewallsanunmistakableallusiontowhatbefellJerichoafterthepeopleofIsraelenteredthepromised land (cf. Josh.6:20).Hereweprobablyhaveanotherexampleofrestorative theologybasedonexodus/conquest typology, inwhichanumberofPalestinianJewshopedtoeffectpoliticalandeconomicchangeintheircountry.JohntheBaptist’sappearanceattheJordanRiver,wherehesummonsIsraelto

repentandwarnsofcomingjudgment,shouldbe interpreted in the lightof theJoshua and Jordan typology we see at work in Theudas and the anonymousJewish man from Egypt. How this typology was acted out varied, of course,fromoneindividualtoanother.ThereisnoevidencethatJohnattemptedtoraise

anarmyorpromiseda spectacular sign, suchas thepartingof the riveror thecollapseofthewallsofJerusalem,buthislocationattheJordan,hisdemandforrepentance,hiswarningof judgment,his criticismofAntipas the tetrarch, andhis violent end—execution by beheading, by order ofAntipas—clearly placeshim in the company of men like Theudas (who also was beheaded) and theEgyptianJew(whowouldhavebeenbeheadedifhehadbeencaptured),evenifhisstrategyandproclamationdifferedinimportantways.

RomanGovernorsofIsraelinJesus’TimeandtheChurch’sFirstGeneration

PrefectsofSamariaandJudeaValeriusGratus(15–19/25CE)PontiusPilate19/25–37CE)Marcellus(37CE)Marullus(37–41CE)

ProcuratorsofAllIsraelFadus(44–46CE)TiberiusAlexander(46–48CE)VentidiusCumanus(48–52CE)Felix(52–60CE)PorciusFestus(60–62CE)Albinus(62–64CE)GessiusFlorus(64–66CE)

But in what way did John’s Jordan-Joshua typology manifest itself? Oneimportant aspect of the symbolism associated with the crossing of the JordanRiverwas themonumentof twelvestones,whichrepresented the twelve tribesofIsrael.GodcommandsJoshua:

Taketwelvemenfromthepeople,fromeachtribeaman,3andcommandthem,“TaketwelvestonesfromhereoutofthemidstoftheJordan,fromtheveryplacewherethepriests’feetstood,andcarrythemoverwithyou,andlaythemdownintheplacewhereyoulodgetonight.”4ThenJoshuacalledthetwelvemenfromthepeopleofIsrael,whomhehadappointed,amanfromeachtribe.…8Andthemenof Israel did as Joshua commanded, and took up twelve stones out of the midst of the Jordan,accordingtothenumberofthetribesofthepeopleofIsrael,astheLORDtoldJoshua;andtheycarriedthemoverwith themto theplacewhere theylodged,andlaid themdownthere.9AndJoshuasetuptwelvestonesinthemidstoftheJordan,intheplacewherethefeetofthepriestsbearingthearkofthecovenanthadstood;andtheyaretheretothisday.…20Andthesetwelvestones,whichtheytookoutoftheJordan,JoshuasetupinGilgal.21andhesaidtothepeopleofIsrael,“Whenyourchildrenasktheirfathersintimetocome,‘Whatdothesestonesmean?’22thenyoushallletyourchildrenknow,‘Israelpassedover this Jordanondryground,’…24so thatall thepeoplesof theearthmayknow that thehandoftheLORDismighty.”(Josh.4:2–4,8–9,20–22,24)

TwelvestonesareretrievedfromthemidstoftheJordanRiver,“accordingtothenumberofthetribesofthepeopleofIsrael.”Thentheyarecarriedacrosstheriverandplacedasamonumenttothecrossingoftheriver“ondryground,”sothatIsrael’sdescendantsand“allpeoples”will“knowthattheLORDismighty.”JohntheBaptistmayverywellbepointingtothesymbolismof“thesestones”

(hoi lithoi houtoi, Josh. 4:21 LXX)when he scolds thosewho approach him:“Donotpresumetosay toyourselves, ‘WehaveAbrahamasourfather’; forItellyou,Godisablefromthesestones[ektōnlithōntoutōn]toraiseupchildrentoAbraham”(Matt.3:9=Luke3:8;emphasisadded).Theproximityof“thesestones”totheJordanRiverandtheroletheyplayinJoshuatypology,aswellasthe comparison to “children to Abraham,” strengthen the likelihood that thestones towhich Johnmakes referencearenot simply stones thathappen tobelyingabout,butaspecificgroup(ormonument)oftwelvestonesthatrepresentthetwelvetribesofthepeople(“sons”)ofIsrael.The stone symbolism reappears in the Elijah narrative: “Elijah took twelve

stones,accordingtothenumberofthetribesofthesonsofJacob,towhomthewordoftheLORDcame,saying,‘Israelshallbeyourname’;andwiththestoneshe built an altar in the name of the LORD” (1 Kgs. 18:31). In fact, latereschatologicalspeculationlinksElijahtotherestorationofthetribes,asweseeintheWisdomofBenSira:

Youwhoweretakenupbyawhirlwindoffire,inachariotwithhorsesoffire;10youwhoarereadyattheappointedtime,itiswritten,tocalmthewrathofGodbeforeitbreaksoutinfury,toturntheheartofthefathertotheson,andtorestorethetribesofJacob.(Sir.48:9–10)

Accordingly,John’sappearanceinthewilderness,inthevicinityoftheJordanRiver,callingforrepentance,speakingof“thesestones,”anddressed inawaythat recalls the prophet Elijah—all these are coherent elements of a unifiedtypology,whosepointoforiginwasthecrossingoftheJordanRiverundertheleadershipofJoshua,andwhosepurposewaspreparationfor therestorationofIsrael,thepeopleofGod.John’sreferenceto“thesestones”probablywasmeanttorecall thetwelvestoneserectedasamonumentbyJoshua.Ifso, thenJesus’appointment of twelve apostles,who traveled throughout Israel, calling on thepeopletorepentinlightofthedawningofGod’srule,shouldbeunderstoodasanextensionofJohn’stypology.5Thus,whatwe see is anunbrokenchainof restorationhope, symbolizedby

language and imagery of twelve, that is, the twelve tribes of Israel. Israel’sancient Scriptures spoke of the gathering and restoration of the twelve tribes;JohnsymbolizedthishopebylocatinghispreachingandbaptizingattheJordan,wherethetwelvetribesundertheleadershipofJoshuacrossedintothepromised

land, and where Joshua built a monument of twelve stones, signifying thecrossing of the twelve tribes. John alludes to these stones in his call forrepentanceandwarningnottopresumeonthebasisofgeneticdescentfromthegreatpatriarchAbraham.Jesuscontinuedthetwelvetypologyanditssymbolismof restorationbyappointing twelveapostles.And finally, Jesus’brother Jamesassumesthisrestorationtypology,oratleastechoesit,byspeakingofIsraelasthe“twelvetribesintheDispersion.”InallofthisweseenobreakwithIsrael,no attempt to create a movement or organization that stands outside of oropposedtotheJewishpeople.

Paul,theChurch,andIsraelIhavenotedthecontrastbetweenPaul’stypicalletteraddressesandtheaddresswefindintheLetterofJames.IwonderifPaul’slanguageandtonearedifferentfrom those of James because Paulwas the energetic “apostle to theGentiles”(Rom. 11:13; Gal. 2:8)? If Paul did not think conversion to Judaism wasnecessary for Gentiles to join the assembly of Messiah Jesus (as he sovehemently argues in Galatians), then we should hardly expect to hear himaddresshisreadersasthe“twelvetribesoftheDispersion.”Evenso,PaulsharedthehopeofJesusandJesus’brotherJames,thehopeforIsrael’sredemption.ThishopeisgiveneloquentexpressioninPaul’sspeechbeforeHerod’sgreat-

grandsonAgrippaII,aspresentedinthebookofActs:“Istandhereontrialforhope in the promisemade byGod to our fathers, 7towhich our twelve tribeshopetoattain,astheyearnestlyworshipnightandday.AndforthishopeIamaccused by Jews, O king!” (Acts 26:6–7). Some will object that this speechreflects the theologyof theauthorofActsandnotnecessarily thatofPaul.Onthecontrary,howevertheauthormayhaveeditedPaul’swords,thespeechthatwe have in Acts truly represents the thought of the apostle, as we see in hiswarningtoGentilebelieverswhomaybetemptedtothinkthatIsraelnolongerhasafuture.InhislettertotheChristiansofRome,Paulhasthistosay:

Lestyoubewiseinyourownconceits,Iwantyoutounderstandthismystery,brothers:ahardeninghascomeuponpartofIsrael,untilthefullnumberoftheGentilescomein,26andsoallIsraelwillbesaved;asitiswritten,“TheDelivererwillcomefromZion,hewillbanishungodlinessfromJacob”;27“andthiswillbemycovenantwiththemwhenItakeawaytheirsins.”28Asregardsthegospeltheyare enemies of God, for your sake; but as regards election they are beloved for the sake of theirforefathers.29ForthegiftsandthecallofGodareirrevocable.(Rom.11:25–29)

Paul’s emphatic affirmation of Israel’s continuing election is categorical.Regrettably, Christian exegesis sometimes confuses Israel with the church.

However,Paul’swordscannotbeanyclearer.A“hardeninghascomeuponpartofIsrael,”thatis,aspiritualobduracyhascomeuponethnicIsrael(notuponthechurch, whose membership grows with an increasing influx of Gentileconverts!).HerePaul echoes the languageof Israel’s classicalprophets Isaiah,Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, who in their own ways speak of Israel’s spiritualblindness, deafness, and hardheartedness to God’s law and will. Yet thisobduracyisonlypartialandtemporary:itwilllast“untilthefullnumberoftheGentiles come in.”Butwhen that full number has come in, “all Israelwill besaved,”asIsaiahtheprophethaspromised.The“allIsrael”ofwhichtheapostlespeaks is ethnic Israel, not the church. The apostle Paul believedwith all hisheart thatIsraelstillhasafuture, thatIsraelremainsGod’schosenpeople,andthatsomedaynotaremnantbut“allIsraelwillbesaved.”Butwemust ask if Paul has created a new institution, a new organization,

something that stands over against Israel, something that Jesus himself neveranticipated.From time to time learned tomesandpopularbookshaveassertedthat the Christian church is largely Paul’s creation, that Jesus himself neverintendedforsuchathingtoemerge.

JesusandtheRemnantofIsraelFrankly, I think the hypothesis ofPaul as creator of the churchor inventor ofChristianity is too simplistic. A solution that is fairer to the sources, bothChristian and Jewish, ismore complicated.The solution also takes us back towherewebegan—withthemeaningoftheword“church,”orekklēsia.In sayings that admittedly reflect Matthean editing, Jesus affirms Peter’s

confessionofhismasteras theMessiah,SonofGod:“AndI tellyou,youarePeter,andonthisrockIwillbuildmychurch,andthepowersofdeathshallnotprevail against it” (Matt. 16:18). In a later collection of sayings relating tocommunity regulations and discipline, Jesus tells his disciples: “If he [anoffender]refusestolistentothem,tellittothechurch;andifherefusestolisteneven to the church, let himbe to you as aGentile and a tax collector” (Matt.18:17).Whatisthis“church”ofwhichJesusspeaks?Ishespeakingofthelocalhouse churches scattered about in theRomanEmpire?Or is he speaking of acommunityofpeople,withinIsrael,thathasrespondedtohisandJohn’scalltorepentanceandthereceptionofGod’srule?Wecananswerthisquestion,atleastinpart,bycomparingJesuswithhiscontemporaries.OnethinksofJohn’sfierypreachingofjudgment,hiswarningthattheaxhas

beenlaidagainsttherootofthetrees,andthatthewinnowingforkwillseparatewheatfromchaff(Matt.3:10,12;Luke3:9,17).Doesthisnotassumethatonly

a remnant of Israel will be redeemed? Is this not the same idea expressed insome of the prophets? One thinks of Isaiah: in his glorious vision of Godenthronedinthetemple,theprophetistoldtoproclaimamessageofobduracyand judgment: “Go, and say to this people: ‘Hear and hear, but do notunderstand;seeandsee,butdonotperceive.’10Maketheheartofthispeoplefat,andtheirearsheavy,andshuttheireyes;lesttheyseewiththeireyes,andhearwith their ears, andunderstandwith theirhearts, and turnandbehealed” (Isa.6:9–10).This is hardly amessage that Isaiah desires to proclaim.He asks theLord “How long?”That is, how longmust he preach such a dismalmessage?And the Lord answers: “Until cities lie waste without inhabitant, and houseswithoutmen, and the land is utterly desolate, and the LORD removesmen faraway,and the forsakenplacesaremany in themidstof the land” (vv.11–12).Isaiahistopreachhiswordofjudgmentuntil judgmenthasrunitscourse.Hisonlyconsolationisthataremnantwillsurvive,a“holyseed”(v.13).Likewise themenofQumranbelieveonlya remnantof Israelwillbesaved

fromthedayofwraththatiscoming.Thecorruptpriesthoodwillbesweptaway.Sinnerswillbedestroyed,and theRomanarmy,alongwith itshatedemperor,willbeannihilated.Therighteous, repentantmenofQumran, theEssenes,willrestorethepriesthood,reformworshipinJerusalem,andwithGod’shelpandtheraisingupoftheMessiah,leadIsraelintoatimeofunprecedentedglory.Someof Jesus’ teaching fits into this framework inageneralway.Manyof

hisparables andproverbial sayingspresupposea separationof thewickedandthe righteous.Onlysomeof the soil in theparableof theSower (Mark4:3–9)producesfruit.Whenthedisciplesaskaboutthemeaningoftheparables,Jesusenigmaticallystates:“ToyouhasbeengiventhesecretofthekingdomofGod,butforthoseoutsideeverythingisinparables;12sothattheymayindeedseebutnot perceive, and may indeed hear but not understand; lest they should turnagain,andbeforgiven”(Mark4:11–12).Whateveritsoriginalsetting,thesayingobviously alludes to Isaiah 6:9–10 and clearly states that someunderstand themysteryofGod’srule,yetothersdonotunderstandandinsteadremainobdurate.

Figure1.3.Keys. In lateantiquitydoorkeyswerevery largeandoftenservedbothaskeysandasdoorknobsorhandles.Keystosomeofthetemplegateswouldhavelookedlikethekeyspicturedhere.JesuspromisedPeterandthechurchthathewillgivenhimthe“keysof thekingdomofheaven”(Matt.16:19;18:18).PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

Jesuswarnshis followers to “enterby thenarrowgate; for thegate iswideand the way is easy, that leads to destruction, and those who enter by it aremany.14Forthegateisnarrowandthewayishard,thatleadstolife,andthosewho find it are few” (Matt. 7:13–14; cf. Luke 13:24). Jesus’ saying is hardlyunique,forwehavecloseparallelsinScripture(e.g.,Deut.30:15,19;Jer.21:8),intheDeadSeaScrolls(1QS3.20–21),andinrabbinicliterature(m. Abot2.12–13;b.Ber.28b). Jesusoftenspeaksof the firstas“last”and the lastas“first”(e.g.,Matt.19:30;Mark9:35;Luke13:30).Reversaloffortunesisseeninsomeof his parables (e.g., Luke 16:19–30, where the poor man is received intoparadise,andthewealthymaniscondemnedtoHades).Jesuswarns thatsomeIsraeliteswhoarenearwillbecastout,andotherswhoarefromafarwillsitwiththepatriarchsinthekingdomofGod(Matt.8:11–12;Luke13:28–30).SowhatthendidJesusmeanbyreferringtohis“church,”hisqahal?Inview

of his teachings, some of which we have briefly surveyed, his church orassemblyisacommunityofdisciples,whohavetakenuponthemselveshisyoke(Matt.11:29–30)andhaveembracedhisteaching.JesusdidnotwishtoleadhisdisciplesoutofIsrael,buttotrainfollowerswhowillleadIsrael,whowillbringrenewal to Israel, andwhowill instructGentiles in thewayof theLord. Jesus

longedforthefulfillmentofthepromisesandtheprophecies,afulfillmentthatwouldblessIsraelandthenationsalike.ThiswasPaul’svisiontoo.EarlierinthischapterIspenttimediscussingthe

LettersofPeterandJamesbecausethesemenweretheprincipal leadersof thechurchinJerusalem.Theirteaching(whichIscarcelyreviewed,limitingmyselfinsteadtothewaytheyaddressedthereadersoftheirrespectiveletters)clearlystands in continuity with the traditions and self-understanding of Israel. PaulreferstoPeterandJamesasthe“pillars”(Gal.2:1,9,“IwentuptoJerusalem.…James andCephas and John,whowere reputed to be pillars”). Itmay be that“pillars”alludedtotheJerusalemtemple(Rev.3:12),perhapssuggestingthatthetrueworshipofGodwastobefoundinJamesandPeter,notintheSadduceanpriesthood,whosecorruptionandabuseofpoweroccasionedmuchcriticisminJewishliteratureinlateantiquity.6Thereisnoindication,eitherintheLettersofPeter,James,andPaul,orinthe

traditionsknownofthesemenoutsidetheseletters,thatthechurch,orassembly,of Jesus was thought to be divorced from Israel. The church of Jesus wasestrangedfromandatoddswith therulingpriestlyestablishment inJerusalem,but itdidnot feel estranged fromIsrael itself.Theestrangementof thechurchfromIsraelwasnottheresultofJesus’teachingorPaul’steaching.Rather,thepartingoftheways,asithasbeencalledinrecentyears,wastheresultofalongprocess.ThisprocesswashastenedandexacerbatedbydifficultiesexperiencedbytheJewishpeopleasaresultofthethreedisastrousJewishrebellionsin66–70CE,115–117, and132–135.Someof this historywill bediscussed later inthisbook.

Conclusion

Iconcludebynotingthatthewordsynagogue(synagōgē)occursintheLetterofJames.TheRSV translates it not as “synagogue”but as “assembly”: “For if amanwithgoldringsandinfineclothingcomesintoyourassembly,andapoormaninshabbyclothingalsocomesin…”(2:2).Commentatorsdisputewhatismeant here. Is James referring to a synagogue,whose congregation is entirelyJewish,someofwhombelieveinJesusandothersdonot?OrhasJamessimplyused a familiar term tomean nomore than an assembly or group of people?Laterinhisletterthewordekklēsiaoccurs,wherethosewhoaresickareurgedto“callfortheeldersofthechurch”(5:14).WhatwemayhavehereintheLetterofJames,writtenperhapsfifteenyears

orsoafterthedeathofJesus,isaglimpseofthelifeoftheChristiancommunity

in a very early stage, when therewas little distinction between synagōgē andekklēsia, a timewhen a leader of the Jesusmovement could live in Jerusalemand compete for the hearts andminds of his fellow Jews, not in order to leadthem out of Israel, but to lead them toward the fulfillment of what God hadpromisedIsrael.Inchapter3weshall explore furtherwhat James taughtandhowhe ledhis

brother’smovement.Wewillkeepinmindthequestionthathasbeenposedinthischapter:DidJesusintendtofoundthechurch?Andifso,inwhatsense?Butbeforeweaddressthisquestion,wemusttakeafreshlookattheproclamationofJesus,thearrivalofthekingdomofGod,anditsimplicationsforIsrael.

I

ChapterTwo

FromKingdomofGodtoChurchofChrist

nchapter1weaskedifJesusintendedtofoundtheChristianchurch.InthepresentchapterwemustinquireintothetransitionfromJesus’proclamation

of the kingdom of God to the emergence of the Christian church. In thefollowingchapterweshalllookatthenatureofthischurch.The shift fromkingdomofGod tochurchofChrist corresponds to the shift

fromtheJesuswhoproclaims(thekingdom),totheJesuswhoisproclaimed(bythechurch).HistoricallyNewTestamentscholarshavetreatedthisquestionasagreatproblem,claiming, forexample, that Jesusdidnot foresee thechurch. Inmyview, however, the transition fromkingdomproclamation to the church isneither strange nor unanticipated. Within the framework of the kingdomproclamationare found thevery seedsof thenewcommunity that in thepost-Eastersettingwillspringupasthechurch.

ProclaimingtheKingdomofGod

Jesus proclaimed the kingdom of God, something almost no one disputes.WhatpreciselyJesusenvisioned thiskingdomtobe isanotherquestion. In thelast quarter of the twentieth century, a group of scholars, mostly NorthAmerican, tried to persuade us that the “kingdom” Jesus envisionedwas of aHellenistic character, whose chief purpose was to promote equality andegalitarian principles. Mainstream scholarship rightly rejected this theory,viewing the kingdom proclamation as rooted in Israel’s sacred story andespeciallyinthebookofIsaiah.Theevidenceforthispositioniscompelling.TheevangelistMarksumsupJesus’proclamationasfollows:

NowafterJohnwasarrested,JesuscameintoGalilee,preachingthegospelofGod,15andsaying,“Thetimeisfulfilled,andthekingdomofGodisathand;repent,andbelieveinthegospel.”(Mark1:14–15)

On one occasion, in his itinerant preaching, Jesus is remembered to haveappealedtoIsaiah61:1–2,asinLuke4:

AndhecametoNazareth,wherehehadbeenbroughtup;andhewenttothesynagogue,ashiscustomwas,onthesabbathday.Andhestooduptoread;17andtherewasgiventohimthebookoftheprophetIsaiah.Heopenedthebookandfoundtheplacewhereitwaswritten,18“TheSpiritoftheLordisuponme,becausehehasanointedmetopreachgoodnewstothepoor.Hehassentmetoproclaimreleaseto the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty thosewho are oppressed, 19toproclaimtheacceptableyearoftheLord.”20Andheclosedthebook,andgaveitbacktotheattendant,andsatdown;andtheeyesofallinthesynagoguewerefixedonhim.21Andhebegantosaytothem,“Todaythisscripturehasbeenfulfilledinyourhearing.”(Luke4:16–21)

Allusions to Isaiah 61 appear elsewhere in Jesus’ teaching (e.g.,Matt. 5:4;11:4–5=Luke7:22). Indeed, Isaiahseems tohavebeenoneofJesus’ favoritebooksofScripture,forhequotesit,paraphrasesit,andalludestoitmanytimes,often through the lens of the emerging Aramaic tradition that in time wascommittedtowritingsknownastheTargumim.1ThecoremessageofJesus,“thekingdomofGodisathand,”echoesthegood

newsof Isaiah, as in 61:1:God “has anointedme to preachgoodnews to thepoor” (NIV). Not only does Isaiah speak of “good news” (“good tidings,”“gospel”); the prophet also says it is the task of the one who has been“anointed,”fromwhichwehavetheword“messiah.”Moreover,theproclaimerofthegoodnewshasbeenanointedbythe“SpiritoftheLordGOD.”Asweshallseeshortly,thisiswhyitwassoimportantforJesustovalidatehisproclamationbyappealtoworksofpower,especiallyhiscastingoutevilspirits.Theseworksofpowerweredemonstrationsthatthe“SpiritoftheLORD”wastrulyuponhim.ThemessageofJesusdoesnotsimplyechothelanguageofHebrewIsaiah;it

appearstoechothelanguageofAramaicIsaiah,whichinlatergenerationswaspreservedinthewrittenTargumim(Targums).ComparethefollowingpassagesfromHebrewandAramaicIsaiah(withsignificantdeparturesfromtheHebrewnotedinitalics):

…for theLORDofhostswill reignonMountZionand inJerusalem,andbeforehiseldershewillmanifesthisglory.(HebrewIsa.24:23b)

…forthekingdomoftheLordofhostswillberevealedonMountZionandinJerusalemandbeforetheeldersofhispeopleinglory.(AramaicIsa.24:23b)

…so theLORDofhostswillcomedowntofightuponMountZionanduponitshill. (HebrewIsa.31:4b)

…sothekingdomof theLordofhostswillberevealedtosettleuponMountZionanduponitshill.(AramaicIsa.31:4b)

Getyouup to ahighmountain,OZion, heraldofgood tidings; lift upyourvoicewith strength,OJerusalem,heraldofgoodtidings,liftitup,donotfear;saytothecitiesofJudah,“Hereis[Behold]yourGod!”(HebrewIsa.40:9)

Getyouuptoahighmountain,prophetswhoheraldgoodtidingstoZion;liftupyourvoicewithforce,youwhoheraldgoodtidingstoJerusalem,liftup,fearnot;saytothecitiesofthehouseofJudah,“ThekingdomofyourGodisrevealed!”(AramaicIsa.40:9)

Howbeautifuluponthemountainsarethefeetofhimwhobringsgoodtidings,whopublishespeace,who brings good tidings of good, who publishes salvation, who says to Zion, “Your God reigns.”(HebrewIsa.52:7)

How beautiful upon the mountains of the land of Israel are the feet of him who announces, whopublishespeace,whoannouncesgoodtidings,whopublishessalvation,whosaystothecongregationofZion,ThekingdomofyourGodisrevealed.”(AramaicIsa.52:7)2

IntheAramaicallofthesepassagesspeakoftherevelationofthekingdomofGod(orLord).InIsaiah24:23and31:4theHebrewrefersonlyto“theLORDofHosts.”InthefirstHebrewpassagetheLord“willreign,”andinthesecondhe“willcomedowntofight.”IntheAramaicversionbotharetransformedtoread,“the kingdom of the Lord of Hosts will be revealed.” In Isaiah 52:7 theconfession“YourGodreigns”isexpandedtoread,“ThekingdomofyourGodisrevealed,” while in 40:9 the mere summons “Behold your God” alone issufficienttowarrantthesameexpansion.Common to all of these passages is the idea that God is king, something

confessed elsewhere in Scripture, especially in the Psalms (5:2; 44:4; 47:6–7;68:24;74:12;84:3;95:3;145:1). In thisconnectionweshouldnot forgetwhatSamuel told ancient Israel, when the people clamored for a king so that theymightbelikethenations:“TheLORDyourGod[is]yourking”(1Sam.12:12).3The passages from Isaiah that have been cited depict God in his kingly

activities.In24:23theLordreignsonMountZion.MountZionishisthrone.In31:4GodfightsonMountZion,as,itisimplied,akingwouldfighttodefendhiskingdom. In 40:9 the cities of Judah are bidden to hear the good news of thepresenceoftheirGod,muchasmessengersgobeforethekingtoannouncehisarrival. In 52:7 the good news of peace and salvation is summed up in theannouncement that “God reigns,” implying that his enemies have beenvanquished.Justasthemessengerspeedsaheadtotell theanxiousandwaitingpeoplethegladtidingsthattheirmonarchhasbeenvictorious,sothemessengerof Isaiah announces to Israel that God has defeated his enemies and rules inpowerandglory.TheAramaicparaphrasesofthesefourpassageshavenotsignificantlyaltered

the original meaning of Hebrew Isaiah: they have made explicit what theHebrewpassagesimply.Inhismightyactions,thekingdom,orrule,ofGodwillberevealed.Itisthisgoodnews—theruleofGod—thatJesusproclaimsinhistime.Theawaitedandlonged-forrevelationof theruleofGodhasnowat last

arrived,orinthewordsofJesus:“ThekingdomofGodisathand;repent,andbelieveinthegospel[goodnews]”(Mark1:15).ThelanguageoftherevelationofthekingdomofGodisnotuniquetoIsaiah.

It also is given expression elsewhere in theAramaic versions of theProphets.Again,themajordeparturesfromtheHebrewwillbenotedinitalics:

Saviors shall go up to Mount Zion to rule Mount Esau; and the kingdom shall be the LORD’s.(HebrewObad.21)

SaviorsshallgouptoMountZiontojudgethecitadelofEsau;andthekingdomoftheLordshallberevealedoveralltheinhabitantsoftheearth.(AramaicObad.21)

The Hebrew version’s prophecy that the “kingdom shall be the LORD’s”becomes in the Aramaic, “the kingdom of the Lord shall be revealed.” Thiskingdomof theLord, the expansive paraphrase declares,will be “over all theinhabitants of the earth.” It is not simply a new Israelite kingdom, a kingdomlimitedtothegeographyofIsrael.Rather,thekingdomoftheLordisauniversalkingdomunderwhoseauthorityallofhumanitywillsomedayfinditself.SimilarthemesareexpressedinZechariah14:9,whereweareagaintoldthat

thekingdomoftheLordhasuniversalscope:

AndtheLORDwillbecomekingoveralltheearth;onthatdaytheLORDwillbeoneandhisnameone.(HebrewZech.14:9)

AndthekingdomoftheLordwillberevealedupontheinhabitantsoftheearth;atthattimetheyshallservebefore theLordwithoneaccord, forhisnameisestablished in theworld; there isnoneapartfromhim.(AramaicZech.14:9)

Zechariahspeaksof theonenessof theLord:“on thatday theLORDwillbeone and his name one.” The Lord will rule the earth and preside over allinhabitants,buthewillnotsharethisrulewithotherdeities.HeistheLord,heisone, and his name is one. The prophet’s affirmation clearly echoes the well-knownShema(shema ):“Hear,OIsrael:TheLORDourGodisoneLORD”(Deut.6:4).4 The last clause, “There is none apart from him,” probably alludes toDeuteronomy4:39(“There isnoneelse”[KJV]).TheAramaicversionextendsthethemeofonenessbyaddingthattheearth’sinhabitants“shallservetheLordwithoneaccord”(lit.,“oneshoulder”).AllofhumanitywillrecognizetheLordandwillservehimfaithfully.ThethemeofGod’skingdombeingrevealedtotheinhabitantsofthelandalso

appearsinEzekiel,thoughwithadifferentnuance:

Yourdoomhascome toyou,O inhabitantof the land; the timehascome, theday isnear,adayoftumult,andnotofjoyfulshoutinguponthemountains.(HebrewEzek.7:7)

Thekingdomwasbeenrevealedtoyou,Oinhabitantoftheland!Thetimeofmisfortunehasarrived,the day of tumultuous confession is near, and there is no escaping to the mountain strongholds.(AramaicEzek.7:7)5

Behold,theday!Behold,itcomes!Yourdoomhascome,injusticehasblossomed,pridehasbudded.(HebrewEzek.7:10)

Behold,thedayofretribution!Behold,itiscoming!Thekingdomhasbeenrevealed!Theruler’srodhasblossomed!Wickednesshassprungup.(AramaicEzek.7:10)

In these passages fromEzekiel, the arrival of the kingdom (note that in theverses fromAramaicEzekiel, thekingdom isnotqualifiedwith thewords“ofGod”or“oftheLord”)isassociatedwithjudgment.TheprophethaspronouncedjudgmentnotonlyontinyIsraelbutalsoonthewholeland,implyingjudgmentupon the major Middle Eastern empires. As in Amos 5:18, the approachingjudgment is not an occasion for joy but of terror.6 The threat of judgment isenhancedinAramaicEzekiel7:10withthereplacementof“injustice”with“theruler’s rod.” In theAramaic paraphrase the timeof fearful judgmentwill takeplacewhenthekingdomofGodisrevealed.InthefinalpassagetheawaitedMessiahandthekingdomofGodarelinked:

…and theLORDwill reignover theminMountZion fromthis timeforthand forevermore.8Andyou,Otoweroftheflock,hillofthedaughterofZion,toyoushallitcome,theformerdominionshallcome,thekingdomofthedaughterofJerusalem.(HebrewMic.4:7b–8)

ThekingdomoftheLordwillberevealeduponthemonMountZionfromnowandforever.8Andyou,OMessiahofIsrael,whohavebeenhiddenawaybecauseofthesinsofthecongregationofZion,thekingdom shall come to you, and the former dominion shall be restored to the kingdom of thecongregationofJerusalem.(AramaicMic.4:7b–8)7

We again encounter the familiar refrain, “The kingdomof theLordwill berevealed,” inspired by theHebrew version’s “theLORDwill reign” (as also inHebrew Isa.24:23).This time,however, theMessiahhimself is introduced, astheHebrew’s“Otoweroftheflock”becomesinAramaic“OMessiahofIsrael.”TheMessiahofIsrael,wearetold,hasbeen“hiddenawaybecauseofthesins”of Israel. Redemption will come when Israel repents. Repentance is greatlyemphasizedinAramaicIsaiah.It is not surprising that theAramaic paraphrases of the Prophets, especially

Isaiah,emphasizethenecessityforrepentance.Callingthenationtorepentwasthe chief occupation of the prophets. In theAramaic version of the Prophets,however, repentance often entails returning to the law ofMoses. In AramaicEzekiel 7 the revelation of the kingdom means judgment. Elsewhere therevelationofthekingdommeansredemptionofIsrael’srighteousremnant.For

example,HebrewIsaiah10:21promisesa shattered Israel that“a remnantwillreturn,theremnantofJacob,tothemightyGod.”AramaicIsaiahagrees,butnotwithoutanimportantqualification:“Theremnantthathavenotsinnedandthathaverepentedfromsin,theremnantofthehouseofJacob,shallreturn…”(withitalics indicating additions to the text). This repentant remnant may expectdeliveranceatthehandsoftheMessiah,asitagainsaysintheAramaic:“Anditwillcometopassinthattimehisstrokeshallpassfromyou,andhisyokefromyourneck,and theGentileswillbeshatteredbefore theMessiah” (with italicsindicatingchangestothetext).8Elsewhere in Aramaic Isaiah theMessiah plays a role in the return of the

remnant and the gathering of exiles (4:2; 53:8). When God brings home theremnant that has repented, hewill purify, cleanse, and acquit them, that “theymayseethekingdomoftheirMessiah”(53:10).Indeed,theMessiahwillhimself“seekforgiveness”forthesinoftheremnantand“pardonforthesinsofmany”(53:11–12).Rabbinicauthoritiesrecognizedtheimportanceofrepentance,somebelieving

thatrepentancewasanecessarypreconditionforredemptionandtheappearanceof the kingdom.Not surprisingly, Isaiah 59:20was appealed to: “And hewillcometoZionasRedeemer,tothoseinJacobwhoturnfromtransgression,saystheLORD.”(IntheAramaicthewordingisalteredsomewhat,butthemeaningisessentially the same.) According to Rabbi Jonathan: “Great is repentance,becauseitbringsaboutredemption,as it issaid,‘AndhewillcometoZionasRedeemer, to those inJacob.’Whywilla redeemercome toZion?Becauseofthosethatturnfromtransgression”(b.Yoma86b).Theantiquityofthisexegesisseems to be confirmed by Paul’s appeal to Isaiah 59:20,when he confidentlyassertsthatnotjustaremnantwillbesaved,butwhentheRedeemercomes,“allIsraelwillbesaved”(Rom.11:25–28).

Figure2.1.SeaofGalilee,lookingwest,withthecliffsofArbelinthebackground.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

Similarly, the Jewish sages taught that the kingship of God had to beembraced before blessings could be expected: “First of all accept him as kingoveryou,thenseekmercyfromhim”(SifreNum.§77[onNum.10:1–10]).NotuntilIsraelmakesGodkingwillGodhumbleIsrael’senemies.Itisnotsurprising,then,tofindJesus’announcementofthekingdomofGod

prefaced by a call to repentance (by John and then by Jesus himself). Theappearanceof thekingdomofGod isgoodnews, tobesure,but italsobringswithitjudgment—judgmentuponevil,bothJewandGentile.Hencetheurgentcall for repentance.Both dimensions—goodnews andwarning of judgment—areseeninJesus’teachingandactivities,whichwillbediscussedshortly.Before concluding this part of the discussion, it is necessary to say a few

thingsaboutthekingdomideasinthebookofDaniel,anotherpartofScripturethat was very important for Jesus. In a series of visions, Daniel foresees thecomingheavenlykingdomthatwillbringtoanendtheeraofhumanwickednessand oppressive human kingdoms. In chapter 2, Daniel describesNebuchadnezzar’s dream of the great statue, composed of metals (with anadmixtureofclayforthefeet),whosevaluesdiminishfromheadtofeet(2:31–35).Inchapter7,Danielseesthevisionofthefourbeaststhatcomeupfromthe

sea,resemblingalion,abear,aleopard,andtheterriblebeastwithteethofironandtenhorns(7:2–8).

RomanEmperors,fromJesustoBarKokhbaAugustus(31BCE–14CE)Tiberius(14–37CE)Caligula(37–41)Claudius(41–54)Nero(54–68)Galba,Otho,Vitellius(68–69)Vespasian(69–79)Titus(79–81)Domitian(81–96)Nerva(96–98)Trajan(98–117)Hadrian(117–138)

The tradition of a succession of four kingdoms is very old, and theidentificationsofthekingdomsvary.PreciselywhichfourareinviewinDaniel2 and 7 is debated. The four kingdoms in Daniel may be the Babylonians,Medes, Persians, andGreeks (Alexander theGreat), ofwhich the last dividesintotwomajorkingdoms(Seleucusinthenorth[Syria]andPtolemyinthesouth[Egypt])whoseironcharacterisdilutedwithclaythroughinterminglingwiththelocals.Thisisoneinterpretation;thereareothers.Inthepassageoftime,thelastkingdomcametobeidentifiedwiththeRomanEmpire.9Forourpurposestheseidentifications are not important.What is important is what happens after thefourkingdoms.Whatbrings thehumankingdoms to an end is the everlastingkingdom that

Godwillestablish.Inreferenceto the imageinDaniel2,weare told:“Andinthe days of those kings theGod of heavenwill set up a kingdomwhich shallnever be destroyed, nor shall its sovereignty be left to another people. It shallbreakinpiecesall thesekingdomsandbringthemtoanend,anditshallstandforever”(2:44).EverykingdomhasbeensetupbyGod,includingthosetobedestroyed.All power exercisedbyhumankingshasbeen assigned to thembyGod.Godwillremovetheirpowerandgiveittoaneverlastingkingdom.The implicit logic compels the reader to acknowledge the power and

sovereignty of Israel’s God. Because it is Godwho has established all of thekingdoms, including those thatbrought thekingdomof Israel (or Judah) to anend, it is within his sovereign power to raise up a final kingdom,whichwillpermanently displace the pagan kingdoms. Israel will once again receive the

kingdom.Inthecolorfulimageryofthemonarch’sdream,whatbringsaboutthisdestruction is the “stone… cut from themountain by no human hand” (Dan.2:45).Thisstonewillnotonlyshattertheinferiorbaseoftheimage,itsfeetofironandclay,butwillalsobreaktopieceseverypartoftheimage,includingthemetals of quality. The image signifies a steady decline in the quality of thekingdoms—a golden kingdom destroyed Judah, a silver kingdomwill destroythegoldenone,abronzeonewilldestroythesilver,andanirononewilldestroythebronze,withtheironkingdom(legs)degeneratingintoamixtureofironandclay(feet).Thedivinelypreparedstonewillbringanendtothisdownwardcycleandwillfoundaneverlastingkingdom,akingdomdescribedasagreatmountain(2:35).ItwasavisionthatmanyinIsrael inJesus’daylongedtoseefulfilled.Butnoteverybodysharedthislonging.

TheFateoftheKingdomProclaimerThe four beasts of Daniel’s night vision come to an end when the court ofheaven convenes andGod, theAncient ofDays, takes his seat (Dan. 7:9–10).Althoughnotdescribed,judgmentuponthefourkingdomsisassumed.Theloud,boasting fourth beast is “slain and its body destroyed and given over to beburnedwithfire”(7:11b).Withthedestructionofthefourthbeast(Alexander’sempire?), the smaller, less dangerous beasts (or kingdoms) continue a littlelonger but with diminished power (7:12). In the end, though, they too aredoomedbecauseanewkingdomiscoming,ruledby“onelikeasonofman”:

Isawinthenightvisions,andbehold,withthecloudsofheaventherecameonelikeasonofman,andhecametotheAncientofDaysandwaspresentedbeforehim.14Andtohimwasgivendominionandglory and kingdom, that all peoples, nations, and languages should serve him; his dominion is aneverlasting dominion,which shall not pass away, and his kingdomone that shall not be destroyed.(7:13–14)

Originallythefigurethatresemblesa“sonofman,”orhuman,incontrasttothe four beasts, represented God’s faithful people Israel. Israel will be given“dominionandgloryandkingdom”andwillbeservedby“allpeoples,nations,andlanguages.”ThepeopleswillnolongerdominateIsrael,astheyhavesincethe days of the Babylonian Empire. Israel’s kingdom, in contrast to the fourkingdomsthathavepassedaway,willneverpassawaybutshallendureforever.Bythefirstcentury,however,the“sonofman”figurecametobeunderstood

as an individual, perhaps even the Messiah himself. This interpretation isattestedin1Enoch37–71(theso-calledSimilitudesofEnoch)and2Esdras(=4Ezra)13.Theformerwasprobablycomposedaround the turnof theCommon

Era;thelatterwaslikelycomposedneartheendofthefirstcenturyCE.ItseemsthatJesusinteractedwiththisinterpretation.Jesusappealed tobothDaniel2 and7.The twopassages tellus a lot about

Jesus’ understanding of himself and hismission. Daniel 2, particularly verses44–45,whichspeakoftheeverlastingkingdom—likenedtoastonecarvedbynohuman hand, which destroys the other kingdoms—is echoed in the chargebrought against Jesus in the hearing before the high priest and his colleagues:“Weheardhimsay,‘Iwilldestroythis templethat ismadewithhands,andinthreedaysIwillbuildanother,notmadewithhands’”(Mark14:58).Tobesure,thisstatementhasbeenutteredbywitnesseswhosetestimonyissaidtobefalse(14:56, 59), but Jesus’ explicit prediction of the temple’s doom (13:2), thesimilarsayingattributedtohimintheGospelofJohn(2:19),andthemockeryatthe cross (Mark 15:29)—all strongly suggest that Jesus did actually saysomethingabout thedoomof the temple establishment inwords that probablyintentionallyalludedtoDaniel2:44–45.10Daniel 7 lies behind important aspects of Jesus’ teaching. His habit of

referringtohimselfas“theSonofman”probablyowessomethingtothevisionof the “one like a son ofman” inDaniel 7:13.Consistently using the definite“theSonofman,”wheninDaniel7:13itisindefinite(“asonofman”),isJesus’way of specifying a particular figure and particular passage of Scripture. Theidiom itself is common in theAramaic languageof Jesus’ time andmeans nomorethan“human,”asopposedtoanangelorananimal.ThereisnothingabouttheidiominDaniel7:13thatiseithertechnicalortitular.AllJesusmeanttodowascallattention to thehumanfiguredescribed inDaniel7, thefigurewhoisbroughtbeforeGodandtheheavenlycouncil.11This is why Jesus says to the scribes who question his presumption in

declaringtheparalyzedman’ssinsforgiven:“…thatyoumayknowthattheSonof man has authority on earth to forgive sins” (Mark 2:10). Jesus speaks ofauthorityonearthbecausetheSonofmanhasreceivedhisauthorityfromGodin heaven (as depicted in Dan. 7:9–14). Having received his authority fromheaven, Jesus now exercises it in his ministry on earth. This same heavenlyauthorityliesbehindJesus’remarkableclaimthat“theSonofmanislordevenof theSabbath” (Mark 2:28).12 To claim lordship over theSabbath in a senserivalsGod’sauthority,for itwasGodwhosanctifiedtheSabbath(Gen.2:2–3)andcommandedhispeopletorespectit(Exod.20:8–11).ThemostdramaticappealtoDaniel7occursinJesus’replytothehighpriest,

whodemands,“AreyoutheChrist,theSonoftheBlessed?”(Mark14:61).Jesusreplies:“Iam;andyouwillseetheSonofmanseatedattherighthandofPower,

andcomingwiththecloudsofheaven”(14:62).JesushasblendedelementsfromDaniel 7:13 (“Son ofman… comingwith the clouds of heaven”) and Psalm110:1(“Sitatmyrighthand…”).Bothpassagesenvisionthronesandsittinginjudgment,sothepassagesarereadilylinkedbycommonthemeandvocabulary.Indeed, thepassagesareso linked in rabbinic interpretation (cf.Midr.Pss.2.9[on Ps. 2:7]). To be seated (which could imply being stationary) yet “comingwith the clouds” (which implies movement) is not a contradiction;13 it is anallusiontobeingseatedonGod’schariotthrone(Ezek.1and10).ThatDaniel7envisionsthechariotthroneismadeclearinitsdescription:God’s“thronewasfieryflames,itswheelswereburningfire”(Dan.7:9).14The high priest understood the implications of Jesus’ remarkable claim.He

was enraged and regarded Jesus’ astonishing words as blasphemy. Hiscolleagues agreed, asserting that Jesuswasworthy of death (Mark 14:63–64).Jesuswasheldincustodyfor thenight,andthefollowingmorningthecouncilagreedtohandJesusovertoPilatesothathemightbeexecuted.

FormingaNewCommunity

ThebookofDanielprovidespartofthebackdropforJesus’wordsandactionsrelating tohis fate.Thesewordsandactionswillplayan important role in thedevelopment of a new community that, given time and circumstances, willeventuallyseparateitselffromthelargercommunityofIsrael.Theemergenceofthenewcommunityiscloselytiedtothefateofitsfounder.JustasDaniel’sson-of-manfigureplaysaroleindecidingJesus’fatewhenhe

isbroughtbeforethecouncil,sothisfigureplaysaroleinJesus’anticipationofthisfate.HereIchieflyhaveinmindtheso-calledpassionpredictionsinMark8:31;9:31;and10:32–34.Thefirstonereadsasfollows:“AndhebegantoteachthemthattheSonofmanmustsuffermanythings,andberejectedbytheeldersand the chief priests and the scribes, and be killed, and after three days riseagain.”15 The epithet “the Son of man” alludes to Daniel 7:13, but theanticipationofsufferingandrejectionmayalludetotheconclusionofDaniel7,inwhichwearetoldthattheenemyofGod“shallspeakwordsagainsttheMostHigh,andshallwearoutthesaintsoftheMostHigh,…andtheyshallbegivenintohishand for a time” (v. 25).TheHebrewequivalentof theAramaicverbbala , translated“wearout,”canmean“afflict,”asweseein1Chronicles17:9(“thewickedwillnotagainafflictthem”[AT]),whiletheverbusedintheGreektranslationofDaniel7:25,katatribein, canmean“wearout”or“break,”aswesee in Josephus, who says the Romans “had broken their engines against the

walls”(J.W.4.127).

IsraelinExile

Jesususes traditions fromDaniel,Zechariah,and thesecondhalfof Isaiah.All threeof thesebooksplay amajor role in Jesus’ theology; and all three reflect periods of exile in the life and history ofIsrael.Danielreflectsanexilicperspective,ostensiblytheBabylonianexile(sixthcenturyBCE),butinrealitytheSeleucidperiodofoppressionandterror(secondcenturyBCE).Zechariahstemsfromtheexilicperiod andentertainshopes that Israel’skingdomwill be restoredunder the leadershipof the“twosonsofoil”(4:14,lit.),ZerubbabelofDavidicdescentandJoshuathehighpriest.SecondIsaiahcallsforanewexodusandanewIsrael,whichhedubstheServantoftheLord.Jesus’utilizationofthesebooks,indeedhisbeinginformedandshapedbythem,isveryrevealing.ItstronglysuggeststhatJesus identifieshimselfandhismissionwithanoppressed Israel inneedof redemption,and thathehimselfistheagentofredemption.HeistheDanielic“Sonofman”towhomkingdomandauthorityareentrusted.He is thehumbleDavidickingofZechariah’svisionwhoenters the templeprecincts,offers himself to the high priest, and takes umbrage at temple polity. And he is the eschatologicalheraldofIsaiahwhoproclaimsthe“gospel”ofGod’sreignandthenewexodus.Allofthissuggeststhat,amongother things,Jesusunderstandshismessageandministryas thebeginningof theendofIsrael’sexile.16

TheanticipationthatJesusmightsufferanddiemayalsohavebeensuggestedbyDaniel9:26,whichforetells that“ananointedone[orMessiah]shallbecutoff, and shallhavenothing;and thepeopleof theprincewho is tocomeshalldestroythecityandthesanctuary.Itsendshallcomewithaflood,andtotheendthere shall be war; desolations are decreed.” It is not hard to see how thisprophecycanfitwithJesus’expectationsofsufferinganddeath,tobefollowedeventuallybythedestructionofJerusalemandthetemple,accompaniedbywarsanddesolation(asJesusforetoldinMark13).17Jesus’anticipationofsufferingisalsoseeninhiscallinghisdisciplestotake

upthecross:“Ifanyonewouldcomeafterme,lethimdenyhimselfandtakeuphis cross and followme. 35For whoever would save his life will lose it; andwhoeverloseshislifeformysakeandthegospel’swillsaveit”(Mark8:34–35NIV).Thissummonsmaywellhavebeeneditedintheaftermathofthepassion,but its authenticity is quite probable. It reflects Jesus’ style of teaching, yet italsostandsintensionwithwhatactuallyhappenedthedayofJesus’crucifixion.Asitturnedout,Jesuswasunabletocarryhiscross:heneededassistance(Mark15:21). The saying in 8:34, then, hardly seems to have been inspired by theeventsthatovertookJesus.(WhyhaveJesussaysomethingthathehimselfwasunabletoliveupto?)Moreover,thethreatofcrucifixionofthosewholivewithintegrityseemstohavebeenproverbial.18ThatJesus,surelyawareofthedanger

hefaces,wouldspeak thiswayshouldhardlyoccasionsurprise.Moreover, thesayinginMark8:35istypicalofJesus’useofhyperboleandvividcontrast(seeMark9:35;10:31,43;Matt.6:24=Luke16:13).Thismannerofspeakingwasnottypicaloftheearlychurch.AndtheWordsofInstitution,utteredattheLastSupper (Mark 14:22–25), clearly presuppose Jesus’ impending suffering anddeath.Thisimportanttraditionwillbeconsideredbelow.Jesus invites people to join him. He challenges followers to take upon

themselves the“yoke”ofhisdiscipleship (Matt.11:29–30).Hecallspeople torepentandbelieveinthegoodnewsofthekingdomofGod(Mark1:15;6:12).Hewarnsofcomingjudgment(Matt.7:1–2;11:20–24=Luke10:13–15;Mark3:28–29; Luke 13:1–5; 16:19–31).19 He teaches that only some will respond(Matt.7:13–14;Mark4:3–8,14–20).Hewarnsthatmanyoftheheirsapparent,the seeminglychosen,will in factbeexcluded from thekingdom,whilemanypeople,thoseonewouldthinkhavelittlechance,willbeincluded(Matt.8:11–12=Luke13:28–30;14:15–24).Allofthisisconsistentwiththeexpectationoftheformationofanewcommunity.Thecallforrepentanceandtherealisticexpectationthatonlyaremnantwould

actuallyrespond to themessageprovide thebackdrop in the lightofwhichweshouldunderstandtheformationofthenewcommunity.Thehintsofaremnantarefoundinseveralplaces.IntheparableoftheSower,orbetter,theparableoftheFourSoils(Mark4:3–8),onlyonetypeofsoilprovesfruitful.Jesusurgeshisfollowersto“enterbythenarrowgate;forthegateiswideandthewayiseasy,that leads todestruction,and thosewhoenterby itaremany.14For thegate isnarrow and theway is hard, that leads to life, and thosewho find it are few”(Matt.7:13–14).Onlyafewenterthenarrowgate;mostpassthroughthewidegate,whichleadstodestruction.ThisiswhyJesusexplainstohisdisciples,“Formany are called, but few are chosen” (Matt. 22:14), and elsewhere he soberlywarnshiscontemporariesthat“thesonsofthekingdomwillbethrownintotheouterdarkness”(Matt.8:12=Luke13:28).Onethinksofthenot-easily-understoodutterance,placedbetweentheparable

oftheFourSoils(Mark4:3–8)anditsexplanation(4:14–20):“Toyouhasbeengiven the secretof thekingdomofGod,but for thoseoutside everything is inparables;12so that theymay indeedseebutnotperceive,andmay indeedhearbut not understand; lest they should turn again, andbe forgiven” (Mark4:11–12).Here Jesus alludes to Isaiah 6:9–10, a passage inwhichGodburdens theprophetIsaiahwiththeawfultaskofpreachingjudgmentuponanobdurateandsinfulpeopleofIsrael.In keepingwith his practice, Jesus has appealed to Isaiah as understood in

Aramaic. In Hebrew the prophet is commanded: “Go and say to this people:‘Hearandhear,butdonotunderstand.…’”TheHebrewversionimpliesthatthewordofjudgmentappliestoallofIsrael.ButtheAramaicreads,“Goandspeaktothispeoplewhohearandhearbutdonotunderstand,”thuslimitingthewordofjudgmenttothosewhorefusetohearandsee.TheutteranceofJesusseemstoreflectthisperspective.ThesecretofthekingdomofGodhasbeendisclosedtohisdisciples,butforthosewhoare“outside”(thosewhorefusetorespondtotheproclamation of the kingdom), the truths of the kingdom are little more thanriddles (anothermeaning, especially inAramaic, of thewordmashal that canalsobe translated “parables”).The implication is that only a remnantof Israelwillbeincludedinthekingdom.ThisisentirelyconsistentwithIsaiah6,whichends(atv.13)withthepromiseofasurvivingremnant.

Figure2.2.Capernaum.FoundationsandlowerwallportionshavebeenexcavatedatCapernaum,onthenorthwestshoreoftheSeaofGalilee,datingtofirstcenturyBCEandfirstcenturyCE.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

In warning that many of the apparent elect, the physical descendants ofAbraham,mightbecastout,Jesusimpliesthatothers—perhapsevenGentiles—willbeincluded.Hisassertionthat“manywillcomefromeastandwestandsitattablewithAbraham,Isaac,andJacobinthekingdomofheaven”(Matt.8:11=

Luke13:29)probablyalludestoPsalm107:2–3(“theredeemed,…whomhehas…gatheredinfromthelands,fromtheeastandfromthewest,fromthenorthandfromthesouth”)orIsaiah43:5(“Iwillbringyouroffspringfromtheeast,andfromthewestIwillgatheryou”),whichnodoubtwaswidelyinterpretedinreferencetotheJewishDiaspora.ButinJesus’thinking,Gentilesmaywellhavebeeninmind.OpennesstotheinclusionofGentilesisseenintheinterestingexchangewith

thewomandescribedaseitherSyrophoenicianorCanaanite (Mark7:26;Matt.15:22).Onbehalfofher strickendaughter, shebegs Jesus forhelp. Jesus tellsherthathismissionisdirectedprimarilytowardIsrael.(ThisisimpliedinMark7:27,butstatedexplicitlyinMatt.15:24;cf.Matt.10:5–6.)Heisnotopposedtohelping her; he is evenwilling to do so. It is simply amatter of priority andtiming:Therestorativeblessingsofthekingdomareextendedfirsttothepeopleof Israel,whoare likened to childrenat the table eating theirbread (an imageprobably related to the expectation of the eschatological banquet described inIsa. 25:6). The desperate woman does not dispute the point. Rather, buildingupon the metaphor, she declares that “even the dogs under the table eat thechildren’scrumbs”(Mark7:28;Matt.15:27).Insayingthis,thewomanimpliesthatGod’sworkinJesusissogreatthatmerecrumbswillbesufficientforher.Jesusisimpressedwithherresponse:“Forthissayingyoumaygoyourway;thedemonhasleftyourdaughter”(Mark7:29;cf.Matt.15:28,“Owoman,greatisyourfaith!Beitdoneforyouasyoudesire”).Israelmayhavethepriority,butthegraceofGodismorethansufficienttomeettheneedsofGentileswhomakesupplication.ThesameappliesinthecaseofthecenturionofCapernaum.WhenhedeclaresthatJesusneednotenterhishousebutonlyspeakthewordandhissufferingservantwillbehealed,Jesusexclaims,“Truly,Isaytoyou,noteveninIsrael have I found such faith” (Matt. 8:10 = Luke 7:9). Israel’s privilegedpositionremains(asthecenturionseemstohaveunderstood),butGentileswhorespondinfaithwillnotbeignored.TheseencounterswithGentilesareconsistentwithJesus’teachingelsewhere.

Inthetempleprecincts,ontheoccasionofhisdemonstration,Jesusdeclares:“Isitnotwritten,‘Myhouseshallbecalledahouseofprayerforall thenations’?Butyouhavemadeitadenofrobbers”(Mark11:17).HereJesusquotespartofIsaiah’sgreatoracle,inwhichIsrael’stempleandfaitharetoserveasaspirituallighthouse to the world (Isa. 56:3–8), an oracle itself based upon Solomon’sremarkably ecumenical prayer of dedication (1 Kgs. 8:41–43). But under theadministration of Jesus’ day, the temple establishment has become a “den ofrobbers” (Jer.7:11)andhence faces the judgmentofwhichJeremiah longagowarned. Jesus’ complaint and appeal to Isaiah 56 at the very least implies a

concernforGentiles,thattheytoomightcometoknowtheGodofIsrael.Jesus’interestinGentilesinpartliesbehindhisteachinginwhichhecontrasts

Israel’s lack of faith with the eagerness shown by Gentiles in the days ofSolomonandthegreatprophetsofold:

ThequeenoftheSouthwillariseatthejudgmentwiththisgenerationandcondemnit;forshecamefrom the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon, and behold, something greater thanSolomonishere.(Matt.12:42=Luke11:31)

ThemenofNinevehwillariseatthejudgmentwiththisgenerationandcondemnit;fortheyrepentedat the preaching of Jonah, and behold, something greater than Jonah is here. (Matt. 12:41 = Luke11:32)

ThesamemaywellbeimpliedinthewoesthatJesuspronouncesoverChorazinandCapernaum:

Woetoyou,Chorazin!woetoyou,Bethsaida!forifthemightyworksdoneinyouhadbeendoneinTyreandSidon,theywouldhaverepentedlongagoinsackclothandashes.22ButItellyou,itshallbemoretolerableonthedayofjudgmentforTyreandSidonthanforyou.23Andyou,Capernaum,willyoubeexaltedtoheaven?YoushallbebroughtdowntoHades.ForifthemightyworksdoneinyouhadbeendoneinSodom,itwouldhaveremaineduntilthisday.24ButItellyouthatitshallbemoretolerableonthedayofjudgmentforthelandofSodomthanforyou(Matt.11:21–24=Luke10:13–15)

The assertion that the people of Nineveh, Tyre, and Sidon would haverepented if they had heard the preaching of Jesus and witnessed the mightyworksthatGodwasdoingthroughhimintownslikeChorazinandCapernaumimplies that the Gentiles of Jesus’ day, Gentiles such as the Syrophoenicianwomanandthecenturion,maywellbemorereceptive to thegoodnews.Suchteachingwouldhaveprovidedthetheologicalprecedentandframeworkfor thedevelopmentof theGentilemission thatwe see in thebookofActs, inwhichrejectionandpersecutionatthehandsofJewishleadership(Acts4–8)drivethefollowersofJesustowardGentiles(Acts8–14).What we see unfolding in the book of Acts illustrates aspects of Jesus’

teachingandexperience.TherefusalofChorazinandCapernaumtorepentfindsitscorrespondenceintherefusalofJewishpopulationstorepentinthebookofActs.TheserefusalscontrastwiththeeagernessofGentilestoembracethegoodnewsandbenefitfromit.ButJewishrefusaldoesnotmeananendoftheJewishmission.ThistooisseenquiteclearlyinthebookofActs.Every time Paul and his traveling companions enter a new city, they go

directlytothesynagogueandproclaimthegoodnewsofwhatGodhaddoneinMessiah Jesus (Acts 13:14, Antioch of Pisidia; 14:1, Iconium; 17:1,Thessalonica; 17:10, Beroea; 17:17, Athens; 18:4, Corinth; 18:19, Ephesus).

ThispracticereflectsPaul’sunderstandingoftheprioritiesofthegospel,which,hesays,“isthepowerofGodforsalvationtoeveryonewhohasfaith,totheJewfirstandalsototheGreek”(Rom.1:16,emphasisadded;seealso2:9–10).OnlywhentheJewsofagivencityorsynagoguerefusetohearPauldoeshethengototheGentiles.WeseethisinhisresponsetotheantagonismofthesynagoguecongregationinAntiochofPisidia:“Sinceyouthrust[thegospel]fromyou,…weturntotheGentiles”(Acts13:46).AttentivereadersofActswillassumethattherationalePaulgiveshereappliesalsotohisexperiencesinothercities.20Israel’s priority in the early church’s mission was directly rooted in the

teachingandexampleofJesus.Althoughheinstructshisdisciples,“GonowhereamongtheGentiles,andenternotownof theSamaritans,6butgorather to thelost sheep of the house of Israel” (Matt. 10:5–6), elsewhere he teaches hisdisciples that theywill bear witness to “governors and kings” (Matt. 10:18 =Luke 21:12), which probably implies bearing witness to Gentiles (as is madeexplicit inMatt. 10:18).And the resurrected Jesus commands his followers to“make disciples of all nations” (Matt. 28:19; cf. Acts 1:8). Accordingly, theactionsandteachingsofJesusprovideafoundationonwhichhisfollowerswillbuildintheaftermathofEaster.

TheContinuationofJesus’WorkThedeathofJesusbroughtanabrupthalttohismissionandhisproclamationofthe kingdom of God. Other Jewish prophets and would-be messiahs of lateantiquitysawtheirrespectiveministriescometosuddenandtragicends.So,inasense, thiswasnothingnew; it hadhappenedbefore andwouldhappen again.ButtheendofJesus’ministry,asitturnedout,didnotlastlong.Theresurrectionof Jesus “on the third day” after his crucifixion reignited his mission andlaunched,orperhapsIshouldsay“relaunched,”hiscommunity.But the resurrection in itself isnotasufficientexplanationof thechurch,as

thecommunityofJesuscametobecalled.TheWordsofInstitution(spokenattheLastSupper)andrelatedteaching(Mark10:41–45;14:22–25)gavemeaningtothedeathofJesus,whilehispreaching, teaching,andactivitiesprovidedthecontent for the church’s theology and gave direction to the church’smission.TheappointmentoftheTwelveoriginallysignaledtherestorationofIsrael.ThereplacementofJudasIscariot,thelapsedapostle,withanothermanrestoredtheTwelve(Acts1:15–26), implying that itsmandatewasacontinuingoneandatthe same time provided an administrative structure around which the newcommunity, the qahal or ekklēsia, the assembly of Jesus, the church, couldreorganizeandfinditsbearings.ThechurchcontinuedtheworkofJesusthrough

itssummonstoallpeople,bothJewandGentilealike,torepentandtobelieveinGod’sMessiah,JesusofNazareth,risenfromthedead,fulfillerofpromisesandprophecies.

MessianicAgitatorsandProphetsfromHerodtheGreat’sDeathtoBarKokhba’sRise

JudassonofEzekias(4BCE)Simon(4BCE)Athronges(4–2BCE)JohntheBaptist(20sCE)JesusofNazareth(28–30)TheSamaritanprophet(36)Theudas(45)TheJewfromEgypt(56)JesussonofHananiah(62/63–70)MenahemsonofJudastheGalilean(66)JohnofGischala(67–70)SimonbarGiora(68–70)SimonbenKosiba,akaBarKokhba(132–135)

TheabsenceofJesussurelycreatedaproblemforhisnewcommunity.WhowillleaditandcontinueitswitnesstoIsraelanditsevangelisticoutreachtotheGentiles?Whowill providedirection as thenewcommunitywrestleswith theproblemofblendingJewsandGentilesintoitsmembership?Initiallyleadershipwas provided by Peter, the most prominent member of the original disciples.Withinafewyears,however,James,thebrotherofJesus,becametheleaderofchurchofJerusalem.Howandwhythiscameaboutwillbepursuedinchapter3.

Figure2.3.EmptyTomb.TheChristianmovementwasreignitedwiththediscoveryoftheemptytomb,with its round stone door rolled aside, and appearances of the risen Jesus. Photograph courtesy ofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

T

ChapterThree

JamesasLeaderoftheJesusCommunity

heemergenceofJames(orIakōbos,Jacob),thebrotherofJesus,asleaderoftheJesusmovementissomethingofamystery.ThenameofJames—not

to be confused with two of the twelve disciples who also have this name—appears once in theNewTestamentGospels.When Jesus returns toNazareth,hishometown,andpreachesinthesynagogue,someofthevillagersask:“Isnotthisthecarpenter,thesonofMaryandbrotherofJamesandJosesandJudasandSimon,andarenothis sistersherewithus?” (Mark6:3).Notonly is therenohintthatJameswasamongJesus’following;theGospelofJohnalsotellsusthatthebrothersofJesusdidnotbelieveinhimandwerenotnumberedamonghisdisciples(John7:3–5).YetabouthalfwaythroughthebookofActs(ca.41–44CE),Luke’ssecondvolume,narratingtheearlyhistoryofthechurch,Jamesthebrother of Jesus suddenly appears and seems to be the head of the JesusmovementinJerusalem.Howisthistobeexplained?PartoftheanswersurelyliesinJames’sexperienceoftherisenChrist.Inthe

earliestsurvivingwrittenaccountofappearancesoftherisenChrist,PaulwritesthatJesus“appearedtoCephas[Peter],thentothetwelve.Thenheappearedtomore than five hundred brethren at one time, most of whom are still alive,though some have fallen asleep. Then he appeared to James, then to all theapostles”(1Cor.15:5–7).FromthisweinferthatitwasJesus’appearanceafterthe resurrection that transformed James into a believer.1 Paul’s language,moreover, seems tosuggest that Jameswas regardedasanapostle, thoughnotone of the Twelve. His kinship with Jesus could explain his elevation toleadership,butthatisonlyconjecture.2In a Jewish Gospel known to Jerome, the great Christian scholar who

possessed expertise inGreek andHebrew, studiedHebrew in Bethlehem, andsupervised the translation of both Testaments of Scripture into Latin (whateventuallycomestobeknownastheVulgate),wehearofaninterestingtraditionaboutJames.WefindthistraditioninaquotationthoughttohavecomefromtheGospeloftheHebrews,awritingthatscholarsthinkwascomposedaround140

CE.We not only readmore about the resurrection appearance of Jesus to hisbrotherJames;wealsoreadthatJameswaspresentattheLastSupper,thenightinwhichJesuswasarrested.Thequotationrunsasfollows:

AndwhentheLord[Jesus]hadgiventhelinenclothtotheservantofthepriest,hewenttoJamesandappeared tohim.For Jameshad sworn thathewouldnot eatbread from thathour inwhichhehaddrunk the cup of the Lord until he should see him risen from among them that sleep.And shortlythereafter theLordsaid:“Bring tableandbread!”And immediately it isadded:“He took thebread,blesseditandbrokeitandgaveittoJamestheJustandsaidtohim:‘Mybrother,eatyourbread,fortheSonofManisrisenfromamongthemthatsleep.’”(Jerome,Vir.ill.2)3

This isanamazingpieceof tradition.Thefirstclause is tantalizing.What isthesignificanceofthe“linencloth”?IsitpartoftheburialclothswithwhichthebodyofJesuswaswrapped?Whois the“servantof thepriest”?Wemayhaveoverlap with Johannine tradition. If so, then perhaps the priest’s servant isMalchus (cf. John 18:10), and perhaps the linen cloth is either the cloth thatcovered Jesus’ face or part of the other graveclotheswithwhich he had beenwrapped forburial (cf. John20:5–7).Ofgreater importance is theprominencegiventoJames.Wearetoldthathe“hadsworn”torefrainfrombreaduntilJesuswas risen and that he hadmade this oathwhen “he had drunk the cup of theLord.”ThissurelyalludestotheLastSupperandrunsparalleltoJesus’vownottodrinkwine(cf.Mark14:25;Matt.26:29;Luke22:18)oreatthePassover(cf.Luke22:16)untilhemaydosointhekingdomofGod.ButinJerome’sJewishGospel, it is Jameswhomakesavow. It is Jameswhoobserves the firstpost-EasterEucharist,intheverypresenceoftherisenChrist.ThestatusofJamesisclearlyenhancedinthisversion,aswemightexpectinaGospelcherished,ifnotgeneratedby,aJewishcommunityofbelievers.4Itisimpossibletoestablishtheauthenticityofthisintriguingtradition.Itmay

wellbenothingmorethanhagiography,thatis,anexampleofpiousimaginationthatwith speculation attempts to answer the very questionwe have:How didJamesbecameabelieverinhisbrotherJesus,andhowdidherisetoprominenceamongtheleadersoftheJesusmovementinJerusalem?Everythingweknowof him suggests that Jameswas a capable, piousman,

whoprovidedtheJesusmovementwitheffectiveleadershipinJerusalem,evenwhencontroversieswith thepriestly leadership resulted in thedepartureof thetwelveapostles.WiththedepartureofPeter,theoriginalleaderoftheapostles,Jamesemergedasthenewleader.Whatkindofleaderwashe,andhowdidherelatetotheotherleadersoftheJesusmovement,inJudeaandoutsideJudea?Tothesequestionswenowturn.

JamesasLeaderoftheJesusCommunityinJerusalemJames’spriorityamong leadersof theearlychurch is attested in1Corinthians15:7,citedjustabove.ThesequenceofappearancesthatPaulprovidessuggeststhatJameswassecondarytoPeter(Cephas)andthe“twelve”(=theelevenplusMatthias, the replacement appointed in Acts 1:23–26?). In Galatians 2:9 Paulrefers toJamesasoneof the“pillars [styloi]”of thechurch.“Pillar”heremaycarrytempleconnotations,forstylosoccursfrequentlyintheLXXinreferencetothepillars,oruprightframes,inthetabernacle(e.g.,Exod.26:15–37;27:10–17; 35:11, 17; 36:36, 38; 38:10–19; 39:33, 40; 40:18). For example, “Moseserected the tabernacle; he laid its bases, and set up its frames, and put in itspoles, and raised up its pillars [LXX: stylous; MT: amud]” (Exod. 40:18).Solomon commissioned two special pillars of bronze for the temple (1 Kgs.7:15–22), byoneofwhich thekingof Judah laterwould customarily stand (2Kgs. 11:14; 23:3). The Babylonians would later plunder these pillars (2 Kgs.25:13–17; Jer. 52:17, 20). Pillars will be erected in the eschatological templepromisedinEzekiel(40:49;42:6).5TheNewTestamentApocalypsealsospeaksofapillarinthenewtemple:“Hewhoconquers,Iwillmakehimapillarinthetemple of my God” (Rev. 3:12). C. K. Barrett suspects that Galatians 2:9understandsJames,Peter(orCephas),andJohnas“pillarsofthenewtemple.”6The documentation for designating a human as a “pillar” on which people

may be supported is sufficient (and is summarized by Barrett).7 HelpfulexamplesarefoundintheDeadSeaScrolls:“Atagetwenty-five,heiseligibleto take his place among the pillars [yesodot] of the holy congregation and tobeginservingthecongregation”(1QSa1.12–13).“Thesearethepillars[yesodot]of the foundations of the assembly” (CD 14.17–18).8 Richard Bauckham hasarguedthattheleadersoftheJesusmovementwerecalledpillarsaspartofthe“earlychurch’sunderstandingofitselfastheeschatologicaltemple,”onanalogywith the Qumran community, which also saw itself as a spiritual temple. InChristiantraditionPeteristherockonwhichJesuswillbuildhischurch(Matt.16:18),Jesushimselfisthefoundation(1Cor.3:11)orcornerstone(Eph.2:20;1Pet. 2:4, 6–7), andChristian believers are themselves the building blocks of alivingtemple(1Pet.2:5;Hermas,Visions3;idem,Similitudes9).Someofthisimagery is itself based on the temple imagery found in the old Scriptures,especiallyinreferencetothepromisedandawaitedeschatologicaltemple:stonesandfoundations(Isa.54:11),cornerstone(Isa.28:16;Ps.118:22;bothquotedin1Pet.2:6–7),andpillars(Prov.9:1).9Inpost-NewTestamenttraditionsJamesishimselfcalledthe“RampartofthePeople”(apudEusebius,Hist.eccl.2.23.7),a

titleprobablybasedonIsaiah54:11–12andlikelyalsopartoftheimageryoftheeschatologicaltemple.

Figure3.1.Pillar,with impressivebase and capital.From theHerodianperiod, excavated in Jerusalem.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

LiteratureAssociatedwithJames,thebrotherofJesusLetterofJames(intheNewTestament)FirstApocalypseofJames(NagHammadiCodicesV.3=CodexTchacos10–32)SecondApocalypseofJames(NagHammadiCodicesV.4)ApocryphonofJames(NagHammadiCodicesI.2)AscentsofJames(intheNewTestamentApocrypha)TheProtevangelium[Pre-Gospel]ofJames(intheNewTestamentPseudepigrapha)

Insomeofthepost-NewTestamenttraditions,thereputationofJamesissuchthathebecomesthesubjectofalivelyhagiography.Jamesfiguresprominentlyin the second-centuryMemoirs by Hegesippus, in the second-century SecondApocalypse of James, in theGospel ofThomas (logion12), in the early third-century Hypotyposeis by Clement of Alexandria, and in the fourth-centuryEcclesiasticalHistorybyEusebius,whopreservesandaugmentssomeofthesetraditions.10 In thesematerials the piety of James and his associationwith theJerusalemtempleareunderscored.Thesetraditions,someofwhichintheirearliestformsarereflectedintwoof

Paul’sletters,testifytothegreatesteemwithwhichJamesthebrotherofJesuswasheldintheearlychurchandperhapsalsoamongsomeofthepopulationofJerusalemthatdidnototherwiseidentifywiththeJesusmovement.AlthoughwecanonlyspeculatehowJamesattainedsucharankandreputation, thebookofActs does recount some highly significant moments in the life of the earlychurchinwhichJamesplaysaleadingrole.James first appears in the book ofActs in the context ofKingAgrippa I’s

violenceagainsttheleadersofthechurch.InActs12:1–5wehaveanaccountoftheseactions:

AboutthattimeHerodthekinglaidviolenthandsuponsomewhobelongedtothechurch.2HekilledJamesthebrotherofJohnwiththesword;3andwhenhesawthatitpleasedtheJews,heproceededtoarrestPeteralso.ThiswasduringthedaysofUnleavenedBread.4Andwhenhehadseizedhim,heputhiminprison,anddeliveredhimtofoursquadsofsoldierstoguardhim,intendingafterthePassovertobringhimouttothepeople.5SoPeterwaskeptinprison;butearnestprayerforhimwasmadetoGodbythechurch.

AgrippaIwasthesonofAristobulusIVandBerniceIandwasthebrotherofHerodias (cf.Mark 6:15–28).Only theNewTestament refers toAgrippa I as“Herod,”anamethatmoreorlessfunctionedasadynasticnamesincethetimeofAgrippa’s famous grandfatherHerod theGreat. (Agrippa I is calledHerodseveralmoretimesinActs12:6,11,19–21.)WeknowthatAgrippa’snamewasJuliusAgrippa,anditispossiblethathisfullnamewasMarcusJuliusAgrippa,the name he gave his son, whowould eventually succeed him as Agrippa II.Agrippa I acquired some territory in 37 CE, when that year his friend GaiusCaligulabecame theRomanemperor.WhenhisuncleAntipaswasdeposed in39CE,Agrippareceivedhistetrarchy,whichincludedGalilee,Peraea,andotherterritories.UponthedeathofCaligulaandtheaccessionofClaudiusin41CE,Agrippa was given the remainder of the territory that had been ruled by hisgrandfather Herod the Great and so officially became “king” of the Jews(Josephus,Ant. 19.295: “KingAgrippa had been once bound in a chain for a

smallcause,butrecoveredhisformerdignityagain…andwasadvancedtobeamoreillustriouskingthanhewasbefore”).11InthepassagecitedfromthebookofActs,wearenot toldspecificallywhy

Agrippa arrested someof theChristians.Hismotiveswill be considered later.Fornow it is enough toobserve thatAgrippaexecuted James sonofZebedee,thebrotherofJohn,andthen,seeingthatitpleasedcertainpeople,heproceededtoarrestPeter also.Thechurchprays forPeter,who thenenjoysamiraculousescape and safely reaches the house of a woman namedMary, themother ofJohnMark (Acts 12:6–16),who laterwill accompanyPaul onpart of his firstmissionaryjourney.ItisintheconclusionofthisremarkablestorythatJamesthebrotherofJesusismentioned.AfterPeterdescribeshisescape(12:17a),hesays:“Tell this to James and to the brethren” (12:17b). The narrator then remarksabruptly and with little detail: “Then he departed and went to another place”(12:17c). From this cryptic remark it is assumed that Peter has quit Jerusalemand that James thebrotherofJesushasassumed the leadership.Not longafterleaving Jerusalem, Peter visits Antioch and eventually takes up residence inRome.12Peter’s instructions, “Tell this to James and to the brethren,” implies that

Jamesis“secondincommand,”asitwere.ButitalsoimpliesthatJameswasnotexpectedtoquitJerusalem,asPeterandothersfounditnecessarytodo.Whyisthis? Judgingby the advice that Jameswill later give (inActs 15) andby thetraditionofhispietyanddevotionintheprecinctsoftheJerusalemtemple,alongwith no evidence that James either condemned the temple priesthood orthreatened the templewith itsdestruction (at leastnotuntilhewaskilled),wemay infer that James’scommitment to Jewish faithandpracticewas such thatthereligiousandpoliticalauthoritiessawnoreason to takeactionagainsthim.Thedynamicsthatlatercameintoplay,resultinginthekillingofJames,willbeconsidered in thenextchapter.Fornowit isonlynecessary to remark that thereligiousdevotionofJameswassuchthatthetempleauthoritiessawnoreasontopersecutethisparticularleaderoftheJesusmovement.

Figure3.2.HighPriestInscriptiononlimestone,foundinJerusalem,reading“sonofthehighpriest”(benhakohenhagadol).PhotographcourtesyofAndersRunesson.

Whatwe learn fromActs 12:17,which records Peter’s abruptwords, “Tellthis to James and to the brethren,” is that James, in the absence of Peter, hasbecome the leaderof the Jesusmovement.When thechurchgrappleswith thevexatiousquestionofwhetherGentileswhobecomebelieversmustalsobecomeJewish proselytes, they turn to James (and not to Peter or Paul) for guidance;thuswe begin to appreciate the gravity of his leadership and the respectwithwhichJamesistreatedbythechurch.Arguably the most important and divisive question faced by the church

concerned the Gentiles, that is, to what extent, if any, they must conform toJewish faith and practice in order to join the church. Was it necessary forGentilestobecomeproselytes,tobecircumcised,toobservetheSabbath,toeatkosherfood,andtofollowtherulesofpurity?Someinthechurchbelievedthatitwasnecessary;othersdidnotthinkso.ThisgreatquestionisdebatedinActs15.Thedebatebeginsasfollows:

ButsomemencamedownfromJudeaandwere teaching thebrethren,“UnlessyouarecircumcisedaccordingtothecustomofMoses,youcannotbesaved.”2AndwhenPaulandBarnabashadnosmalldissensionanddebatewiththem,PaulandBarnabasandsomeoftheotherswereappointedtogouptoJerusalemtotheapostlesandtheeldersaboutthisquestion.3So,beingsentontheirwaybythechurch,theypassed throughbothPhoeniciaandSamaria, reporting theconversionof theGentiles, and theygavegreatjoytoallthebrethren.4WhentheycametoJerusalem,theywerewelcomedbythechurchand the apostles and the elders, and they declared all that God had done with them. 5But somebelieverswhobelongedtothepartyofthePhariseesroseup,andsaid,“Itisnecessarytocircumcisethem,andtochargethemtokeepthelawofMoses.”(Acts15:1–5)

TheassertionofthePhariseesinActs15:5meansnothinglessthanthatGentiles

who wish to join the Jesus movement, the church, must become Jewishproselytes.13ThisisnotPaul’sview,asweseeinhislettersandinthebookofActs,wherehisactivitiesandteachingsarenarrated.Manyscholars,perhapsevenmost,believethatPaul’saccountofhisvisitto

Jerusalem—wherehisunderstandingofthegospelwaspresentedtothe“pillars”James,Peter,andJohn—isinreferencetothecontroversyandcouncildescribedinActs15.14Iconcurwiththisinterpretation.Accordingly,itwillbehelpfultopresentPaul’sversionofit,aswehaveinGalatians2:1–10:

ThenafterfourteenyearsIwentupagaintoJerusalemwithBarnabas,takingTitusalongwithme.2Iwent up by revelation; and I laid before them (but privately before thosewhowere of repute) thegospelwhichIpreachamongtheGentiles,lestsomehowIshouldberunningorhadruninvain.3ButevenTitus,whowaswithme,was not compelled to be circumcised, though hewas aGreek. 4Butbecauseoffalsebrethrensecretlybroughtin,whoslippedintospyoutourfreedomwhichwehaveinChristJesus,thattheymightbringusintobondage—5tothemwedidnotyieldsubmissionevenforamoment,thatthetruthofthegospelmightbepreservedforyou.6Andfromthosewhowerereputedtobesomething(whattheyweremakesnodifferencetome;Godshowsnopartiality)—those,Isay,whowereofreputeaddednothingtome;7butonthecontrary,whentheysawthatIhadbeenentrustedwiththegospel to theuncircumcised, justasPeterhadbeenentrustedwith thegospel to thecircumcised8(forhewhoworkedthroughPeterforthemissiontothecircumcisedworkedthroughmealsofortheGentiles),9andwhentheyperceivedthegracethatwasgiventome,JamesandCephasandJohn,whowerereputedtobepillars,gavetomeandBarnabastherighthandoffellowship,thatweshouldgototheGentilesandtheytothecircumcised;10onlytheywouldhaveusrememberthepoor,whichverythingIwaseagertodo.

Comparison of the accounts in Acts 15 and Galatians reveals minordiscrepancies, tobesure,but themajorpoints in theseaccountscohere. In thecontextofActs,PaulandBarnabashavereturnedfromasuccessfulmissionaryjourney,inwhichanumberofchurcheshavebeenfoundedinAsiaMinor(Acts13–14). In no case did Paul require Gentile converts to be circumcised orbecome Jewish proselytes.15 In some of his letters, the apostle even inveighsagainstsucharequirement.InthenarrativeofActs,Paulissometimesovertakenbycontroversy.Hispreachingiscontradicted,andheissometimesdrivenfromtownandevenpursued(cf.Acts13:44–51;14:4–6,19;17:5–9,13–14;18:6,12–17;19:8–9;20:3). Inoneofhis letters,Paul reports thaton fiveoccasions theJews(presumablyinthecontextofthesynagogue)gavehimthirty-ninelashes(2Cor.11:24;cf.Gal.6:17,“Ibearonmybodythemarks[stigmata]ofJesus”).Christian readers usually assume that Paul’s Jewish critics oppose him

because they reject the claim that Jesus has been resurrected and that he isIsrael’sMessiah.Tosomeextentthisassumptionmaywellbetrue,butitisalsopossible that Paul’s preaching of justification apart from circumcision and

embracingthelawofMoseswasamajorpartoftheoffense.Indeed,itmayhavebeen the apparent rejection of the law that raised doubts about the veracity ofPaul’sclaimsaboutJesus(cf.Acts21:20–21:“Theyareallzealousforthelaw,and theyhavebeen told aboutyou that you are teaching all the Jewswhoareamong the Gentiles to forsake Moses, telling them not to circumcise theirchildren”). I suspect that if Paul hadpreached the gospel andhad at the sametimeurgedGentiles to become Jewish proselytes (as someof thePharisees inActs15believedshouldbedone),PaulandBarnabaswouldhaveencounteredlittleopposition,perhapsnone.

ComparingPeterandPaulintheBookofActs

Peter’sActivity Paul’sActivity3:1–10

Healsalameman 14:8–103:11–26

Preachesahistoricalsermon 13:16–414:1–22

Broughtbeforereligiousleaders 22:1–225:17–20

Miraculouslyreleasedfromprison 16:19–348:9–24

Encountersamagician 13:4–1210:1–48

EvangelizesGentiles 13:44–5211:1–18

ProminentataJerusalemCouncil 15:1–35

In any event, the church is deeply divided on this question. A difficultdecisionmust bemade.What is surprising is that thedecision is notmadebyPeter,theprincipalspokesmanoftheoriginalbandofdisciples,norisitmadebyPaul,whointhenarrativeofActshasemergedasamajorfigure.ThedecisionismadebyJames,thebrotherofJesus.Tobesure,bothPeter(Acts15:7–11)andPaul (15:12) contribute to the debate, but it is James who settles the matter.JamessideswithPeter,articulatesthepositionthatthechurchwilltake,andthenentrustsPaul,Barnabas,andafewotherswiththetaskofmakingthisdecisionknownoutsidethelandofIsrael,intheDiaspora,wherePaulhasbeenengagedinevangelismandmissionarywork.Theletterthatcontainsthedecisionreadsasfollows:

Thebrethren,boththeapostlesandtheelders,tothebrethrenwhoareoftheGentilesinAntiochandSyriaandCilicia,greeting.24Sincewehaveheardthatsomepersonsfromushavetroubledyouwithwords, unsettling yourminds, althoughwe gave them no instructions, 25it has seemed good to us,havingcometooneaccord,tochoosemenandsendthemtoyouwithourbelovedBarnabasandPaul,26menwho have risked their lives for the sake of our Lord JesusChrist. 27Wehave therefore sentJudasandSilas,whothemselveswilltellyouthesamethingsbywordofmouth.28ForithasseemedgoodtotheHolySpiritandtoustolayuponyounogreaterburdenthanthesenecessarythings:29thatyouabstainfromwhathasbeensacrificedtoidolsandfrombloodandfromwhatisstrangledandfromunchastity.Ifyoukeepyourselvesfromthese,youwilldowell.Farewell.(Acts15:23b–29)

Some interpreters believe that the council’s decision contradicts Paul’steachingthatbelievershavefreedominmattersoffoodanddrink.Forexample,Paulsays,“FoodwillnotcommendustoGod.Wearenoworseoffifwedonoteat,andnobetteroffifwedo”(1Cor.8:8).Inthewholechapter(of1Cor.8)Paul argues that because idols are nothing, eating meat sacrificed to idols isnothing.Ofcourse,Paulurgesthe“strong”tobeconsiderateofthe“weak”whoareoffendedbythosewhoeatmeatsacrificedtoidolsfromknowingthatidolsare not gods. And later, Paul warns Gentile believers not to join pagans insacrificingtodemons(1Cor.10:20)andnottoeatmeatsacrificedtoidolsifthismeathasbeenidentifiedassuch(10:28).SoisPaul’spositionatoddswiththeletterissuedbyJamesandtheJerusalemCouncil?Recent scholarship saysno.PederBorgenhas argued that the letter isnot a

“decree,”asit isoftenassumed.Rather, theletter isacatalogofvices,not toodifferentfromthevicesthatPaulhimselfarticulates(asinGal.5:19–21).Whenconverted, the Gentiles are to turn away from pagan vices, such as idolatry,

sexualsin,andpartakingoffoodsassociatedwiththesekindsofactivities.Thequestion addressed by the Jerusalem letter concerns the requirement ofcircumcision and acceptance of the law of Moses on the part of the Gentileconverts.TheletterdirectstheseGentileconvertstoavoidpaganpractices.16Butbeyond these basic requirements, no other “burden” should be laid upon them(Acts15:28;cf.v.19:“weshouldnottroublethoseoftheGentileswhoturntoGod”).WhatPaulattacksinhisLetter totheGalatiansis theteachingofsomefellow Jewish believers in Christ, called “Judaizers,” that Gentiles must becircumcised.This requirement is flatly rejected by the JerusalemCouncil, andPaulisauthorizedtorelatethisdecisiontothebelieversofAntioch(Acts15:30–33).17It is in this context that Paul’s explanation in Galatians 2:1–3 should be

understood:

IwentupagaintoJerusalemwithBarnabas,takingTitusalongwithme.2Iwentupbyrevelation;andIlaidbeforethem(butprivatelybeforethosewhowereofrepute)thegospelwhichIpreachamongtheGentiles,lestsomehowIshouldberunningorhadruninvain.3ButevenTitus,whowaswithme,wasnotcompelledtobecircumcised,thoughhewasaGreek.

Thatis,PaulwentuptoJerusalemtoparticipateinthecouncildescribedinActs15andtherehelaidbeforethe“pillars”oftheearlychurchhisunderstandingofthe gospel, namely, that Gentiles who respond in faith are not required tobecomeJewishproselytes.PaulnotesinhissupportthatTitus,anuncircumcisedGentile,wasnotrequiredtobecircumcised.The apostle goes on to say in his letter: “When they saw that I had been

entrustedwiththegospeltotheuncircumcised,justasPeterhadbeenentrustedwith thegospel to thecircumcised,…andwhen theyperceived thegrace thatwasgiven tome,JamesandCephasandJohn,whowere reputed tobepillars,gavetomeandBarnabastherighthandoffellowship,thatweshouldgototheGentilesandtheytothecircumcised”(Gal.2:7,9).ExtendingtoPaul“therighthandoffellowship”meansagreementwithhisunderstandingofthegospelasitpertained toGentiles. The basicmeaning of theword “fellowship” (koinōnia)hastodowiththingsheldincommonand,inreferencetoideas,thingsonwhichpeople agree (e.g., Josephus,Ant. 8.387: “Ahab gave himhis hand, andmadehimcomeup tohim intohis chariot, andkissedhim, andbidhimbeofgoodcheer”). The giving of the “right hand” in antiquity usually implied a pledge(e.g., Josephus, J.W. 6.318–20, 345, 356; LXX: 1 Macc. 6:58; 11:50).18Accordingly,givingPaulandBarnabasthe“righthandoffellowship”impliesapledge that recognizes the validity of Paul’s understanding of the gospel asappliedtoGentilesandatthesametimeisapledgetoworkinpartnershipwith

Paul.TheleadershipofJamesinJerusalemisseenagaininthebookofActswhen

he directs Paul to purify himself and pay the expenses of four men who areunder aNazirite vow.Not only dowe catch an important glimpse of James’scontinuingleadershipandauthority;wemayalsodiscoverhowit isthatJameswasabletoresideinJerusalemwhileothers,likePeterandtheoriginalapostles,founditnecessarytorelocate.WhenPaulreturnedtoJerusalemin58CE,intimefortheFeastofPentecost,

hevisitedJamesand“alltheelders”(Acts21:18).Paulrelatedtothemwhathehadexperienced inhis recent travelsandmissionaryactivities, towhichJamesandhiscolleaguesexpressedjoy(21:19–20a).ButthenJameshasthisadviceforPaul:

Yousee,brother,howmanythousandsthereareamongtheJewsofthosewhohavebelieved;theyareallzealousforthelaw,21andtheyhavebeentoldaboutyouthatyouteachalltheJewswhoareamongtheGentiles to forsakeMoses, telling themnot to circumcise their childrenorobserve thecustoms.22Whatthenistobedone?Theywillcertainlyhearthatyouhavecome.23Dothereforewhatwetellyou.Wehavefourmenwhoareunderavow;24takethesemenandpurifyyourselfalongwiththemandpaytheirexpenses,sothattheymayshavetheirheads.Thusallwillknowthatthereisnothinginwhattheyhavebeentoldaboutyoubutthatyouyourselfliveinobservanceofthelaw.25ButasfortheGentileswhohave believed,wehave sent a letterwith our judgment that they should abstain fromwhathasbeensacrificedtoidolsandfrombloodandfromwhatisstrangledandfromunchastity.(Acts21:20b–25,emphasisadded)

This passage is quite revealing of several important features. First, theapologeticinterestsareobvious.JamestellsPaulthat“thousands”ofJewshavebelieved thegoodnews relating to Jesus and that thesebelieving Jews remain(lit.)“zealotsforthelaw”(v.20b).Theimplicationisclear:BeliefinJesusdoesnotrequireabandonmentofone’sJewishlifestyle.ThisstatementisnotsomuchforthebenefitofPaulasforthebenefitofthereadersofActs,especiallythosewho are under the impression that conversion to faith in Jesus as Israel’sMessiahrequiresapostasyfromJewishfaithandlifestyle.Second, in recounting James’s advice to Paul, the evangelist has the

opportunity to make explicit the accusation, of which many in the Jewishcommunity believed Paul was guilty, that Paul teaches “all the Jewswho areamong the Gentiles to forsake Moses, telling them not to circumcise theirchildrenorobservethecustoms”(v.21).ReadersofthebookofActsknowthatthis accusation is false.Nowhere in the narrative ofActs has Paul taught anysuchthing.Indeed,PaulhasTimothy,amanwhosemotherisJewishandwhosefather is Gentile, circumcised (Acts 16:3). And, of course, readers of Paul’sLettersknowthatthisaccusationisnottrue.Infact,Paulcommandsthosewho

arecircumcisedandhavebecomefollowersofJesus“not[to]seektoremovethemarksof circumcision” (1Cor. 7:18a), something that Jewish apostates did intheyearsleadinguptotheMaccabeanRevolt(1Macc.1:15:“Theyremovedthemarks of circumcision, and abandoned the holy covenant”).Nevertheless, it isnotdifficulttoimaginehowPaul’steaching—thatGentileconvertsneednotbecircumcised(e.g.,1Cor.7:18b),that“inChrist”(theMessiah)“thereisneitherJewnorGreek” (Gal.3:28), that truecircumcision isamatterof theheartandnot the flesh (Rom. 2:25–29), that “neither circumcision nor uncircumcisioncounts for anything” (Gal. 6:15)—could lead some to conclude that Paulwasguiltyoftheaccusationsleveledagainsthim.Third,JamesrecommendsthatPaulparticipateinbringingtocompletionthe

vowsoffourJewishmenwhosefidelitytothelawisnotinquestion.TodothisPaulwillpurifyhimself“alongwiththemandpaytheirexpenses”(Acts21:24).Thoughnot stated, it is possible that themoneyPaulwill use for the requiredsacrifices(cf.Num.6:14–15)19comesfromthecollectionhehasreceivedfromGentile converts as part of a show of support for Jewish believers anddemonstrationoftheunityofthechurch.AccordingtoPaul,attheconclusionoftheJerusalemCouncil,narratedinActs15andpersonallydescribedbyPaulinhislettertotheGalatianchurches,hesayshehasbeenaskedto“rememberthepoor” (Gal. 2:10).Pauldid so and collectedmoney for thepoorof Jerusalem.His most explicit teaching on the matter is found in one of his letters to theChristiansofCorinth:

Nowconcerningthecontributionforthesaints:asIdirectedthechurchesofGalatia,soyoualsoaretodo.2Onthefirstdayofeveryweek,eachofyouistoputsomethingasideandstoreitup,ashemayprosper,so thatcontributionsneednotbemadewhenIcome.3AndwhenIarrive, Iwillsendthosewhom you accredit by letter to carry your gift to Jerusalem. (1Cor. 16:1–3; cf. Acts 21:17; Rom.15:25–28,31)

Paul brought this giftwithhim to Jerusalem (as implied inActs 24:17–18),thoughthereisnomentionofitwhengreetsJamesandtheelders(Acts21:17–19).Later inActswehave reference to thisgiftaswellasPaul’spurification:“Nowafter someyears I came tobring tomynation almsandofferings.As Iwasdoing this, theyfoundmepurified in the temple” (Acts24:17–18). Inanyevent,Paul’sparticipationinandfinancialsupportofthefourmen’scompletionoftheirrespectiveNaziritevowsdemonstratesPaul’sfidelitytoandrespectforthelawofMoses.Fourth,JamestellsPaulthatbydoingwhathasbeensuggested,“allwillknow

thatthereisnothinginwhattheyhavebeentoldaboutyoubutthatyouyourselflive in observance of the law” (Acts 21:24). James then goes on to recall the

council’s letter, inwhich a catalog of viceswas composed (v. 25), perhaps toshowthatbyassistingthemenunderthevowPauldemonstrateshiscompliancewiththeletter.ThenarrativeinActsgoesontosaythatPaulentersthetempleprecinctswiththefourmen,whothenfulfilltheirvowsandpresentofferings.

Figure 3.3. Kidron Valley. This valley runs between the Mount of Olives and the Temple Mount.Accordingtolegend,JamesthebrotherofJesuswascastfromthewalloftheTempleMount,clubbedtodeath,andburiedsomewhereintheKidronValley.PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans.

TheseriousnessoftheallegationsagainstPauliswitnessedinActs21:27–36,wherewearetoldthatPaulwasmobbedinthetempleprecincts,withaccuserssaying:“MenofIsrael,help!This is themanwhois teachingmeneverywhereagainstthepeopleandthelawandthisplace;moreoverhealsobroughtGreeksinto the temple, and he has defiled this holy place” (v. 28). From this seriousaccusationwemayinferthatalthoughJames’sstrategymayhavesatisfiedJewswho believed in Jesus and respected the authority of James, it did not satisfyeveryone. Paul’s reputation as a man who taught that circumcision wasunnecessary for righteous standing before God evidently gave rise to thesuspicionthatPaulwasevenwillingtobringanuncircumcisedmanintothearearestrictedtoIsraelitemen.Aswellknown,thisrestrictedareawasmarkedoffbya fence, with posted signs warning of death for transgressors. One of these

warnings,inscribedonstoneandfoundearlyinthetwentiethcentury,reads:“Nooneofanothernationmayenterwithinthefenceandenclosureroundthetemple.Whoeveriscaughtshallhavehimselftoblamethathisdeathensues”(CII1400;OGIS 598). These warning inscriptions are mentioned by Philo (Legatio adGaium212)andJosephus(J.W.5.193–94;Ant.15.417).20James’shopethat“allwillknowthatthereisnothinginwhattheyhavebeentoldaboutyou[Paul]butthatyouyourselfliveinobservanceofthelaw”(Acts21:24)wasnotrealized.TheauthorofthebookofActshaslaboredtoshowthatPaulandJamesheld

toessentiallythesameviewwithrespecttothecrucialquestionofcircumcisionand law.Fairandcareful readingofPaul’sLetterssuggests that theportrait inActs is accurate, even if vague and incomplete in places. Nevertheless, oneimportant point of comparison remains to be considered.Did Paul and Jamesdifferovertheplaceof“worksoflaw”inthelifeofthebeliever?ItistimenowtoturnonceagaintotheLetterofJames.

DidJamesandPaulDifferover“Works”?In his polemical and at times heated letter to the churches of Galatia, Paulemphaticallygivesexpressiontohisviewthatnoonecanbejustifiedbyworksofthelaw:

We ourselves, who are Jews by birth and not Gentile sinners, 16yet who know that a man is notjustifiedbyworksofthelawbutthroughfaithinJesusChrist,evenwehavebelievedinChristJesus,inorder tobejustifiedbyfaithinChrist,andnotbyworksof thelaw,becausebyworksof thelawshallnoonebejustified.(Gal.2:15–16)

ThusAbraham“believedGod,anditwasreckonedtohimasrighteousness.”7SoyouseethatitismenoffaithwhoarethesonsofAbraham.(3:6–7)

NowitisevidentthatnomanisjustifiedbeforeGodbythelaw;for“Hewhothroughfaithisrighteousshalllive”;12butthelawdoesnotrestonfaith,for“Hewhodoesthemshalllivebythem.”(3:11–12)

One hardly needs to be a theologian or Bible scholar to hear what Paul issayinginthesepassages:“Nooneisjustifiedbyworksofthelaw.”Forthemostpart, Paul bases his argument on the well-known passage in Genesis, whereAbraham, in response toGod’s promise of land, seed, and blessing, “believedthe LORD; and he reckoned it to him as righteousness” (Gen. 15:6). He alsoappeals to Habakkuk 2:4 (in Gal. 3:11). That the law requires “works” (or“doing”)isseeninLeviticus18:5,whichPaulalsoquotes(inGal.3:12).In a less polemical tone Paul restates his argument in his letter to the

ChristiansinRome.HerePaulhasgivencarefulthoughttothisinterpretationof

Scriptureandhowitsheds lighton thequestion the lawand justification.Pauldeclares:

But now the righteousness of God has been manifested apart from law, although the law and theprophetsbearwitnesstoit,22therighteousnessofGodthroughfaithinJesusChristforallwhobelieve.For there is no distinction; 23since all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God, 24they arejustified by his grace as a gift, through the redemptionwhich is in Christ Jesus, 25whomGod putforwardasanexpiationbyhisblood,tobereceivedbyfaith.…28Forweholdthatamanisjustifiedbyfaithapartfromworksoflaw.(Rom.3:21–28)

ForPaul,salvationcannotbeearned.IfrighteousnessbeforeGod—andthereforesalvation—couldbeearned,thentoprovidesalvationtherewouldhavebeennoneedfortheMessiah,God’sSon,todieonthecross.Rather,salvationisagiftofGod, received through faith, not through works. This is seen in the greatpatriarch Abraham, who believed God’s promise—understood to include thesavingworkoftheMessiah—andwasthereforereckonedrighteous.Abraham’sfaith transformed him from a Gentile, as it were, to the father of the Jewishpeople.Itwashisfaith,nothisobediencetolaworhis latercircumcision, thateffectedthistransformation.SogoesPaul’sthinking.ForMartinLuther,thegreatGermanreformerofthesixteenthcentury,Paul’s

emphasisonGod’sgraceandthedemandforfaithwasjustwhatwasneededtochallenge what he perceived to be an unhealthy and unbiblical emphasis onlegalism and works in the church of his day. The only problemwas that theLetterofJamesappearedtocontradictPaul’steaching.Neartheendofamajorteachingsection,Jamesconcludes:“Youseethatamanisjustifiedbyworksandnotbyfaithalone”(2:24).Nowonder,then,thatLuthershowedlittleregardforJames, referring to it dismissively as a “strawy epistle” (German: strohernEpistel)and—incomparisontotheworksofPaul,Peter,andtheGospelofJohn,which“showtheeChrist”—sawitascontaininglittleofthegospel.21TheproblemforLuther is thathedidnot interpret Jamescorrectly. James’s

references to“works”havenothing todowith“worksof the law,”whichPaulsawasantitheticaltogospelofgrace,freelyreceivedthroughfaith.StudyofthewholeofJames2showsthatthebrotherofJesusoffersanexpositionofJesus’principal teaching,his so-calledGreatCommandment, that one is to loveGodwithallthatoneisandhas,andoneistoloveone’sneighborasoneself(Mark12:28–34;cf.Luke10:25–28).James speaks to the two commandments in reverse order, first treating the

commandment to love one’s neighbor (Lev. 19:18), and then treating thecommandment to love God (Deut. 6:4–5). James’s real concern is with thecommandment to love one’s neighbor.This concern exhibits itself not only in

chapter2,whichwillbeconsideredinamoment,butelsewhereinhisletter.Weseeitwherehewarnstherichwhotrustintheirwealth(4:13;5:1–3)andexploitthepoor(5:4–6).Wesee itwhenhewarnsbelieversnot toshowfavoritismtothe rich, to the disadvantage or disrespect of the poor (1:9–10; 2:1–6). Jamesalsodemandsdeedsandnotjustpiouswords.Thefaithfulpersonshouldnotbea“hearer that forgets but a doer that acts” (1:25).Accordingly, “religion that ispure and undefiled before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans andwidows in their affliction” (1:27). It is in the light of these concerns that theexegeticalandtheologicalargumentsofJames2shouldbeunderstood.James2beginswithanexhortationthatthefaithfulnotshowfavoritismtothe

rich and discourtesy to the poor (2:1–6). Instead, the faithful are to fulfill the“royal law,” that is, the law thatcommands,“Loveyourneighborasyourself”(2:8).ButifGod’speopleshowpartiality,theytransgressthisgreatlaw(2:9).ItisasthoughtheyhavebrokenallthelawsofMoses(2:10–11).ItisinthiscontextthatJamesdiscussestruefaith,thekindoffaiththattruly

fulfillstheroyallawandsotrulysaves.Afaiththathasnoworksisnotafaiththatcansave(2:14).Jamesexplainswithaverypracticalexample:

Ifabrotherorsisterisill-cladandinlackofdailyfood,16andoneofyousaystothem,“Goinpeace,bewarmedandfilled,”withoutgivingthemthethingsneededforthebody,whatdoesitprofit?17Sofaithbyitself,ifithasnoworks,isdead.(2:15–17)

James speaks of suchworks as an effective demonstrationof the command toloveone’sneighborandoftheclaimthatoneinfactdoesloveone’sneighbor.Mere words, such as “Go in peace, be warmed and filled,” do not providewarmthorfillemptystomachs.Ifoneclaimstohavefaithandcannotorwillnotfulfilltheroyallawinanymeaningfulway,thenitisrighttoregardsuchfaithasdead.Jamesdriveshome thispointby referring to theothercommandment that is

partoftheGreatCommandmentthatJesustaught:“YoubelievethatGodisone”(2:19a).ThisalludestoDeuteronomy6:4,“Hear,OIsrael:TheLORDourGodisoneLORD,”which is then followedby thecommand to loveGodwithall thatoneisandhas(6:5).MerebeliefthatGodisoneishardlyevidenceoffidelitytotheroyallaw,forafterall,“thedemonsbelieve[thatGodisone]—andshudder”(Jas.2:19b).JamesoffersasecondexampleinhisappealtoAbraham.Whileitis true that the patriarch “believed God, and it was reckoned to him asrighteousness”(2:23;citingGen.15:6),AbrahamdemonstratedtherealityofhisfaithbyobeyingGod,evenwhenGodcommandedhimtoofferuphissonIsaac.Accordingly,Abrahamisanexampleofaman“justifiedbyworks.”JamesdoesnotsaythatAbrahamwasjustifiedbycircumcision.Hesayshewasjustifiedby

afaiththatincludedactiveobedience.In a later letter,written either byPaul himself or by one of Paul’s students

writinginhisname,wefindsimilarthinking,wheregraceandfaith,ontheonehand,gohandinhandwithgoodworks,ontheother:

Forbygraceyouhavebeensavedthroughfaith;andthisisnotyourowndoing,itisthegiftofGod—9notbecauseofworks,lestanymanshouldboast.10Forwearehisworkmanship,createdinChristJesusforgoodworks,whichGodpreparedbeforehand,thatweshouldwalkinthem.(Eph.2:8–10)

ThusJamesandPaulagreedwithrespecttotheessenceofthegospelmessage.Buttheirrespectiveministriesweredirectedtotwoverydifferentconstituenciesethnically,culturally,andgeographically.Itisnotasurprisethattheirlanguageisnotalwayseasytoreconcile.Itisthesedifferentethnicandculturalsettings,aswell as differing purposes inwriting, that go a longway in clarifying andperhaps even reconciling what James and Paul have to say about faith andworks.Weshallexplorethisimportantquestionfurtherinthenextchapter.

T

ChapterFour

PhinehanZealandWorksoftheLaw

WhatPaulandJamesAreReallySaying

hediscoveryandeventualpublicationofQumranscroll4QMMT,inwhichappear thephrases“worksof the law”and“Itwillbe reckoned toyouas

righteousness,” have thrown the debate over Paul’s meaning of this languageintoawholenewlight.Thepurposeofthischapteristoaddtowhatwassaidinchapter 3, focusingon the figureofPhinehas. Imakeno claim to resolve anyimportant aspect of the debate concerning Paul, but I do contend that properunderstandingofworksoflawandbeingdeclaredrighteous,eitherforwhatonedoesorwhatonebelieves,musttakeintoaccountthewayPhinehasthezealouspriestwasappreciatedamongJewsandChristiansinlateantiquity.

TheZealofPhinehas

PhinehasappearsinExodus6:25,whereheisidentifiedasAaron’sgrandson(cf.1Chr.6:4,50;9:20;Ezra7:5).HenextappearsinNumbers25,intheepisodewheremany Israelites joinMoabites andMidianites inworshiping thegod (or“Baal,”presumablyChemosh;cf.Num.21:29)ofPeorwhiletheyareencampedon the plain within sight ofMount Peor (cf. Num. 23:28; 24:2; 31:16; Deut.3:29;4:3;Ps.106:28).Theseactivities includesexualpromiscuityandfeastinginhonorof thegodofPeorandresultedinaplague.1WhileMosesandothersareweepingbeforetheentranceofthetentofmeeting,anIsraelitemanbringsaMidianitewoman into thecamp.Hedoes this in theverysightof thegrievingMoses. The reader should infer that this man has no regard whatsoever forMosesorforIsrael’ssacredcovenantwithGod.

Figure4.1.TheNegevWilderness.BeforeenteringthelandoftheCanaanites,Israelspentseveraldecadesinmarginal-rainfallwildernessregionssouth(negev)ofHebron.PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans.

WhenPhinehasseesthisoutrage,hetakesaspear,killsboththemanandthewoman,andsobrings theplague toanend.Thereader learnswhy,whenGodtellsMoses:

Phinehas the sonofEleazar, sonofAaron thepriest, has turnedbackmywrath from thepeopleofIsrael, inthathewasjealouswithmyjealousyamongthem,sothatIdidnotconsumethepeopleofIsraelinmyjealousy.12Thereforesay,“Behold,Igivetohimmycovenantofpeace;13anditshallbeto him, and to his descendants after him, the covenant of a perpetual priesthood, because he wasjealousforhisGod,andmadeatonementforthepeopleofIsrael.”(Num.25:11–13)

What is translated“Hewas jealouswithmy jealousy” (Greek:en tō zēlōsaimoutonzēlon)couldalsobetranslated“Hewaszealouswithmyzeal.”Soalso,“jealous for his God” (Greek: ezēlōsen tō theō autou) in verse 13 could betranslated“zealousforhisGod.”Onaccountof thisepisode,Phinehas is remembered forhiszeal.Godgives

thispriesta“covenantofpeace”andhisdescendantsa“covenantofaperpetualpriesthood.”PhinehasreappearsinthewarwithMidian(Num.31:1–12).Hejoinsthearmy

and is entrustedwith the holy vessels and the trumpets (v. 6). Israel routs thekingsofMidian,takingspoilsandcaptives(vv.7–12).AgainPhinehasappearsinJoshua22,inwhichheissentasanemissaryofsorts,torebukethetribesofReuben, Gad, and Manasseh (vv. 13–20). When the leaders of these tribesconvince thepriestof their fidelity,Phinehas ispleasedand isable togive therest of Israel a favorable report (vv. 30–34). Phinehas is mentioned later, in

Judges20,whenreadersareremindedthatheusedtostandbeforethearkofthecovenantandminister (vv.27–28). Inhis recountingof theprincipalpriests inIsrael’s early history, the Chroniclermentions Phinehas, saying “Phinehas thesonofEleazarwastheruleroverthemintimepast;theLORDwaswithhim”(1Chr.9:20).Phinehas makes an appearance in the Psalter, in Psalm 106, a psalm of

repentance that recalls and confesses the many instances of Israel’s sin andrebellion,includingtheaforementionedapostasyatPeor:

ThentheyattachedthemselvestotheBaalofPeor,andatesacrificesofferedtothedead;

29theyprovokedtheLORDtoangerwiththeirdoings,andaplaguebrokeoutamongthem.

30ThenPhinehasstoodupandinterposed,andtheplaguewasstayed.

31Andthathasbeenreckonedtohimasrighteousnessfromgenerationtogenerationforever.

(Ps.106:28–31)

The importance of the phrase “reckoned to him as righteousness” will beconsideredshortly.The zeal of Phinehas, dramatically witnessed in the incident near Peor,

resultedinanalmosticonicstatusforthispriest.OneoftheoldesttestimoniesisfoundinSirach,wholaudsPhinehasinhisPraiseforFamousMen(Sir.44–51).InhispraiseofPhinehas,onehearsechoesofNumbers25andPsalm106:

PhinehasthesonofEleazaristhethirdinglory,forhewaszealousinthefearoftheLord[Greek:entōzēlōsaiautonenphobokyriou],

andstoodfast,whenthepeopleturnedaway,inthereadygoodnessofhissoul,andmadeatonementforIsrael.

24Thereforeacovenantofpeacewasestablishedwithhim,thatheshouldbeleaderofthesanctuaryandofhispeople,

thatheandhisdescendantsshouldhavethedignityofthepriesthoodforever.

(Sir.45:23–24)

Joshua ben Sira (“Jesus the son of Sirach”) composed hiswork inHebrewsometime around 180 BC. About fifty years later his grandson prefaced andtranslateditintoGreek.Phinehasappearsinexaltedcompanyindeed,precededbyMoses(vv.1–5)andAaron(vv.6–22)andfollowedbyDavid(vv.25–26).TheappearanceofDavidischronologicallyoutofsequence,forJoshuatheson

of Nun, successor to Moses, will make his appearance in Sirach 46:1–12.Mention of David is brought forward, because he too was honored with acovenant.A covenant of peace and priesthoodwas establishedwith Phinehas,and a covenant of kingship was established with David. The coupling ofPhinehaswithDavid, eachblessedwith a covenant,onepriestly and theotherkingly,ishighlysignificant,testifyingtothedyarchicnatureofIsrael’sordainedleadership.In1MaccabeesthezealousactionsofMattathias,fatherofJudasMaccabeus

andhisbrothers,arecomparedtothezealandviolenceofPhinehas:

WhenMattathias saw it, he burnedwith zeal [ezēlōsen] and his heartwas stirred.He gave vent torighteousanger;heranandkilledhimuponthealtar.25Atthesametimehekilledtheking’sofficerwhowasforcingthemtosacrifice,andhetoredownthealtar.26Thusheburnedwithzealforthelaw[ezēlōsentōnomō],asPhinehasdidagainstZimrithesonofSalu.27ThenMattathiascriedoutinthecitywithaloudvoice,saying:“Leteveryonewhoiszealousforthelawandsupportsthecovenant[hozēlōntōnomōkaihistōndiathēkēn]comeoutwithme!”(1Macc.2:24–27)

Phinehas isagainmentionedbyname inMattathias’s farewell tohis sons,afarewellmodeled after Jacob’s farewell tohis sons inGenesis49,whichgaverise to a genre that became very popular in the intertestamental and NewTestamentperiods.HereispartofMattathias’sfarewell:

Now,mychildren,showzealforthelaw[zēlōsatetōnomō],andgiveyourlivesforthecovenantofour fathers. 51Remember the deeds of the fathers [ta erga tōn paterōn], which they did in theirgenerations;andreceivegreathonorandaneverlastingname.52WasnotAbrahamfoundfaithfulwhentested[enpeirasmōheurethēpistos],anditwasreckonedtohimasrighteousness[elogisthēautōeisdikaiosynēn]?53Josephinthetimeofhisdistresskeptthecommandment,andbecamelordofEgypt.54Phinehasourfather,becausehewasdeeplyzealous[entōzelōsaizēlon], receivedthecovenantofeverlastingpriesthood.…58Elijahbecauseofgreatzeal for the law[en tōzēlōsaizēlonnomou]wastakenupintoheaven.(1Macc.2:50–54,58)

Zeal for the law is the theme that runs throughout this farewell testament.OnceagainwefindPhinehasinillustriouscompany.Theauthorof1Maccabees,abookcomposed sometimearound100BCE,cites theexamplesofAbraham,Joseph,Joshua,Caleb,David,Elijah,Daniel,andthethreefaithfulyoungmeninDaniel3(1Macc.2:52–60).Mattathiasisapriest(1Macc.2:1)andcanfindnobetter example of priestly zeal than that of Phinehas, grandson ofAaron. TheallusiontothetestingofAbrahamandhisfaithbeingreckonedasrighteousnesswillbetakenupbelow.Phinehas is mentioned in two writings from the first century CE. In the

retellingofthemartyrdomofthemotherandhersevensons(4Macc.18:6–19;cf.2Macc.7:22–29),themotherremindshersonsthattheirfather“toldyouof

thezealofPhinehas [ton zēlōtēnPhinees], andhe taughtyouaboutHananiah,Azariah,andMishael[Dan.1:19;3:12–30]inthefire”(4Macc.18:12,alludingto 1 Macc. 2). Writing sometime later, the author of Biblical Antiquitiesdescribes Phinehas as the priest who “guards the commands of the Lord”(Pseudo-Philo, Bib. Ant. 28:1). We are told, moreover, that “truth goes forthfrom his mouth and a shining light from his heart” (28:3). Later in BiblicalAntiquities, Phinehas, who lives beyond 120 years, is exalted in termsreminiscentofElijah(48:1–3).Phinehasisalsomentionedinapseudepigraphalsynagogue prayer, perhaps dating to the second centuryCE.Here the zealouspriestiscitedinalistofheroesofthefaith(Hel.Syn.Pr.8.4).Thephrasethatappears in thenext line,“frominiquity intorighteousness”(v.5),mayrefer toPhinehas’sachievement.

TheHasmonean/MaccabeanLeaders/RulersMattathias(167–166BCE)JudasMaccabeus(166–160)JonathanApphus(160–142)EleazarAbaran(d.163)SimonThassi(142–134)JohnGaddi(d.159)JohnHyrcanus,sonofSimon(134–104)Aristobulus,sonofJohnHyrcanus(104–103)AlexanderJannaeus,sonofJohnHyrcanus(103–76)SalomeAlexandra,widowofAlexanderJannaeus(76–67)AristobulusII,sonofAlexanderJannaeus(67–63)HyrcanusII,sonofAlexanderJannaeus(63–40)AntigonusIIMattathias,sonofAristobulusII(40–37BCE)

Finally,PhinehasappearsbynameinthreefragmentaryscrollsfromQumran.Inonewefind“Phinehas[father]ofAbishua”(4Q243frag.28,line2;cf.1Chr.6:4).Inanotherweread(withsomereconstruction):“andZadokshallserveaspriestthere,firstfromthesonsofPhinehasandofAaron,andwithhimhewillbepleasedinallthedaysofhislife”(4Q522frag.9,2.6–7).Inthethirdwefindthephrase“fromthesonsofPhinehas”(6Q13frag.1,line4).MentionshouldalsobemadeofJubilees,anotherintertestamentalwriting,in

which the law prohibiting marriage with foreigners (cf. Gen. 34:7, 14) isemphasized.JubileesretellsthestoryoftheShechemites,whooutofvengeancewereslaughteredbyJacob’s sonsSimeonandLevi (34:25–26). In theGenesisnarrative,Jacobexpressesdispleasureoverhissons’treachery(34:30)andfindsitnecessary to relocate (35:1–3).But inJubilees,SimeonandLeviarepraised

fortheirviolentaction:“Anditwasarighteousnessforthemanditwaswrittendownforthemforrighteousness”(30:17).TheauthorofJubileesgoesontosaythatthosewhoviolatethelawthatprohibitsintermarriagewillbe“blottedoutofthebookoflifeandwillbewritteninthebookofthosewhowillbedestroyed”(30:22).Attheconclusionofthesection,theactionofSimeonandLeviisagainpraised; theauthor claims thatwhen the sonsof Jacobkilled theShechemites,God “wrote for them a book in heaven that they did righteousness anduprightness and vengeance against the sinners and it was written down for ablessing” (30:23). There is little doubt that this remarkable revision of theGenesisstoryhasbeeninspiredbyScripture’spraiseforthezealofPhinehas.Insum,wehavefourmajortextsinwhichthezealofPhinehasisunderscored.

InNumbers25wehearofthepriest’szeal,apromisedcovenantofpeace,andan eternal priesthood. In Psalm 106 we hear of his zeal, his action beingreckoned to him as righteousness, and “fromgeneration to generation,”whichmayalludetothepromiseofperpetualpriesthood.InSirach45wehearofzeal,thecovenantofpeace,andaneternalpriesthood.Andin1Maccabees2wereadof zeal and everlastingpriesthood. In 1Maccabees 2we also are remindedofAbraham’sfaithbeingreckonedasrighteousness(cf.Gen.15:6).

Figure4.2.QumranCave4.Itsentranceisatthecenterofthephoto.Cave4heldaround600documents,about two-thirds of the texts found at or near Qumran. Photograph courtesy ofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

4QMMTand“WorksoftheLaw”Thisbringsustoonemoretext,inwhichthenamePhinehasdoesnotappear,yetatextthatprobablydoesalludetothezealousactionofthefamouspriest.Ashishalakic letterdraws to a close, the authorof4QMMT(4Q394–99) exhortshisreaders to embrace his teaching regarding “some of the works of the law”(miqsat ma asey hatorah), about which he had written. If they follow histeaching,“itwillbereckonedto[them]asrighteousness.”Therelevantportionofthetextreadsasfollows:

Now, we have written to you 3(C27) some of the works of the Law [Torah], those which wedetermined would be beneficial for you and your people, because we have seen that 4(C28) youpossessinsightandknowledgeoftheLaw.UnderstandallthesethingsandbeseechHimtoset5(C29)yourcounselstraightandsokeepyouawayfromevilthoughtsandthecounselofBelial.6(C30)Thenyoushallrejoiceattheendtimewhenyoufindtheessenceofourwordstobetrue.7(C31)Anditwillbereckonedtoyouasrighteousness,inthatyouhavedonewhatisrightandgoodbeforeHim,toyourownbenefit8(C32)and to thatof Israel. (4Q398frags.14–17,2.2b–8=4Q3991.10–2.5[=C26b–C32])2

OnlytwopassagesintheHebrewBiblelinktheverb“reckon”(hashab)andthenoun“righteousness”(tsedaqah).TheyareGenesis15:6andPsalm106:31:

AndhebelievedtheLORD;andhereckonedittohimasrighteousness.

(Gen.15:6)

Andthathasbeenreckonedtohimasrighteousnessfromgenerationtogenerationforever.

(Ps.106:31)

The verb “he reckoned” (wayaheshbeah) inGenesis 15:6 is aQal,while inPsalm106:31,“hasbeenreckoned”(watehasheb)isaNiphal,thesameformthatappearsin4QMMT.3Yetmorethansimplythegrammarsuggeststhattheauthorof4QMMThasinmindPsalm106andthezealouspriestPhinehas.Thepriestlyorientationof4QMMTandoftheQumransectitselfalsoencouragesustothinkthatwehaveanallusion toPsalm106andnotGenesis15.Perhapsevenmoreimportant is the observation that the author of 4QMMT is sharply opposed tointermarriagewithnon-Jews.Recall that thiswaspartofIsrael’sapostasynearPeorthatpromptedPhinehastotakeviolentaction.4ForthesereasonsIthinkitis probable that 4QMMT has alluded to the famous zealous priest, not to thegreatpatriarchAbraham(seefig.4.3).

Figure4.3.Fragmentsof4QMMT.Sixfragmentarycopiesofaletterdiscussing“worksofthelaw”wererecoveredfromQumran’sCave4.TheletteriscalledMMT,frommiqsatma eseyhatorah,“SomeoftheWorksoftheLaw,”andshedslightonPaul’sdiscussionof“worksoflaw”andjustificationthroughfaith.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

In any case, the point that the author of 4QMMT is making seems clearenough.Hehasenumeratedsometwodozenlegalrulings,abouthalfofwhicharebansonvariousfoodsandpractices.“ThesearesomeofourpronouncementsconcerningthelawofGod,”begins4QMMT,“concerningworksofthelawthatwehavedetermined,…andallofthemconcerndefilingmixturesandthepurityofthesanctuary”(4Q394frags.3–7,1.4–6,withrestorations).Whenattheendofhislettertheauthorrefersto“worksofthelaw,”weknowwhatheistalkingabout.Theyarenotworksof compassionor actsofkindness.Theyareworksdesigned tomaintain purity, especially in reference to the sanctuary. In doingtheseworks,readersoftheletterwillbenefitand“willrejoiceattheendtime,”whichprobablyreferstofuturejudgment.MartinAbeggJr.,JamesDunn,andothersbelievethatin4QMMTwefinally

haveatrueparalleltothepositionthatPaulopposeswithsuchheatinGalatians2and3.5Itwillbesufficienttociteoneverse:

We ourselves,… 16who know that a [person] is not justified [dikaioutai] byworks of the law [exergōnnomou]butthroughfaithinJesusChrist,evenwehavebelievedinChristJesus,inordertobejustified [dikaiōthōmen] through faith in Christ, and not by works of the law [ex ergōn nomou],

becausebyworksofthelaw[exergōnnomou]shallnoonebejustified[dikaiōthēsetai].(Gal.2:15–16)

Thephrase“worksof law”occurs inPaul several times (cf.Rom.3:20,28;Gal. 3:2, 5, 10). Moreover, his “works of law” (erga nomou) and “justified”(dikaioun) language echoes the language we find in the two passages of OldTestamentScripturealreadymentioned.However,whereasPaulexplicitlydrawsonGenesis15:6,theauthorof4QMMTdrawsonPsalm106:31.ThedifferenceisthatPaulfocusesonfaith,thefaithofAbraham(cf.Rom.4:3,9,22;Gal.3:6),whiletheauthorof4QMMTfocusesonobediencetothelaw,asexemplifiedbythezealousPhinehas,whosafeguardedthepurityofIsrael’scultus.What Paul is challenging so passionately in Galatians and then again with

somewhat reduced emotions in Romans is an understanding of the law thatrequires the performance of certain “works of the law,” such as eating kosherfood and avoiding impurity, in order tomaintain one’s place in the covenant.PaulisespeciallyopposedtoworksofthelawthatencourageholdingGentilesatarm’slength.6Someoftheworksofthelawarticulatedin4QMMTdojustthat.Theexamplestates:“NooneshouldeatfromtheGentilegrainnorbringitintothesanctuary”(4Q394frags.3–7,1.6–8).OtherexamplesarticulatebansagainstGentileofferingsandJewswithblemishes.Attempts toestablish righteousnesssuchasthesearewhatPaulsovigorouslyopposes.Recalltheapostle’sangeratPeterforwithdrawingfromGentileChristianswhen“certainpeoplecamefromJames” (Gal. 2:11–14). Peter and Barnabas, Paul charges, “were not actingconsistentlywiththetruthof thegospel”(2:14NRSV).Indeed, theirrefusal toeat with Gentiles fails to follow the example of Jesus himself, who ate withsinners,whose foodat leaston someoccasions,we should assume,wouldnothavemetwiththeapprovalofmanyscribesandPharisees.

PaulandJameson“WorksoftheLaw”ThedifficultyinterpretershaveinrelatingPaul’sapplicationofGenesis15totheapplicationwefindinJames2is thatthedebateitself,ofwhichbothPaulandJames are reflecting but small parts, is not appreciated in its entirety. I haveexaminedthePhinehantraditionbecauseI thinkitprovides the threadthat tiestogethermostoftheelementsmakingupthislargerdiscussion.Weneedtopullasmanyof these elements together aswecan, ifwe are tomake senseof thesmaller partswe find inPaul and James. Perhapswewill discover that JamesandPaulcanbereconciledafterall.Several of these key components appear in 1 Maccabees 2. The narrator

assertsthattheviolentactionofMattathias,inwhichhekilledbothaforeignerandanIsraelitewhowereengagedinpagansacrifice,iscomparabletotheactionofPhinehas. Indeed it is, forPhinehaskilledan IsraeliteandaMidianite,whowere engaged in foreign worship. Accordingly, the narrator can say thatMattathias“burnedwithzeal for the law,asPhinehasdid”(1Macc.2:26).Onhisdeathbed,Mattathiasonceagainrefers to thezealofPhinehas(vv.50,54),but he also refers toAbraham,whowas “found faithfulwhen tested,” and “itwasreckonedtohimasrighteousness”(v.52).Thetestingtowhichtheauthorof1Maccabees refers is the binding of Isaac (Gen. 22:15–18). The reference tohaving it reckoned as righteousness refers, of course, to Genesis 15:6, butunderstoodinthelightofGenesis22.Inotherwords,Abraham’sfaithfulness,asseen in his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac, is what was “reckoned asrighteousness.”The faith,or faithfulness,ofwhich15:6 speaks isqualifiedbythe act of obedience narrated in Genesis 22. True faith results in righteousdeeds.7Jamesmakesasimilarpoint.Hebeginsthediscussionbyaskingiffaiththat

doesnotresultinworkscansave(2:14).Heillustratesthepointbyshowingthatgreetings and platitudes, but with no good actions, do not fulfill thecommandmenttoloveone’sneighborasone’sself(vv.15–16).Accordingly,afaiththathasnoworksisdead(v.17).Jamesthenmountsascripturalargumentthat is very similar to the thinking underlying 1Maccabees 2. Abraham was“justifiedbyworks,whenheofferedhis son Isaacupon the altar” (Jas. 2:21).HiswillingnesstoofferIsaacmeansthathisfaithwasmorethanamerebelief,butareadiness toobeyGod, toputone’sfaith intoaction,as itwere.BecauseAbraham’s“faithwasactivealongwithhisworks,and[his]faithwascompletedby works” (v. 22), the earlier Scripture, “Abraham believed God, and it wasreckoned to him as righteousness” (v. 23, citing Gen. 15:6), was fulfilled.Accordingly,Jamescansaythatahuman“isjustifiedbyworksandnotbyfaithalone”(2:24).ForJamesandtheauthorof1Maccabees,deedsdemonstraterealfaith.Accordingly,deedsmustaccompanyfaith.8

HerodianRulers

AntipaterItheIdumean,captainofIdumeaunderAlexanderJannaeus(103–76BCE)AntipaterII,sonofAntipaterI—forsomeyearsprocuratorofJudeaundertheRomansHerod(theGreat),sonofAntipaterII—“KingoftheJews”(37–4BCE)Alexander,sonofHerod(executed7BCE)Aristobulus,sonofHerod(executed7BCE)Antipater,sonofHerod(executed4BCE)HerodArchelaus,sonofHerodandMalthacetheSamaritan—ethnarch(“rulerofthepeople”)of

HerodArchelaus,sonofHerodandMalthacetheSamaritan—ethnarch(“rulerofthepeople”)ofSamariaandJudea(4BCE–6CE)

HerodAntipas,sonofHerodandMalthacetheSamaritan—tetrarch(“rulerofonequarter”)ofGalileeandPeraea(4BCE–39CE)

Philip,sonofHerodandMariamneII—tetrarchofGaulanitis(4BCE–34CE)AgrippaI,sonofAristobulusandBernice,tetrarchofGalilee(39–40CE),later“kingoftheJews”(41–44CE)

HerodofChalcis,sonofAristobulusandBernice,tetrarchofChalcis(d.48CE)AgrippaII,sonofAgrippaI(ca.49–93CE)

It is also important to recognize the allusions to dominical teaching in theletter of James. I have in mind primarily the treatment of the DoubleCommandmentintheJames2,towhichIshallturnshortly,buttherearesomeimportantantecedents.Jamesexhortshisreaderstoaccepttrialsandtestingwithjoyandto let ithave its“perfectwork[ergonteleion]”(1:3–4KJV).Heurgeshisreaderstobecome“doersoftheword[poiētailogou],andnothearersonly”(1:22). He speaks of the “perfect law [nomon teleion]” (1:25a). He urges hisreadersnot tobe forgetfulhearersbut tobe “adoerofwork” (poiētēs ergou),who“shallbeblessed”(1:25b).Thespiritofthisteaching,aswellassomeofthevocabulary,bringstomind

the teachingof Jesus,especiallyaswe find it assembled in theSermonon theMount. According to Jesus, the person who “does and teaches [poiēsē kaididaxē] [the commandments] shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven”(Matt.5:19).Therighteousness(dikaiosynē)ofthedisciplesmustexceedthatofthe scribes and Pharisees.How this can be accomplished is spelled out in thefiveantitheses that follow(5:21–47).At theconclusionof theantitheses,Jesussums up his teaching: “You, therefore, must be perfect [teleioi], as yourheavenly Father is perfect [teleios]” (5:48).9 Perfection cannot be achievedwithout doing the commandments, as Jesus has taught. The conclusion of theSermonontheMountdriveshomethispoint(emphasisadded):

Noteveryonewhosaystome,“Lord,Lord,”shallenterthekingdomofheaven,buthewhodoesthewillofmyFatherwhoisinheaven.(7:21)

Everyonethenwhohearsthesewords[touslogous]ofmineanddoesthemwillbelikeawisemanwhobuilthishouseupontherock.(7:24)

Andeveryonewhohearsthesewordsofmineanddoesnotdothemwillbelikeafoolishmanwhobuilthishouseuponthesand.”(7:26)

Elsewhere inJesus’sayings inMatthew,wefindsimilar teaching (emphasisadded):

ForwhoeverdoesthewillofmyFatherinheavenismybrother,andsister,andmother.(12:50)

Whichofthetwodidthewillofhisfather?(21:31)

Doandobservewhatevertheytellyou,butnotwhattheydo;fortheypreach,butdonotdo.(23:3AT)

Theydoalltheirdeedstobeseenbyothers.(23:5NRSV)

WemaywellhearechoesofthisteachinginJames’sexhortationstobe“doersof theword” and a “doer ofwork,”works that exemplify the “perfectwork,”“perfectlaw,”andthe“royallaw.”Verse27sumsupthepointofthefirstchapterofJames:“Religionthatispure

andundefiledbeforeGodandtheFatheristhis:tovisitorphansandwidowsintheiraffliction,andtokeeponeselfunstainedfromtheworld.”This brings us to James 2. The second chapter is chiefly concerned to

explicate the second commandment of the famous Great (or Double)Commandment (Mark12:28–34;Luke10:25–29),wherebyone is to loveGodwithallthatoneisandallthatonehas(Deut.6:4–5)andtoloveone’sneighborasone’sself(Lev.19:18).ThepartialitydescribedinJames2:1–13failstofulfillthe second commandment, which is quoted in James 2:8. Although theremainderofthechapter(vv.14–26)definesgenuinefaith,thefocusremainsonwhatitmeanstofulfillthesecondcommandment.Tofulfill“theroyallaw”(Jas.2:8)istofulfillLeviticus19:18,acommandmentthatlaybehindmuchofwhatJesustaught,eitherexplicitlyorimplicitly.10Failure to fulfill the second commandment has implications for the first

commandment,towhichallusionismadein2:19:“YoubelievethatGodisone;youdowell.Eventhedemonsbelieve—andshudder.”Themerebelief,orfaith,thatGodisonehardlyfulfillstheobligationstoloveone’sneighboror,harkingbacktoJames1:27,hardlyfulfillsthecommandto“visitorphansandwidowsintheiraffliction.”Tosupporthisargument,JamesappealstotheexampleofAbraham,whowas

“justified by [his]works [ex ergōn edikaiōthē],when he offered his son Isaacuponthealtar”(2:21).Hiswillingness toobeyGoddemonstratedthathisfaithwas genuine.His “work” inGenesis 22 fulfilled the statement of Scripture inGenesis15:6(Jas.2:23).Isuspect thatJameshadinmindAbraham’sexampleoffaithearlyon.Wemayhearanallusiontoitin1:3,whereJamesdeclaresthat“the testing of your faith produces steadfastness,” which in turn will lead toperfection(1:4).At this point the argument of James parallels some of the argument in 1

Maccabees2veryclosely.InbothbookstheclaimismadethatAbraham’sfaith

inGodwaswitnessedinhiswillingnesstoofferuphisson.Itwasthisfaiththatwasreckonedtohimasrighteousness.Theoverlapinthescripturalappealof1Maccabees and James helps us understandmore clearly the differences in therespectiveargumentsofJamesandPaul.Paul is not countering James or 1 Maccabees, where Abraham’s faith is

definedintermsofobedience.Instead,Pauliscounteringatheologysimilartowhat we see in 4QMMT, which assumes that works of law, including thoseconcernedwith separating the pure the from the impure, save a person.WhatPaulfacedinthechurchesofGalatiawastheteachingthat“worksofthelaw”—such as circumcision, kashruth, and Sabbath observance—were necessary ifconverts(esp.Gentileconverts)weretomatureandgrowinrighteousness.Thisparallels the thinking in 4QMMT, in which a person could secure righteousstanding in the covenant by practicing certainworks of the law. Paul and theauthorof4QMMTaresquarelyatodds.However, theworksof4QMMTarenot the“works” towhichJamesmakes

reference.The“works”thatdemonstratetherealityoffaitharenotcircumcision,kashruth,andSabbathobservance,butfulfillmentof“theroyal law”(Jas.2:8),as he dubs it, the law of loving one’s neighbor as oneself, the verycommandment that Jesus enjoined (Mark 12:28–34; Luke 10:25–28) and hisearlymovementattemptedtofulfill initscareforwidowsandorphansandthepoor (cf.Acts2:44–45;4:32–37;6:1;Rom.15:26;Gal. 2:10;1Tim.5:3,16).JamesdoesnothaveinmindthezealousworksofPhinehas,whichareappealedto explicitly in 1 Maccabees 2 and alluded to in 4QMMT. He has in mindgenuinefaiththatprovesitselfinrighteousworks,especiallywithregardtoloveforone’sneighbor.Paulandhisdisciplesknowthiswell,asweseeinEphesians2:8–10:

Forbygraceyouhavebeensavedthroughfaith;andthisisnotyourowndoing,itisthegiftofGod—9notbecauseofworks,lestanymanshouldboast.10Forwearehisworkmanship,createdinChristJesusforgoodworks,whichGodpreparedbeforehand,thatweshouldwalkinthem.

Whateverone’sviewoftheauthorshipofEphesians,thispassagesumsupthePaulineperspective.ByGod’sgracehumanbeingsaresavedthroughfaithandnot through theirworks.Salvation isGod’sgift; it isnot somethingearnedbyrighteous deeds. But genuine faith demonstrates itself in goodworks, such aslove for one another (Rom. 12:10; 13:8; Gal. 5:13; 1 Thess. 3:12; 4:9).Christians are “created inMessiah Jesus for goodworks,whichGodpreparedbeforehand,thatweshouldwalkinthem.”WiththisassertionJameswouldbeinheartyagreement.The example of Phinehan zeal and the interpretive tradition that grew up

alongside itclarifyan important facetof thediscussionof faith,worksof law,and having one’s faith or deeds accounted as righteousness, a discussion thatdeveloped at least two centuries before the emergence of the Christianmovement.James,Paul,andotherwriterspresupposethislargerdiscussion,eachembracingand/orqualifyingordenyingpartsofit.JamesandPaulbothappealto the faithofAbrahamand toGod’s reckoningof that faith as righteousness,butthepointeachistryingtomakeisverydifferent.Paul’s declaration that “a person is justified not by works of the law but

through faith” (Gal. 2:16 NRSV; cf. Rom. 3:20; 4:2) squarely opposes thethinkingexpressedin4QMMT.James’sconclusionthat“apersonisjustifiedbyworks and not by faith alone” (2:24 NRSV; cf. 2:21, 25) is not a rebuttal ofPauline teachingoreven inreference toPaul. It is insteadachallengedirectedagainst thosewhosefaithfails to takepracticalform,especially inreferencetothe neighbor in need. In other words, a faith that fails to complywith Jesus’teaching to loveGodand loveneighbor asoneself is no faith at all.With thisassertionPaulwouldbeinheartyagreement.

I

ChapterFive

JerusalemCommunitiesinConflict

n a recent study, Eyal Regev traces the history of conflict betweenJerusalem’s priestly aristocracy and the leaders of the Jesus movement.1

Regevobservesthatinmostofthedeadlyornear-deadlyencountersbetweentherulingpriestsandleadersoftheJesusmovement,thesanctityand/orsecurityofthetempleisatissue.Hisinsightfulstudyveryhelpfullylaysthegroundworkonwhichthepresentchapterhopestobuildfurther.2InwhatfollowsweshallconsiderthestoriesrelatingtoJesusofNazareth,the

twelve apostles, Stephen the deacon-evangelist, James son of Zebedee, Peter,Paul,JamesthebrotherofJesus,andJesussonofAnanias.Inmostcasestemplecontroversyisquiteapparent.Inothercasesitisconjecturedbutprobable.Inthecaseof the lastmanmentioned, inwhich templecontroversy isobvious, IwillsuggestthatJesusbenAnaniasalsobelongedtotheJesusmovement.Iwillalsosuggest that theprincipalpriestlyfamilyatoddswith theJesusmovementwasthefamilyofAnnas.

JesusofNazarethandtheFamilyofAnnasDown through the centuries, Christian interpreters and theologians have notalways correctly analyzed Jesus’ conflict with the aristocratic priesthood ofJerusalem. Some interpreters have quite erroneously claimed that Jesus wascriticalofJudaismortheJewishpeople.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth.Jesus embraced Torah, recited the Shema with approval (Deut. 6:4–5), alongwithitscorollary,thecommandtoloveone’sneighborasoneself(Lev.19:18).Jesus assumed the validity of Jerusalem’s temple and presupposed the pastelectionandfutureredemptionofIsrael.Indeed,whenJesussenthisdisciplestoproclaim the message of the kingdom of God, he commanded them, “GonowhereamongtheGentiles,…butgorathertothelostsheepofthehouseofIsrael”(Matt.10:5–6),thussettingapatternlaterfollowedbyhismovement,asweseeinPaul’swordsaboutthegospel:“totheJewfirstandalsototheGreek”

(Rom.1:16).WhenJesusenteredJerusalemtheweekbeforePassover(wethinkintheyear

30 CE), his disciples hailed him with the familiar words from Psalm 118:“Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord! Blessed is thekingdom of our fatherDavid that is coming!Hosanna in the highest!” (Mark11:9–10;cf.Ps.118:25–26).Theappearanceofthename“David”inthiscitationof Psalm 118 reflects acquaintance with the Jewish interpretive tendenciespresentintheAramaictraditionthatintimewillemergeastheTargum(cf.esp.Tg. Pss. 118:26, 28),3 as well as in rabbinic interpretation of Psalm 118 (cf.Midr.Pss.118.17[onPs.118:19]).4The reception itself, completewith riding thecolt, the spreadingofclothing

andleafybranches,andthejoyousprocessionintothecityanduptothetempleprecincts(Mark11:4–10),reflectsalongtraditionoftheJewishpeoplegreetingdignitaries and heroes.5 This entrance and reception suggest that Jesus washighlypopular.HispopularityisalsoattestedinvariousremarksthattherulingpriestsareunableorreluctanttotakeactionagainstJesusbecausethey“fearedthemultitude”(Mark11:18;12:12;cf.14:2).What set Jesus on a collision course with the ruling priests was his

provocativeactioninthetempleprecincts,traditionallycalledthe“cleansingofthetemple”(Mark11:15–18).Onceagain,ChristianinterpretationusuallyfailstounderstandthesignificanceofJesus’actions.Hisinterferencewiththebuyingandsellingofsacrificialanimalsandthemoneychangingthataccompaniedthiscommercehadnothing todowithopposing long-standingcustomsof sacrifice(ascommanded in theTorah!),nordid ithaveanything todowithasupposedpreference for internal religious commitment in contrast to external religiouspractice.6Jesus’citationofIsaiah56:7andhisallusiontoJeremiah7:11makeitclear

that inhisviewthe temple leadershiphas failed to liveup to itsGod-ordainedtaskandthatitthereforefacesthecertaintyofjudgment.Letmeexplain.Isaiah56:3–8 is anoracle that looks forward to the timewhen the Jerusalem temple,atopGod’sholymountain,willbe the religiouscapitalof theworld, theplacewhere all people, including Gentiles, will be welcome.7 Their gifts will bewelcome,andtheirprayerswillbeheard.Accordingly,thetemplewillbeknownasthe“houseofprayerforallpeoples”(56:7),theveryphrasethatJesusquotes(Mark 11:17a). Isaiah’s great oracle is itself based on Solomon’s prayer ofdedicationofthetemple(1Kgs.8:41–43).Thelegendarykingpraysthatwhenforeigners (Gentiles) hear of the Lord and come to the temple of Jerusalem,seekingtheLord,theirprayerswillbeheard,andtheywillknowthatthetemple

SolomonhasbuiltistrulytheLord’s.

Figure5.1.Temple.ThisreconstructiondepictstheTempleMount,withtheholysanctuaryonitscenter.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

ButJesusdeclaresthatthetemplehasinfactnotliveduptothisgreatlegacy.ThehopesofSolomonandtheprophecyofIsaiahhavenotbeenfulfilled.Theyhavenotbeenfulfilledbecauseof thecorruptandoppressive leadershipof therulingpriests,whohavemadethetemple,inthewordsofJeremiahtheprophet,a “den of robbers” (Mark 11:17b; cf. Jer. 7:11). Lest anyone think this is adistinctively Christian view, perhaps not really the view of Jesus himself, itshouldberecognizedthatthereisawell-attestedandwidespreadtradition,seenin anumberof Jewish sources, including rabbinic literature, that complainsofcorruptionandoppressioninthefinaldecadesoftheSecondTemple.8Jesus’appealtoJeremiah7,apassageinwhichthegreatprophetcriticizesthe

rulingpriestsofhisdayandwarnsofcoming judgmentanddestructionof theverytemplethatSolomonbuilt,wouldhavebeenhighlyoffensivetothepriestlyleadership. Jesus’ prophetic threat was clearly directed against the aristocraticpriesthood, not against the people and the lower-ranking priests, whom thepeople—includingJesushimself—respected.9Indeed,thecursingofthefruitlessfigtreedidnotsymbolizethecomingendoftheJewishpeople(as,regrettably,some Christian interpreters have thought) but the end of the corrupt templeestablishment(Mark11:12–14,20–22).Theinsertionofthestoryofthetempleactionintothefigtreestorymakesthisclear.Sodoestheparableofthevineyard(Mark 12:1–12), where Jesus alters and retells the vineyard parable of Isaiah5:1–7,inordertoshiftblameawayfromtheJewishpeopletothecaretakersofthe vineyard: the ruling priests. The ruling priests rightly recognize that Jesus

hastoldtheparable“against them”(Mark12:12).10Theydesire toarrestJesusbutcannotdosoonaccountofthecrowdsthatsupportJesus.

JerusalemTempleWarning

Anineteen-inch-highlimestonefragmentcontainsawarningtoGentilestostayoutoftheareathatisrestrictedtoJews.Thisfragmentwasfoundin1935outsidethewallaroundJerusalem’sOldCity.Acompleteversionofthesameinscription(foundin1871)isintheArchaeologicalMuseuminIstanbul.TheGreekinscriptionreads:

LetnoGentileenterwithinthepartitionandbarriersurroundingtheTemple;whosoeveriscaughtshallberesponsibleforhissubsequentdeath.

ThisisprobablythewarningdescribedbyJosephus:“Upon[thepartitionwallof theTempleCourt]stoodpillars,atequaldistancesfromoneanother,declaringthelawofpurity,someinGreek,andsomeinLatinletters,that‘noforeignershouldgowithinthesanctuary’”(J.W.5.193–94).

Jesus’popularsupportmakesitnecessaryfortherulingprieststoarrestJesusatnightandatatimewhenheisnotsurroundedbylargenumbersofpeoplewhoappreciate his teaching and his criticisms of the temple establishment. WhenJesus is taken into custody, he is accusedof threatening to destroy the temple(Mark 14:58). Although theMarkan evangelist regards the allegation as false(14:59), it isquiteprobable that Jesus saidsomething like this (cf. John2:19).Afterall,Jesuswasrememberedtohavepredictedthedestructionofthetemple(Mark13:2“Therewillnotbelefthereonestoneuponanother,thatwillnotbethrowndown”).IfthisprophecywereaccompaniedbyapromisethatsomedayGod would raise up a new temple, perhaps as part of a new Jerusalem,somethinganticipatedinseveralscrollsfromQumran(1Q32;2Q24;4Q554–55;5Q15; 11Q18), it would not be difficult to imagine how such an accusationarose.Jesus is seized and accused by the ruling priests and their colleagues and

supporters(Mark14:43–65andparallels).ThehighpriestCaiaphasismentionedbyname(twiceinMatt.26:3,57;fivetimesinJohn11:49;18:13,14,24,28);hisfather-in-law,Annas,ismentionedtwice(John18:13,24;cf.Luke3:2;Acts4:6). As already noted, Jesus is accused of threatening to destroy the temple.However, Jesus admits that he is the Messiah, the Son of God, who will beseated at God’s right hand and will come with the clouds of heaven (Mark14:61–62);thisisanunmistakableallusiontoPsalm110:1andDaniel7:13–14.Thefirstpassagebids thekingtositatGod’srighthandwhileGodmakestheking’s enemies a “footstool” for his feet. The second passage speaks of the

humanbeing(“onelikeasonofman”)whoreceivesfromGod(the“AncientofDays”)“dominionandgloryandkingdom.”However, thisauthority isgrantedin the context of a heavenly court that has been convened to enter judgmentagainst Israel’s enemies (cf. Dan. 7:9–10: “Throneswere placed and one thatwas ancient of days took his seat.… The court sat in judgment”). TheimplicationsofJesus’replytothehighpriestarequiteclear:ThenexttimeJesusand Caiaphas meet, the former will sit in judgment on the latter. It is hardlysurprisingthatthehighpriestregardssuchareplyasblasphemousandworthyofdeath,forJesushasspokenagainstahighpriest,whichisforbiddenbythelaw(cf.Exod.22:28;Acts23:2–5);andinclaimingmessianickingship,heisguiltyofsedition,forwhichhewillbecondemnedbyRomanauthority.In thewritingsof Josephuswehavean independentaccountof the juridical

process that overtook Jesus. In a much-discussed passage, which is probablyauthenticbutglossedby laterChristian scribes, Josephushas this to sayaboutJesusofNazareth:

Now,therewasaboutthistimeJesus,awiseman,ifitbelawfultocallhimaman,forhewasadoerofwonderfulworks—ateacherofsuchmenasreceivethetruthwithpleasure.HedrewovertohimbothmanyoftheJews,andmanyoftheGentiles.Hewas[the]Christ;64andwhenPilate,atthesuggestionoftheprincipalmenamongus,hadcondemnedhimtothecross,thosethatlovedhimatthefirstdidnotforsakehim,forheappearedtothemaliveagainthethirdday,asthedivineprophetshadforetoldtheseandtenthousandotherwonderfulthingsconcerninghim;andthetribeofChristians,sonamedfromhim,arenotextinctatthisday.(Ant.18.63–64,emphasisadded)

ThewordsplacedinitalicsaretheChristianglosses,whichtakethepassageindirections that aremeaningful toChristians.11 But stripped of the glosses, thepassagecoherescloselywiththebroadoutlineprovidedbytheNewTestamentGospels.Jesusisdescribedasteacherandwonderworker;andheiscondemnedby Pilate to the cross, at the suggestion of the “principal men” (by whichJosephusmeanstherulingpriests).12Allthatismissinginthisterseaccountisthe reasonwhy theprincipalmenof theJewishpeopleencouraged theRomangovernor to eliminate Jesus. The New Testament Gospels supply us with thereasonand,asweshallseeinthebalanceofthischapter,weshallencounterthisreason severalmore times in the thirty-fiveyears or so following thedeathofJesus.

TheApostlesandtheFamilyofAnnasJosephus remarks that although Jesuswascondemned to the cross, “those thatlovedhimatthefirstdidnotforsakehim;andthetribeofChristians,sonamedfromhim,arenotextinctatthisday.”ThetribeofChristianswerenotextinctin

theyear93,whenJosephuspublishedthefirsteditionofhisAntiquities,becausetheJesusmovementwasconvincedthatitsmasterhadbeenresurrected.This conviction prompted the disciples and apostles of Jesus to continue

preaching themessageof thekingdomofGodand the resurrectionofhisSon(Acts2–3). It isnot surprising that theveryhigh-priestlyauthoritieswhohaveopposedandcondemnedJesustakeumbrageatthispreaching.WhilePeterandtheapostlesarespeakinginthetempleprecincts(Acts3:12–26),“thepriestsandthecaptainofthetempleandtheSadduceescameuponthem,…arrestedthem[,]andputthemincustody”(Acts4:1–3).ThenextdaytheJewish“rulersandeldersandscribesweregatheredtogether

inJerusalem,withAnnasthehighpriestandCaiaphasandJohnandAlexander,and all who were of the high-priestly family” (Acts 4:5–6). Peter and theapostlesarebroughtbeforetheseleadersandorderedtoceaseproclaimingJesus.ButPeterandhiscolleaguesrefuse,assertingthattheymustobeyGod(4:19;cf.5:29). The evangelist ends the story with these words: “And when they hadfurther threatened them, they let them go, finding no way to punish them,becauseofthepeople;forallmenpraisedGodfor”thehealingofthelameman(4:21; cf.3:1–10).Whatwe seeherecloselyparallels the situationwith Jesus.Annas, his son-in-law Caiaphas, and other members of the aristocraticpriesthood oppose Peter and the apostles, but they find it difficult to moveagainstthembecauseofpopularsupport.

Figure5.2.Mansion.TheseexcavatedremainsofamansioninJerusalemarethoughttohavebelongedto

ahigh-priestlyfamily.PhotographcourtesyofGinnyEvans.

Sometimelater“thehighpriestroseupandallwhowerewithhim,thatis,thepartyof theSadducees, and filledwith jealousy they arrested the apostles andputtheminthecommonprison”(Acts5:17–18).However,theapostlesenjoyamiraculousescape,muchtotheannoyanceofthehighpriest,theSanhedrin,thecaptain of the temple, and the ruling priests (5:25). The apostles are againbroughtbeforethepriestlyrulersandareagainwarnednottocontinuespeakingofJesus(5:27–28).RegevrightlyremarksthattherealconcernisnotthemiraclesupposedlyperformedbyPeter(3:1–10)oreventhefactthattheapostlesbelieveGodhasraisedupJesus.Rather,whatisatissueisdesecrationofthetemple.13Regev is correct so far as hegoes.Butwhat is it aboutPeter’s preaching thatdesecrates the temple? It is the implicit accusation that the ruling priests arecomplicitinmurder(Acts4:10).Accordingly,therulingpriestsaccusePeterandtheapostlesofintending“tobringthisman’sblooduponus”(5:28b).Such an accusationmust be takenvery seriously.The accusation is implicit

from the very beginning of the post-Easter preaching, when on the Day ofPentecost Peter tells the Jerusalem crowd, “This Jesus … you crucified andkilled by the hands of lawlessmen” (Acts 2:23; cf. 2:36). The “lawlessmen”refer to the Romans, but the statement “you crucified” refers primarily to therulingpriestsand to those in thecrowdwhosupported thembycallingfor therelease of Barabbas and the crucifixion of Jesus (Mark 15:6–15).We see theaccusation again in the sermon on the steps before the Beautiful Gate, whenPeterremindsthecrowd,astonishedatthemiraculoushealingofthelameman,“You denied the Holy and Righteous One, and asked for a murderer to begrantedtoyou,andkilledtheAuthoroflife,whomGodraisedfromthedead”(Acts3:14–15).Peterpartiallyexcuses them,stating,“Youacted in ignorance,asdidalsoyour rulers” (3:17).Nevertheless, themerehint that thehighpriestand his colleagues are guilty of murder can be interpreted as a violation ofExodus22:28(“YoushallnotrevileGod,norcursearulerofyourpeople”;andagain cf. Acts 23:2–5), and as such it could be seen as a threat against thetemple.It is impossible to ascertain how Peter and his colleagues escape long

imprisonmentandperhapsexecution.Afterall,theauthorofActstellsusthatitwasthe“partyoftheSadducees”whoarrestedPeterandtheapostles(5:17–18),and Josephus himself tells us that the Sadducees were the harshest of thereligiouspartiesandmost“rigidinjudgingoffenders”(Ant.20.199).Inanycase,theyremainatliberty,atleastforatime.

StephenandtheFamilyofAnnasInthefirstyearorsoofthelifeoftheJesusmovement,thatis,inthefirstyearofthemovementafter theexecutionof its founderandthewidespreadconvictionthatGodhad raisedhimup, thenewcommunity found itnecessary toappointdeacons,orservants,toassistinthedistributionofgoodsandfundstothepoorof Jerusalem and Judea.One of these deacons is Stephen,who in short orderbeginstopreachtheChristiangospel.Hebecomesembroiledinadisputewithvarious Diaspora Jews, which coheres with his appointment as a servant to“Hellenists,”Greek-speakingJews,whoarefromtheDiaspora(cf.Acts6:1).14Those who dispute with Stephen accuse him, saying, “We have heard him

speak blasphemous words againstMoses and God” (6:11). From the author’spointofview,theaccusationisnottrue.Thisismadeclearwhenwearetoldthat“falsewitnesses”sayofStephen:“Thismanneverceasestospeakwordsagainstthis holy place and the law; for we have heard him say that this Jesus ofNazareth will destroy this place, and will change the customs which Mosesdeliveredtous”(6:13–14).15TheaccusationsleveledagainstStephenremindusofsomeoftheaccusations

againstJesus.First,Stephenisaccusedofspeakingblasphemouswords,evenasJesus was (cf. Mark 14:64, “You have heard his blasphemy”). Second, he isaccused of not ceasing to “speak words against this holy place” and then isexplicitlycomparedtoJesus,whoalsowasaccusedofthreateningtodestroythetemple(cf.Mark14:58),asalreadynoted.Thehighpriest,whoisCaiaphasandremains inofficeuntil theendof36CE,16 asksStephen if theaccusationsaretrue. Stephen provides no direct answer but instead gives a long speechsummarizing someof Israel’s history.The conclusion of his speech, however,doesprovideanimplicitanswertothehighpriest’squestion:

So itwasuntil thedaysofDavid,46who found favor in the sightofGodandasked leave to findahabitationfortheGodofJacob.47ButitwasSolomonwhobuiltahouseforhim.48YettheMostHighdoesnotdwellinhousesmadewithhands;astheprophetsays,49“Heavenismythrone,andearthmyfootstool.Whathousewillyoubuildforme,saystheLord,orwhatistheplaceofmyrest?50Didnotmyhandmakeallthesethings?”(Acts7:45b–50)

TheassertionthatGod“doesnotdwellinhousesmadewithhands”takesusback to the accusation originally leveled against Jesus: “Weheard him say, ‘Iwilldestroythis temple that ismadewithhands,andin threedaysIwillbuildanother,notmadewithhands’”(Mark14:58).Stephen’sassertionandquotationofIsaiah66:1–2(“Whatisthehousewhichyouwouldbuildforme?…”)atthevery least imply that the Jerusalem temple is obsolete. It may also hint at its

eventualdestruction,evenasJesushimselfhadpredicted(Mark13:1–2).Fromthehigh-priestlypointofview,Stephencompleteshisoutrageousblasphemybysaying,“Behold,Iseetheheavensopened,andtheSonofmanstandingat therighthandofGod”(Acts7:56),therebyimplyingthatthehighpriestnolongermediatesbetweenhumanityandGod; instead, the risenJesus (aka the“Sonofman”)doesso.Therulingpriestsandthosewiththem,includingSaulofTarsus,interpretStephen’swordsascapitalblasphemyandstonehim.17StephenthedeaconbecomesthesecondmemberoftheJesusmovementtodie

atthehandsoforattheinstigationofthehigh-priestlyfamilyofAnnas.Hewillnotbethelast.

JamesSonofZebedeeandtheFamilyofAnnasFollowingthemartyrdomofStephen,theauthorofthebookofActsstates,“OnthatdayagreatpersecutionaroseagainstthechurchinJerusalem;andtheywereall scattered throughout the region of Judea andSamaria, except the apostles”(8:1).Thegeneralpersecution ismentionedagain, toexplain theestablishmentof the Jesus movement in Antioch, where the disciples for the first time arecalled “Christians” (Acts 11:19–26). The narrative of Acts returns to Judea,where with little explanation or preparation we are told that “Herod the king[Agrippa I] laid violent hands18 upon some who belonged to the church. HekilledJames thebrotherof Johnwith thesword” (Acts12:1–2).This James isthesonofZebedeeandbrotherofJohn,twoofJesus’closestdisciples.Regev reasonably omits discussion of the death of James son of Zebedee

becausethereisnothingsaidofcontroversywiththetemple.Hesaysthat“whenAgrippaIexecutedJames,…hewasnotconcernedwithsuchculticorreligiousissues.”19Regev,moreover,callsourattentiontoDanielSchwartz’ssuggestionthatAgrippa’spurposewastoavoidpoliticaldisturbances.20Thisisaplausiblesuggestion.RegevandSchwartzmaywellbecorrect;tosomeextenttheymustbe.However,wenoticethattheauthorofActssuppliesnoreasonatall—atleastno obvious reason—for Agrippa I’s action against James son of Zebedee.21Nothingissaidofpoliticaldisturbances.WhatwouldthereaderofActsassume?AllofthepreviousactionstakenagainstJesusandhisfollowinghavebeenattheinstigationof the rulingpriests: Jesus ofNazareth,Peter and the apostles, andStephen.AlthoughitistruethatinthebookofActsthetempleisnotmentionedandnohighpriestisnamed,readersmayhaveassumedthatAgrippaIprobablyactsinconcertwiththerulingpriests.ThereismoretomysuggestionthanmerelyguessingatwhatreadersofActs

wouldhaveassumed.Weneedtoaskaboutthepoliticalandreligioussituationat the time of Agrippa I’s execution of James. Theophilus son of Annas wasappointedhighpriestin37CE,theyearwhenAgrippawasgiventhetetrarchiesof Philip and Lysanius. Agrippa, who took his Jewish faith seriously, in allprobabilitywouldhavebecomeacquaintedwithTheophilusandhisfamilyandmaywellhavecomeundertheirinfluence.Inearly41CEAgrippaisgiventhewhole of the kingdom and officially becomes “king of the Jews,” like hisgrandfather Herod. Later that year Theophilus is removed from office andreplacedbySimonCantheras,sonofBoethus.

InscriptionsRelatingtoHigh-PriestlyFamiliesJoseph,sonofCaiaphas(ossuary,Jerusalem)Miriam,daughterofYeshuasonofCaiaphaspriestsofMa aziahfromBeth Imri(ossuary,Jerusalem)Yehohanah,daughterofYehohanansonofTheophilusthehighpriest(ossuary,Jerusalem)Ananiasthehighpriest, Aqaviahisson(ostracon,Masada)[of]thesonofQatros(stoneweight,“BurntHouse,”Jerusalem)BoethosShim on,of(thefamilyof)Boethos(ossuary,Jerusalem)

In the final year of Theophilus’s administration, Agrippa and Petronius theRoman legate of Syria narrowly escaped a Jewish rebellion over Caligula’sdesire tohavehis imageerected in Jerusalem.Petronius temporizedandwrotetheemperor,askinghimtoreconsider;theemperordied,andthenewemperor,Claudius,rescindedtherecklessorder.Butevenso,youngfoolsinDora(northof Mount Carmel) set up the image of the emperor in a synagogue andprecipitateda freshcrisis (Josephus,Ant. 19.300).BothPetroniusandAgrippaintervened and again prevented what could have become a riot. It is in theaftermathofthesechaoticevents(stillintheyear41CE)thatAgripparemovedSimon Cantheras from the high priesthood and bestowed the office uponMatthiassonofAnnas(cf.Ant.19.312–16),whosebrother-in-lawCaiaphashadbeen involved in the deaths of Jesus and Stephen and the imprisonment andfloggingofPeterandotherapostles.Ifinditmorethanacoincidencethatshortlyaftertheappointmentofanother

son ofAnnas, anothermember of the Jesusmovement is killed.And it is nothardtoseewhy.Intheaftermathoftheneardesecrationofthetempleandtheactual desecration of a synagogue, sensitivities regarding the sanctity of thetemplewouldhavebeengreatlyincreased.Andonceagain,therumors—perhapsnot entirely unfounded—that members of the Jesus movement believed the

templewasdoomedorobsoletecouldhaveincitedthenewhighpriestMatthias,amemberofafamilythathasbeenindeadlycompetitionandconflictwiththeJesus familyandmovement formore than tenyears, to incitehispoliticalallyandbenefactorAgrippaItolaunchapogrom.ThereisanoldtraditionintheMishnahthatremembersAgrippaI’sreceiving

ascrollofDeuteronomyfromthehighpriest,readingit,andbeingpraisedbythesagesandassured thathe is indeedabrother, thathe isJewish(m.Sotah7:8).Theaccount is legendary, tobesure,but it isneverthelesshard toexplain if itwerenotbasedonagenerally favorablememoryofHerod’sgrandson. Itmayalso hint at a cordial relationship between Agrippa and his high-priestlyappointmentMatthias. In my opinion Agrippa’s actions against James son ofZebedee, as well as against Peter, were planned and religious, not simplycapricious.22

PeterandtheFamilyofAnnasAftermentioning thedeathofJames, theauthorofActsgoeson tonarrate thearrestandimprisonmentofPeter:

WhenhesawthatitpleasedtheJews,heproceededtoarrestPeteralso.ThiswasduringthedaysofUnleavenedBread. 4Andwhen he had seized him, he put him in prison, and delivered him to foursquadsofsoldierstoguardhim,intendingafterthePassovertobringhimouttothepeople.5SoPeterwaskeptinprison;butearnestprayerforhimwasmadetoGodbythechurch.(12:3b–5)

As inhis escape fromprison earlier inActs (cf. 5:17–20),Peter once againenjoysamiraculousescape(12:6–11).TothemindoftheauthorofActs,theseescapes are indeed miraculous, by agency of angels. Other readers, however,maywonder if theescapesofPeter andhis colleaguesarebeing facilitatedbyhumansympathizers,fortheleadersoftheJesusmovementarepopularandheldin high esteem (2:47; 3:9; 4:21; 5:13). Their popularity should occasion nosurprise,forthearistocraticpriesthoodisviewedwithmisgivingsbymanyJews,and the Jesus community is seenas a reformingmovement, freelydistributingmoneyandgoodstothoseinneed(2:44–47;4:32–37;6:1)andhealingthesick(3:1–9;5:14–16).As in thecaseofJames,whosedeathwasdiscussedabove, Iamsuggesting

thatthearrestandimprisonmentofPeterwaspartofthesamepogrominitiatedbyAgrippaIagainsttheJesusmovementintheaftermathoftheneardesecrationof the temple (see above) andwith the encouragementof thenewlyappointedhigh priest Matthias, son of Annas. There is one additional hint in the Peterstory, however. The story of Peter’s escape is remembered as one of being

rescued“fromthehandofHerod[AgrippaI]andfromall…theJewishpeople”(Acts12:11).The“Jewishpeople”(lit.,“peopleoftheJews”)probablyalludestotheJewishleadership(asin22:30;25:2,15),nottothenumerouscommoners,manyofwhom remain, for themostpart, sympathetic to the leadershipof theJesusmovement.Inotherwords,theauthorofActsisclaimingthatAgrippadidnotactonhisownvolitionbutwasencouragedby“Jews,”includingperhapsthenewlyinstalledhighpriestandhisfamilyandcolleagues.

PaulandtheTemple

There is no evidence that Paul encountered the family of Annas, but he didencounter Ananias son of Nedebaeus23 and was charged with attempts todesecrate or in someway injure the temple. I can hardly improve onRegev’ssuccinctandaccurateassessmentofPaul’sconflictwiththetempleauthorities.24Paulenters the templeandisseizedwhensomeshout,“MenofIsrael,help!

Thisisthemanwhoisteachingmeneverywhereagainstthepeopleandthelawand this place; moreover he also brought Greeks into the temple, and he hasdefiled this holy place” (Acts 21:28). Paul was then “dragged… out of thetemple, and at once the gates were shut” (21:30). His life is spared only byarrival of Roman troops and, perhaps, by his Roman citizenship (21:30–36;22:25–29). Paul is later accused of attempting to “profane the temple” (24:6).Ananias the high priest becomes involved in bringing charges against Paul(24:1). In fact, when Paul is initially brought before Ananias and is given achance to speak, thehighpriest hasPaul struckon themouth (23:1–5).WhenPaulspeaksinhisowndefense,heswearsthathedidnotdisputewithanyoneorstirupacrowd,“either in the templeor in thesynagogue” (24:12).DefendinghimselfbeforehisfellowJews,PaulsaysthatwhenhereturnedtoJerusalem,hespent timepraying in the temple (22:17).Before theRomanprocuratorFestus(60–62CE),Paul solemnly testifies: “Neither against the lawof the Jews, noragainstthetemple,noragainstCaesarhaveIoffendedatall”(25:8).Fromallofthis,RegevrightlyseesLukeastakingpainstoshowthatPaulis

loyaltothetempleandthatthechargesbroughtagainsthimarefalse.Regardlessofone’s assessmentof the charges andofPaul’sdefense,what is clear is thattemplecontroversy liesbehind theattackonPaul and that this attack involvesthehighpriesthimself,toonedegreeoranother.25InallprobabilitywhatsparesPauldeathorsomeformofharshpunishmentishisRomancitizenshipandhisappealtoCaesar.

Figure5.3.TempleStones.ExcavatorsleftsomestonesastheyfoundthemalongsidethesouthernendoftheWesternWallof theTempleMount.Someof thestonespicturedmayhavecomefromthesanctuaryitself.PhotographcourtesyofIsraelphotoarchiv©AlexanderSchickbibelausstellung.de.

JamesBrotherofJesusandtheFamilyofAnnasThebookofActsconcludeswithPaulinRome,underhousearrestandawaitingtrial(28:16).Theyearisprobably61CE.ThusthenarrativeofthebookofActsends before the death of James, the brother of Jesus.Accordingly, there is noreportinthebookofActsregardingthefateofJames.ThankstoJosephus,wedohavea report,butonlybecause the fateofahighpriest,as ithappens,wastiedtothefateofJames.JosephustellshisRomanreadersofthefamilyofAnnas(alsospelledAnanus)

and how fortunate this priestly dynasty was. Along the way he tells of theexecutionofJames:

Nowthereportgoes, that thiselderAnanusprovedamostfortunateman;forhehadfivesons,whohadallperformed theofficeofahighpriest toGod,andhehadhimselfenjoyed thatdignitya long

timeformerly,whichhadneverhappenedtoanyotherofourhighpriests:199butthisyoungerAnanus,who,aswehavetoldyoualready,tookthehighpriesthood,wasaboldmaninhistemper,andveryinsolent;hewasalsoofthesectoftheSadducees,whoareveryrigidinjudgingoffenders,abovealltherestoftheJews,aswehavealreadyobserved;200when,therefore,Ananuswasofthisdisposition,he thought he had now a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]. Festuswas now dead, andAlbinuswasbutupontheroad;soheassembledthesanhedrinofjudges,andbroughtbeforethemthebrotherofJesus,whowascalledChrist,whosenamewasJames,andsomeothers;andwhenhehadformedanaccusationagainstthemasbreakersofthelaw,hedeliveredthemtobestoned;201butasforthosewhoseemedthemostequitableofthecitizens,andsuchaswerethemostuneasyatthebreachofthelaws,theydislikedwhatwasdone;theyalsosenttotheking[AgrippaII],desiringhimtosendtoAnanus that he should act so nomore, for that what he had already done was not to be justified;202nay, someof themwentalso tomeetAlbinus, ashewasuponhis journey fromAlexandria, andinformed him that it was not lawful for Ananus to assemble a sanhedrin without his consent;—203whereuponAlbinuscompliedwithwhattheysaid,andwroteinangertoAnanus,andthreatenedthathewouldbringhimtopunishment forwhathehaddone;onwhichkingAgrippa took thehighpriesthoodfromhim,whenhehadruledbutthreemonths,andmadeJesus,thesonofDamneus,highpriest.(Ant.20.198–203)26

BecauseweknowthedatesofthedeathofFestus(inoffice60–62CE)andofhis replacement with Albinus (in office 62–64), we know that James wasexecutedintheyear62,whenhewasprobablyinhislate50sorearly60s.Forthirtyyearsor so Jameswasable tonavigate the troubledwatersof Jerusalempolitics.Evenwhenother leadersof theJesusmovement found itnecessary toflee, James was able to remain in Jerusalem and give leadership to the Jesusmovement.ComparisonoftheexecutionsofJesusin30CEandhisbrotherJamesin62is

quiteinteresting.Jesushadbeenaccusedofblasphemyandpretendingtoroyalauthority, while James later was accused of being a lawbreaker. Both werecondemned by high priests—high priestswhowere related bymarriage. JesuswashandedovertotheRomangovernor,whocompliedwiththewishesoftheruling priests, while James was executed without the approval of the Romanauthority. We may presume that neither Festus nor Albinus would haveapproved. In the case of Jesus, Pilate sawwarrant in execution, for a seriouspoliticalchargecouldbemade(i.e.,“kingof theJews”). In thecaseofJames,however, evidently no such compelling case could be made. If it could havebeen,onewouldhavethoughtthatAnnas(orAnanus)wouldnothaveactedsorashly.Evidentlyhe realized thatapart fromagravechargeagainst James, thetypeofchargethatwouldbetakenseriouslybyRome,executionwasdoubtful.We should remember that Roman governors had no interest in meddling inpurely religiousmatters. One thinks of the position adopted by the proconsulGallio,atleastasitisdepictedinActs:“Ifitwereamatterofcrimeorseriousvillainy,IwouldbejustifiedinacceptingthecomplaintofyouJews;butsinceit

is a matter of questions about words and names and your own law, see to ityourselves; I refuse to be a judge of these things” (Acts 18:14–15b NRSV;18:15cRSV).There is no reason to believe that under ordinary circumstancesthepoliciesofPilate in the timeof Jesusorof eitherFestusorAlbinus in thetimeofJameswouldhavebeensignificantlydifferent.TheimportantpointthusfaristhattwoGalileanbrothers—JesusandJames—

wereput todeatheither indirectlyordirectlyby twohigh-priestlybrothers-in-law—CaiaphasandAnnas.In thecaseofJesus,weknowthatademonstrationand series of criticisms were leveled in the temple precincts, to which rulingpriests reactedangrily (Mark11–12). In thecaseofJames,weare told thathewasaccusedofbreakingthelaw.Canthecriticalpointsofantagonismbetweenbrothers Jesus and James, on the one hand, and brothers-in-lawCaiaphas andAnnas(orAnanus),ontheother,bebroughtintosharperrelief?IbelievewecanunderstandtheunderlyingcausesofthisantagonismmoreclearlyifwehighlightandscrutinizetempletraditionslinkedtobothJesusandJames.IntheNewTestamentGospels,Psalm118isassociatedwithJesus’entryinto

thecityofJerusalem.Weseethisinthecriesoftheexcitedcrowds:“Hosanna!BlessedishewhocomesinthenameoftheLord!BlessedisthekingdomofourfatherDavidthatiscoming!Hosannainthehighest!”(Mark11:9–10).Wealsosee it in the conclusion of the parable of the Vineyard, where Jesus asks theelders and ruling priests: “Have you not read this scripture: ‘The very stonewhich the builders rejected has become the head of the corner; this was theLord’sdoing,anditismarvelousinoureyes’?”(12:10–11).The“builders”refertothereligiousleaders,inthiscontexttherulingpriests(asalsoinActs4:11andin the Aramaic paraphrase of Psalm 118). In the interpretive Aramaicparaphrase, therejectedstone isnoneother thanthe ladDavid, initiallypassedoverbySamuelthepriest(1Sam.16:1–10).InChristiantradition,JamesthebrotherofJesusisalsoassociatedwithPsalm

118.Duringhislifetimehewascalleda“pillar”(Gal.2:9),perhapsaspartofaneschatological vision in which the apostles and the church were seen ascomprising a new temple (as argued in chap. 3 above). The metaphors ofbuildingandtempleappliedtoJamesarerecalledinlaterChristianwritings.Ashasbeenmentioned,Jameswasknownasthe“RampartofthePeople”and

the “Righteous” (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.1.2; 2.23.7, 12). Although the termtranslated “Rampart” remains mysterious, it is widely believed to havesomethingtodowiththetemple.InmyviewwehaveanallusiontoPsalm118:“Opentomethegatesofrighteousness,thatImayenterthroughthem.…Thisisthe gate of the LORD; the righteous shall enter through it” (vv. 19–20). The“righteous”who enters the temple of theLord very likely iswhat lies behind

James’ssobriquet“JamestheRighteous”or“Just”(Greek:hodikaios).Openingthe gates and “gate of the LORD” may well allude either to James or to hisbrotherJesus.TheseelementscometogetherinalegendaryaccountprovidedbyHegesippusandpreservedinEusebius:

SothescribesandPharisees…madeJamesstandonthebattlementoftheTemple,andtheycriedouttohimandsaid,“Oh,Righteous[One],towhomwealloweobedience,sincethepeoplearestrayingafterJesuswhowascrucified,telluswhoisthegateofJesus?”13Andheansweredwithaloudvoice,“WhydoyouaskmeconcerningtheSonofman?Heissittinginheavenontherighthandofthegreatpower,andhewillcomeonthecloudsofheaven.”14AndmanywereconvincedandglorifiedbecauseofthetestimonyofJamesandsaid,“HosannatothesonofDavid.”AndtheywentupandthrewdowntheJust….(Hist.eccl.2.23.12–14,16)

WhoisthegateofJesus?The“gateofJesus”seemstobeJames.ThosewhopassthroughthisgatewillenterthetempleoftheLord,thatis,willbecomepartoftheJesusmovement.JamestheRighteoushasalreadyenteredthetemple,justas Psalm118:19 says, “This is the gate of theLORD; the righteous shall enterthroughit.”ThisinterpretationoftheHegesippustraditionreceivessupportfromanothersecond-centurysource,whosematerialisalsoquiteembellished:Jamesistold,“Throughyouthosewhowishtoenterwillopenthegooddoor,…andthey followyouandenter” (2Apocalypseof James 55; inCodexV fromNagHammadi). The Hegesippus tradition concludes with an allusion to Psalm118:25–26anditsparaphrase inMark11:9–10.Whencombined, the traditionsof Hegesippus and the Second Apocalypse of James suggest that James wasattackedbytempleauthoritiesfor leadingthepeopleastray, that is,for leadingthemawayfrom theauthoritiesand theirunderstandingof templepracticeandworship,andtowardtheunderstandingofJesusandhismovement.27Althoughcertaintycannotbeobtained, itseemsclearenoughthat thefamily

of Annas viewed brothers Jesus and James as in some sense rivals to theirauthority, perhaps as competitors for the allegiance of the people.28 Regevmakes a very interesting commentwhenhe concludes that the “actual attitudetowards the templedisplayedbyPeter,Paul,andJameswasnotverydifferentfromthatoftheirfellowJews.”29Iagree.WhatdistinguishedtheleadersoftheJesusmovement from the leaders of the Jerusalem templewas the convictionheldbytheformerthatJesuswasindeedIsrael’sMessiahandthatthosewhohadrejectedandkilledhim,thetempleleaders,facedjudgment.WeseethisinJesus’messianic affirmation in the presence of the high priest Caiaphas, in thepreachingofPeterand theTwelve,aswellas in thepreachingofStephenandPaul.WealsoseeitinJamesifwehavecorrectlyunderstoodthesecond-centurytraditionsthathavebeenreviewed.

JesusSonofAnaniasandtheFamilyofAnnasInJesusbenAnaniaswemayhaveonemoreChristianopposedbythefamilyofAnnas.Letustakeanotherlookatthisman’sinterestingstory:

Four years before the war… there came to the feast, at which is the custom of all Jews to erecttabernacles to God, one Jesus son of Ananias, an untrained peasant, who, standing in the temple,suddenlybegantocryout,“Avoicefromtheeast,avoicefromthewest,avoicefromthefourwinds,a voice against Jerusalem and the sanctuary, a voice against the bridegroom and the bride, a voiceagainstallthepeople.”…Someoftheleadingcitizens,angeredatthisevilspeech,arrestedthemanandwhippedhimwithmanyblows.Buthe,notspeakinganythinginhisownbehalforinprivatetothose who struck him, continued his cries as before. Thereupon, the rulers… brought him to theRomangovernor.There, though flayed to the bonewith scourges, he neither begged formercynorwept.…WhenAlbinus the governor asked himwho andwhence hewas andwhy he uttered thesecries,hegavenoanswertothesethings.…Albinuspronouncedhimamaniacandreleasedhim.…Hecriedoutespeciallyatthefeasts.…Whileshoutingfromthewall,“Woeoncemoretothecityandtothepeopleandtothesanctuary…,”astone…struckandkilledhim.(Josephus,J.W.6.300–309)30

JosephusprovidesthisaccountasonemoreomenofJerusalem’sapproachingfate. The many parallels between Jesus of Nazareth and Jesus ben Ananias,especially as theypertain to the juridical process that overtook each, are quiteinterestingandhavebeenexploredelsewhere.31HereIraiseaquestion:WasthispeasantprophetamemberoftheJesusmovement?Thewordsoftheprophecy,“Avoicefromtheeast,avoicefromthewest,a

voicefromthefourwinds,avoiceagainstJerusalemandthesanctuary,avoiceagainstthebridegroomandthebride,avoiceagainstallthepeople,”arebasedon Jeremiah 7 (the Temple Sermon), which contains criticism of the templeauthorities in the sixth century BCE and predicts destruction of the temple.Specifically, Jesus ben Ananias has alluded to verse 34, the last verse ofJeremiah7:“IwillmaketoceasefromthecitiesofJudahandfromthestreetsofJerusalem the voice of mirth and the voice of gladness, the voice of thebridegroomandthevoiceofthebride;forthelandshallbecomeawaste.”Thephrase“voiceofthebridegroomandthevoiceofthebride”isclearlyechoedinthe prophecy of Jesus benAnanias. His adaptation is also quite clear, addingphrases such as “a voice against Jerusalem and the sanctuary” and “a voiceagainstallthepeople.”32

Figure5.4.SiegeStones.AnumberofsiegestoneshavebeenfoundatMasadaandwithinthewallsoftheOld City of Jerusalem. These stones were flung by Roman catapults. Josephus tells us that Jesus benAnanias,who for severalyearshadprophesied thecomingdestructionof Jerusalemand the temple,waskilled by one of these stones. Photograph courtesy of Israelphotoarchiv©Alexander Schickbibelausstellung.de.

The angry response from the “leading citizens” and “rulers,” which surelyinclude ruling priests, is hardly surprising. Jeremiah was nearly killed for hisoriginal prophecy. Jesus of Nazareth, who also quoted from Jeremiah 7, waskilled,andJesusbenAnaniaswasnearlykilledforemployingthesamelanguageinandaroundthetempleprecincts.IsuggestthatweexplorethepossibilitythatJesusbenAnaniaswasamember

oftheJesusmovementforthefollowingreasons:First,benAnaniastaughtandprophesied in the temple precincts, as did Jesus of Nazareth. Second, benAnaniasappealedspecificallytoJeremiah7,asdidJesusofNazareth.Third,benAnaniasspokeofthetemple’sdestruction,asdidJesusofNazareth.Fourth,benAnaniaswasviolentlyopposedbytherulingpriests.Theremayevenbeafifthreason,perhapsthemostimportantone,forthinkingJesusbenAnaniasbelongedtotheJesusmovement.The priestswho opposed benAnanias and called for his death undoubtedly

includedmembers of the family ofAnnas.AlthoughAnnas son ofAnnas had

beendeposedshortlyafter thearrivalofAlbinus(in62CE)andshortlybeforethe preaching of Jesus ben Ananias, he would have remained an influentialfigure. Moreover, his nephew Matthias, son of Theophilus and grandson ofAnnas,ascendedtotheofficein65CE.HetoowouldhavetakenamalevolentinterestinJesusbenAnanias.What motivated ben Ananias to take up his prophecy of woe? Given the

number of parallels with Jesus of Nazareth and given the possibility that thepeasant prophetwas a followerof JesusofNazareth, themartyrdomof Jamesbrother of Jesus may have been what prompted ben Ananias to begin hisministry.Thescenario, thoughadmittedlyconjectural, isquiteplausible.In62CEthe

RomanprocuratorFestusdies.Beforehisreplacementcanarrive,AnnassonofAnnasseizestheopportunitytoroundupJamesandafewothers,probablyalsoChristians,andhavethemexecutedforbreakingthelaw,probablywithrespectto the temple. This action arouses Jesus ben Ananias, who after Agrippa IIremovesAnnasfromofficeandthenewprocuratorhasarrived,beginsutteringpropheciesbasedonJeremiah7,evenasJesusofNazarethhadmorethanthirtyyears earlier. Jesus benAnanias suffers violent opposition, but because of thepresenceoftheprocuratortherulingpriestsareunabletotakeactionagainsthimthewaytheyhadagainstJames,thebrotherofJesus.Ben Ananias is seized and taken to the procurator, very likely with the

intentionofhavinghimexecuted.Albinuswhipsand interrogatesbenAnaniasbutreleaseshimasharmless.(Didasympatheticcrowdclamorforhisrelease?)Albinusleavesofficein64andisreplacedbyGesiusFlorus,andin65Matthiasisgiventhehighpriesthood.In66thewarovertakesbothofthesemen,andinlate69theRomanarmy,underthecommandofTitussonofVespasian,thenewRomanemperor, surroundsandbesieges Jerusalem.Sometime in the springorearly summerof70, JesusbenAnanias iskilledbya siege stone, about sevenyearsafterhisgloomypropheticactivitiescommenced.Although Josephus does not tell us, it may be that the death of Jesus ben

Ananiaswas a concluding footnote to the leadership of James, who formorethanthirtyyearswaswellknowninthecityofJerusalemandintheprecinctsofthe temple,well known for his piety andwell known for his competition andrivalry with the aristocratic priesthood, especially as it was embodied in thefamilyofAnnas.ThedeathofbenAnaniasisalsoaconcludingfootnotetothefirstgeneration.ForthedeathsofJesusofNazarethandJesusbenAnanias,twomen who had spoken oracles inspired by Jeremiah 7 against the templeestablishment,brackettheforty-yearhistoryofthechurchinJerusalem.Inchapter6,IshallreviewsomemajordevelopmentsinthelifeoftheJesus

movement during the years following the capture of Jerusalem and thedestructionofthecity’sfamoustemple.ThismovementisincreasinglyknownasthechurchanditsfollowersasChristians.Thecontroversiesthatemergedinthefirstfortyyearsadumbratecontroversiesstilltocome.

Appendix

RootCausesoftheJewish-ChristianRift

IFromJesustoJustin

n recent years the factors involved in the separation of Christianity fromJudaismhavestimulatedmuchdiscussionandarethemselvesaby-productof

a healthy Jewish-Christian dialogue that has been under way for some time.ReviewofthesefactorshelpsexplainwhyJudaismandChristianityhavemovedsofarapart,eventhoughbothreligionssprangfromcommonroots,andinparthelps explain the origin of anti-Semitism. Critical study of these religions’common roots and the causes of their separation is important, and itscontinuationshouldbeencouraged.InrecentyearsChristianandJewishseparationhasoftenbeenreferred to in

termsof the “partingsof theways.”1Thismoreor less neutral languagemay,however,mask aspects of the bitterly opposed perspectives of early Jews andChristians themselves.2 But our concern in this book has to do with the rootcausesoftheJewish-Christianrift.Severalfactorscouldbereviewed.Onethatimmediately comes to mind is Christianity’s aggressive Gentile mission andlenient requirements for entry into the church. Christian evangelization ofGentiles was out of step with Jewish proselytism. Jewish proselytes wereinstructed to take on the yoke of the Torah (m. Abot 3:5), which involvedscrupulous observation of Sabbath and food laws. But early Christianproselytismseemed,intheeyesofitsJewishcritics,bentonremovingtheyokeof theTorah.TheChristiancouncilsdepicted inActs11and15exemplify thenature of the problems brought on by early Christianity’s aggressive Gentilemission.Paulinepolemicagainstthe“Judaizers”(asesp.seenintheLettertotheGalatians)offersfirsthandevidenceofhowdivisivethisissuewas.AnotherseriouspointofdisagreementbetweenChristiansandnon-Christian

JewsconcernedthedivinityofJesus.3ThetendencyoftheGreco-RomanchurchtodeifyJesusintheabsolutesense—thatis,tointensifyJohannineandPaulineChristologyintermsofJesusasGod(incontrasttoEbioniteChristology,whichaccepted Jesus as Israel’sMessiah and fulfillment of prophetic Scripture, butrefused to ascribe divinity to him)—only made Christianity all the moreunacceptable to Jews. The divinization of Jesus stood in tension with strictJewishmonotheismandinitsmostextremeformofpresentation,appearedtobeadirectviolationofthefirstcommandment(Exod.20:3;Deut.5:7).Both of these factors—liberal inclusion of Gentiles and the deification of

Jesus—only created a context for further estrangement. Failure to observe

Jewish food laws, laws of purity, and Sabbath observance forced completeseparation between Gentile Christians and Jews, whether the latter weresympathetictotheChristianfaithornot.Jewishmembershipintheearlychurchbegantodecline,whileGentilemembershipincreasedgeometrically.Theethnicshift began to efface the Jewish character of the church, which in turndiscouragedentryofJewishconverts.ThepreferredversionoftheScripturesoftheearlychurch,whichwithinagenerationofitsfoundingwasprimarilyGreekspeaking,wastheSeptuagint,theGreekOldTestament,nottheHebrewanditsAramaic interpretation, preferred by the synagogue.4 Thus the choice ofBibleversionitselfdroveGentileandJewishbelieversfurtherapart.Jewishnationalist interests alsoplayedan importantpart in thegrowing rift

betweenchurchandsynagogue.Amajorcatalyst that ledtothepartingsofthewayswas thedestructionofJerusalemandtheHerodianTemple in70CEandthelaterBarKokhbadefeat(135),whichresultedinthelossofJerusalemasaJewishcityandthelossofIsraelasastate.PriortothedestructionofJerusalem,thetempleremainedimportanttoChristianJews.WeseethisinthebookofActsespecially (2:46; 3:1; 5:20, 42; 21:26; 22:17). The destruction of the templeprovedtobeasignificantlossofcommongroundsharedbyGentileandJewishChristians.TheBarKokhbawar also intensifiedhostilities betweenChristian Jews and

non-Christian Jews.According to patristic sources,Christianswere persecutedbySimonbenKosiba,whoevidentlyhadbeendubbed“BarKokhba”(Aramaicfor“SonofaStar”).JustinMartyr,acontemporaryofSimon’s,relatesthattheJews“countus foesandenemies;and, likeyourselves, theykillandpunishuswhenever theyhave thepower,asyoucanwellbelieve.For in theJewishwarwhichlatelyraged,BarKokhba,theleaderoftherevoltoftheJews,gaveordersthat Christians alone should be led away to cruel punishments, unless theyshould deny [that] Jesus [is] the Christ and blaspheme” (1 Apology 31.5–6).Eusebius,possiblydependentonJustin,similarlystatesthat“Kokhba,princeoftheJewishsect,killed theChristianswithallkindsofpersecutions,when theyrefusedtohelphimagainsttheRomantroops”(HadrianYear17).WhydidtheChristiansrefusetosupportSimon’sbidforfreedom?Themostprobablereasonis because Simonwas regarded as theMessiah, as both Jewish and Christiansources relate (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 4.6.1–4; y. Ta an. 4.5; b. Sanh. 93b).Therefore, Christian allegiance to Jesus as the Messiah contradicted Simon’sclaims and undermined his authority. Christians “alone” were dealt withseverely,becauseamongtheJewstheyaloneregardedsomeoneelseasIsrael’sMessiah.TheJewishhopeofrebuildingthetemplecreatedtensionsofitsown.William

Horbury draws our attention to Barnabas 16.1–4, a polemical passage thatexpresses criticismof the Jews forplacing their confidence in the temple and,afterithadbeendestroyed,hopingtorebuildit.5HorburythinksthattheauthorofBarnabaswasalluding to theJewishhope to rebuild the temple,perhapsatsometimeneartheendoftheFlaviandynasty.TheauthorofBarnabas,aswellas other Christians, may have feared a Jewish resurgence that would haveundermined Christianity. In fact, such a resurgence was in some sense underway,andmanyChristian JewswereabandoningChristian teaching inorder toremain loyal to the synagogue.Pressure todo sowasgreatly increasedby theintroduction of the birkat haminim (lit., “the blessing [or cursing] of theheretics”). We may reasonably surmise that Jews willing to utter this“benediction”tendedtoabandonChristianity,whileJewsorproselytesunwillingtoutteritwereputoutofthesynagogue.The Jewish wars for liberation from Roman control and the hopes for

rebuildingthetempletendedtopitGentileChristiansagainstJewishChristians.ForJewishChristians, thisprovedtobeespeciallydifficult,oftenforcingthemtochosebetweentheirfaithinJesusontheonehand,andloyaltytotheirnationandpeopleontheother.Allof the factors thus far surveyedare secondary towhat Ibelievewas the

rootcausebehindtheJewish-Christianrift.ThefundamentalstickingpointsformanyJewishpeoplewerethesimplefactsthatJesushadbeenputtodeathandthekingdomofGodhad failed tomaterialize.Bothof thesepoints apparentlynullified anymessianic claim. The very definition of themessianic task, as itwasunderstoodinJudaisminlateantiquity,envisionedtherestorationofIsraelandalong,prosperousreignofIsrael’sanointedking,theMessiah.Jesus’deathandwithitthefadingofhopefortheappearanceofthekingdomofGod(whichhadbeentheessenceofJesus’proclamation)surelyproved(toJudaism)thathewas not the Messiah after all. Even the proclamation of the resurrection, asmarvelousas itwasandassignificantas itmayhavebeenforquestionsaboutthe afterlife, could not overcome the simple facts that Jesus never began hisreignoverIsraelandthatIsraelremainedunderRomansubjugation.Jewishmessianicexpectation in lateantiquitywasdiverse, tobesure,but it

hadimportantcommoningredients.Amongthesewastheanticipationofvictoryand tangible benefits. A heavenly reign of the Messiah, with no appreciablealteration of conditions on earth for Israel, did not correspond to Jewishmessianicexpectationthat,sofarasIcandetermine,waseverheldbyanyone.Even among Jesus’ own disciples there are indications of popular messianicexpectation.Towardtheendofhisministry,Jesus’talkofdeath,nomatterhowqualifiedintermsofscripturalfulfillment,evenatoningsignificance,ledtothe

defection of even his closest followers.We should not be surprised that thosewhohadnotknownJesusandwhohadnothadtheopportunitytobeimpressedbyhisteachingandworksofpowerwouldreactwithskepticismtoassertionsofJesus’messiahshipinthefaceofthefactssurroundinghisdeath.ThenatureofJewishmessianicexpectationisclarifiedinimportantwaysby

the actionsofmenwhoby all accounts attempted to fulfill this expectation indaring bids to win Israel’s freedom and end Roman domination. Althoughscholarsdisputethepoint,6IthinkitisprobablethatatleasttwoorthreeofthesemenregardedthemselvesasinsomesenseIsrael’sMessiahanddeliverer.If some of these Jewish liberation movements of the first century had

messianicovertones,andIbelievethatsomeof themdid,7 it isclear that therewereJewswhohopedforaviolentoverthrowofRomanauthorityinIsrael.Seenagainst thesehopes,Jesus’crucifixionat thehandsof theRomans, tingedwiththemockeryof the titulus thatproclaimedhim“TheKingof the Jews” (Matt.27:37;Mark15:26;Luke23:38;John19:19–22),couldhardlyhavebeenviewedbythesynagogueinanyotherlightthanasevidenceofJesus’utterfailure.Thecrucifixion of Jesus, from a Jewish perspective, would have been taken aspolitical defeat and prophetic failure. For Jesus not only offered himself asIsrael’s anointed deliverer, acting as prophet he also proclaimed the advent ofthe kingdom of God. The kingdom did not appear, and its proclaimer wasexecuted.Jesus’apparentdefeatatthehandsoftheRomans,alongwithhisrejectionby

thereligiousauthoritiesofJerusalem,wouldhavemadeChristianproclamationofJesus’messiahshipinthecontextofthesynagogueseemtobeludicrous.Anapologetic thatwouldhave anyhopeofpersuading Jews that Jesus reallywasIsrael’s Messiah would have to explain both the religious rejection and theapparent political defeat. This apologetic, moreover, would need to bescripturally grounded if it were to make any significant headway against theobjections of the synagogue’s teachers of Scripture. Although due allowancemust bemade for its obvious apologetic slant, the questionwithwhich JustinMartyr credits Trypho the Jew very likely approximates themisgivingsmanyJewswouldhaveentertainedwhenhearingChristianclaims:

ThenTryphoremarked,“BeassuredthatallournationawaitstheMessiah;andweadmitthatalltheScriptureswhichyouhavequotedrefertohim.Moreover,IalsoadmitthatthenameofJesusbywhichthesonofNunwascalled,hasinclinedmeverystronglytoadoptthisview.ButweareindoubtaboutwhethertheMessiahshouldbesoshamefullycrucified.ForwhoeveriscrucifiedissaidintheLawtobeaccursed,sothatIamveryskepticalonthispoint.It isquiteclear, tobesure, that theScripturesannounce that theMessiahhad to suffer;butwewish to learn ifyoucanprove it touswhetherbysufferinghewascursed.”(DialoguewithTrypho89.1)

“Leaduson,then,”[Trypho]said,“bytheScriptures,thatwemayalsobepersuadedbyyou;forweknowthatheshouldsufferandbeledasasheep.Butprovetouswhetherhemustalsobecrucifiedanddiesuchadisgracefulanddishonorabledeath,cursedbytheLaw.Forwecannotbringourselveseventoconsiderthis.”(90.1,emphasisadded)

WhenTryphosays,“TheScripturesannouncethattheMessiahhadtosuffer,”or“Weknowthatheshouldsufferandbeledasasheep,”heisalludingtoIsaiah53:“Hewasoppressed,andhewasafflicted,yetheopenednothismouth;likealambthatisledtotheslaughter,andlikeasheepthatbeforeitsshearersisdumb,soheopenednot hismouth” (v. 7).Trypho’s admission that theMessiahwasexpected tosuffermayverywellbegenuine, for traditionsofaperiodofwoeprecedingthecomingoftheMessiahareattestedinJewishsources(suchasinm. Sotah 9:15) and are probably based on the general prophetic pattern ofpunishment preceding restoration. One should also review Daniel 7, where aterrific struggle is envisioned to take place before the people of God finallyprevailovertheforcesofevil.Targum Isaiah attests messianic interpretation of the famous song of the

Suffering Servant. However, discomfort with the idea of suffering is alsoattested in the Targum. The Suffering Servant of Isaiah 53 is turned into atriumphantvictor.Hisgraveisnotassignedwiththewicked(asinv.9);onthecontrary,heassignsthewickedtotheirgraves!Butsufferingaspreludetovictorydidnotenvisiondeath,andcertainlynota

shameful death on a Roman cross. In a Jewish context, even claims ofresurrectionwould do little tomitigate the evident failure of Jesus’ bid to beIsrael’s Messiah. Of course, Jews were not alone in mocking the Christianproclamation that thecrucifiedGalileanwasnoneother than Israel’sKingandGod’sMessiah.AccordingtoOrigen,Celsusregardedthenotionasabsurd,thatsomeonebetrayed,abandoned,captured,andexecutedcouldberegardedasGodandSavior.Thewholenotion ispreposterous (Origen,ContraCelsum2.9,35,68;6.10,34,36).8Tomakeanyheadwayatall,especiallyinaJewishcontext,aChristianapologeticwouldhavetoexplainthecircumstancesofthepassionandwouldhavetoshowhowthepassionwasinkeepingwithscripturalexpectation.Ultimately,however,Christianapologeticthatwaswell-groundedinScripture

failed to persuade a significant number of Jews. Despite rather sophisticatedattemptsbyPaulandtheMattheanandJohannineevangelists,JewishmisgivingsarisingfromJesus’apparentdefeatandunmitigatedshamefuldefeat,adeaththatmayactuallyattestGod’scurse(cf.Deut.21:23:“AhangedmanisaccursedbyGod”)—thesedoubtswereleftunsatisfied.ItisnotfornothingthatPaultacklesthisverypointhead-oninGalatians,aletterinwhichhisteachingandauthorityhave been undermined by “Judaizers” (Gal. 3:10–14). The apostlemust show

that thecurseenduredbyChristwhilehangingon thecross substitutes for thecursethatattachesitselftoanypersonwhofailstoobserveallthatiswritteninthe law (cf.Deut. 27:26).Paul’smidrashic exegesis ultimately arises from thedifficulty that the crucifixion posed for theChristian proclamation of Jesus asIsrael’sMessiah.We may conclude that the primary objection to Christian claims that the

crucifiedJesusofNazarethisinfactIsrael’sMessiahwasthefactofhisdeath,andashamefuloneatthat.FromaJewishperspective,thisobjectionwasfatal.The only possible way to answer was in terms that a Jewish person wouldappreciate, and that was appeal to Jewish Scripture. If it could be shown inScripturethattheMessiahwastosuffer,thenperhapsJesuscouldbeacceptedasIsrael’sMessiahafterall.ButthisstratagemultimatelypersuadedveryfewJews(thoughitdidsome,asattestedbyEbioniteChristianity).9Itfailedbecausethepromised kingdom did not materialize, and neither did Jesus return, as hisfollowersexpected.Asmessianismfaded in importanceforJudaism,a fadingprobablyresulting

fromthecatastrophicwarsagainstRome,10theChristianmessagethatJesuswastheMessiahbecameincreasinglyirrelevant.Earlyon,itmatteredandwashotlydisputed;lateron,itmatteredmuchlessandsowasignored.AfterChristianityswept theRomanEmpire, thepolemicbetweenChristians and Jews tookonanewcomplexion,becomingincreasinglybitterandugly.Christianpolemicwasopen and explicit, while for obvious reasons Jewish polemic tended to beallusive,oftenburiedinobscuretalmudicandmidrashicpassagesinaccessibletoChristians. With the eventual disappearance of Ebionite Christianity, the riftbetweenJudaismandChristianityhadbecomewide.

Notes

Introduction

1.ONIDENTIFICATIONOFTHE“AMBIGUOUSORACLE”WITHNUM.24:17:SeeMartinHengel,TheZealots:InvestigationsintotheJewishFreedomMovementinthePeriodfromHerodIuntil70A.D.,trans.D.Smith(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1989),239–40,384n.17.FormoreonNum.24:17andthestarinMatthew,seeTobiasNicklas,“BalaamandtheStaroftheMagi,”inThePrestigeoftheProphetBalaaminJudaism,EarlyChristianityandIslam,ed.GeurtHendrikvanKootenandJ.vanRuiten,TBN11(Leiden:E.J.Brill,2008),233–46.

2.ONMESSIANICPROPHECIES:AnumberofOldTestamenttextswereappealedtoasmessianicprophecies.Theseesp.includedGen.49:8–12andIsa.11:1–10,aswellasNum.24:17.Forlearneddiscussionofthisimportanttopic,seeJohnJ.Collins,TheScepterandtheStar:TheMessiahsoftheDeadSeaScrollsandOtherAncientLiterature,ABRL(NewYork:Doubleday,1995);GerbernS.Oegema,TheAnointedandHisPeople:MessianicExpectationsfromtheMaccabeestoBarKochba,JSPSup27(Sheffield:SheffieldAcademicPress,1998).

3.ONTHEPROPHECYOFJOSEPHUS:JosephustellshisreadersthathesaidthefollowingtoVespasian:“YouwillbeCaesar,Vespasian,youwillbeemperor,youandyoursonhere.…Iasktobepunishedbystrictercustody,ifIhavedaredtotriflewiththewordsofGod”(J.W.3.401–2).WearetoldthatVespasianmadeinquiryandlearnedthatJosephusindeeddidhaveareputationofbeinga“veraciousprophetinothermatters”(6.405).WhenJosephusspokeof“thewordsofGod,”hemaywellhavehadinmindvariousscripturalprophecies,includingNum.24:17,andnotspecialrevelationsgiventohim(seeJ.W.3.352,whereJosephusreferstothe“thepropheciesinthesacredbooks”).

4.FORLATINTEXT,ENGLISHTRANSLATION,ANDNOTES:SeeCliffordF.Moore,Tacitus:TheHistories,LCL(London:Heinemann;Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1931),196–99;MenahemStern,GreekandLatinAuthorsonJewsandJudaism,3vols.(Jerusalem:TheIsraelAcademyofSciencesandHumanities,1974,1980,1984),2:23,31,60–62.Ontheomenoftheopeningofthetempledoor,seeK.J.McKay,“DoorMagicandtheEpiphanyHymn,”CQ17(1967):184–94.

5.FORLATINTEXT,ENGLISHTRANSLATION,ANDNOTES:SeeJohnCarewRolfe,Suetonius,vol.2,LCL(London:Heinemann;Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1914;rev.,1997),272–73,276–77;Stern,GreekandLatinAuthorsonJewsandJudaism,2:119–21.

6.ONWIDESPREADKNOWLEDGEOFTHEJEWISHPROPHECYOFACOMINGWORLDLEADER:SeeStern,GreekandLatinAuthors,2:61–62.

7.FORDISCUSSIONOFTEXTSTHATMAYCONTAINGENUINEPROPHECIESOFTHEDESTRUCTIONORREPLACEMENTOFTHEHERODIANTEMPLE:SeeJosteinÅdna,JesuStellungzumTempel:DieTempelaktionunddasTempelwortalsAusdruckseinermessianischenSendung,WUNT2/119(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2000),25–89.

8.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHEANTICIPATEDNEWTEMPLEIN1ENOCH90AND91:SeeGeorgeW.E.Nickelsburg,1Enoch1:ACommentaryontheBookof1Enoch,Chapters1–36;81–108,Hermeneia(Minneapolis:FortressPress,2001),404–5,449;MarthaHimmelfarb,“TempleandPriestsintheBookoftheWatchers,theAnimalApocalypse,andtheApocalypseofWeeks,”inTheEarly

EnochLiterature,ed.GabrieleBoccacciniandJohnJ.Collins,JSJSup121(Leiden:E.J.Brill,2007),219–35,esp.230–31;LorenT.Stuckenbruck,1Enoch91–108,CEJL(Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,2007),138–39.

9.ONTHEESCHATOLOGICALTEMPLEPROPHESIEDBYTOBIT:TheauthorofTobithasbeeninfluencedbyIsa.66:7–16andHag.2:9.Totheseprophetsandperhapstoothers(e.g.,Ezek.40–48;Zech.14:11–17)healludeswhenhesays,“justastheprophetssaidofit.”FordiscussionofTob.14:5,seeFrankZimmermann,TheBookofTobit:AnEnglishTranslationwithIntroductionandCommentary,DropsieCollegeEdition:JAL(NewYork:Harper&Brothers,1958),25–27,120;JosephA.Fitzmyer,Tobit,CEJL(Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,2003),330.ItisnotlikelythattheauthorofTobitwasspeakingoftheHerodianTemple(ca.20BCE),whichwasgranderthantheoriginalSecondTemple.PaceCareyA.Moore,Tobit,AB40A(NewYork:Doubleday,1996),291.ZimmermannandothershavearguedthatTobit14wasappendedafterthedestructionoftheHerodianTemplein70CE,butportionsofthischapterhavebeenfoundintheTobitscrollsfromQumran(e.g.,4Q196frag.18;4Q198frag.2;4Q200frag.7),allofwhichdatetothefirstcenturyBCE.Fitzmyer(Tobit,52)agreeswithanumberofscholarswhodatethebookofTobitto225–175BCE.

10.THATTHEPROPHECYOFT.LEVI15ISGENUINE:SeeR.H.Charles,TheTestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs(London:A&CBlack,1908),58:“Itaketheseversesasabonafideprediction.”Thepatriarch’s“prophecies”areold,perhapsdatingtothesecondcenturyBCE.Predictiveelementsin15:1–2;16:1;and17:1–11overlapwithapocalypticfeaturesinthebookofDaniel,whichwascomposedsometimeinthe160sBCE.SeeHowardClarkKee,“TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs,”inTheOldTestamentPseudepigrapha,ed.JamesH.Charlesworth,2vols.,ABRL(NewYork:Doubleday,1983–85),1:775–828,here793.

11.ONTHEPREDICTIONOFTHETEMPLE’SDESTRUCTIONINTESTAMENTOFJUDAH:Kee(“TestamentsoftheTwelvePatriarchs,”800n.23a)admitstouncertaintywithrespecttoT.Judah23:3,sayingthatthepredictioniseitherapost-70interpolationoragenuineprophecybasedonDan.9:26.

12.ONTHEINTERPRETATIONOFTHECOMMENTARYONNAHUM:SeeGregL.Doudna,4QPesherNahum:ACriticalEdition,JSPSup35,CIS8(LondonandNewYork:SheffieldAcademicPress,2001),318–61,esp.335–36.Doudnarightlyarguesthatthesubjectof“itwillbetrampled”isthecityofJerusalem,mentionedinline2.

13.ONTHEDATEOFTHELIVESOFTHEPROPHETS:SeeCharlesCutlerTorrey(TheLivesoftheProphets,SBLMS1[Philadelphia:SBL,1946],11),whoconcludedthat“theprobabilityisverystrong…thattheworkwascomposedandgivenoutbeforetheyear80.”DouglasR.A.Hare(“TheLivesoftheProphets,”inTheOldTestamentPseudepigrapha,2:381n.11)agrees,datingmuchofthematerialbefore70CE.

14.FORTRANSLATION:SeeHare,“LivesoftheProphets,”2:393–94.15.ONTHEPROPHECYOFLIVESOFTHEPROPHETS:SeeHare,“LivesoftheProphets,”2:381n.11.16.FORARGUMENTSTHATJESUSDIDPREDICTTHETEMPLE’SDESTRUCTION:SeeEdParish

Sanders,JesusandJudaism(London:SCMPress,1985),71–76.17.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHEEVIDENCEOFABUSEANDCORRUPTIONINTHEHERODIAN

TEMPLEOFTHEFIRSTCENTURYCE:SeeCraigA.Evans,“Jesus’ActionintheTempleandEvidenceofCorruptionintheFirst-CenturyTemple,”inSocietyofBiblicalLiterature1989SeminarPapers,ed.DavidJ.Lull,SBLSP28(Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1989),522–39;idem,“Jesus’ActionintheTemple:CleansingorPortentofDestruction?,”CBQ51(1989):237–70,esp.248–64.

Chapter1:DidJesusIntendtoFoundaChurch?1.ONJESUSASFOUNDEROFTHECHURCH:SeveralscholarshaveclaimedthatPaulwasthefounder

oftheChristianchurch.SeeWilliamWrede,Paul(London:Green,1907),179;GézaVermès,JesusandtheWorldofJudaism(London:SCMPress,1983;Philadelphia:Fortress,1984),56–57;idem,The

ReligionofJesustheJew(London:SCMPress;Minneapolis:Fortress,1993),212;idem,TheAuthenticGospelofJesus(London:PenguinBooks,2003),370;PaulaFredriksen,FromJesustoChrist:TheOriginsoftheNewTestamentImagesofJesus(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1988);MauriceCasey,FromJewishProphettoGentileGod:TheOriginsandDevelopmentofNewTestamentChristology(Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1991).InReligionofJesus,VermèsconcludesthatJesus“couldnothaveentertainedtheideaofthefoundingandsettinginmotionanorganizedsocietyintendedtoendureforagestocome”(214–15).Thisstatementcanbechallengedondifferentlevels.SeeNicholasThomasWright,WhatSaintPaulReallySaid:WasPaulofTarsustheRealFounderofChristianity?(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1997);DavidWenham,Paul:FollowerofJesusorFounderofChristianity?(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1995);idem,PaulandJesus:TheTrueStory(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,2002).

2.ONTHEORIGINOFMATT.16:17–19:ForargumentsthatMatt.16:13–19representsMattheancomposition,seeRobertH.Gundry,Matthew:ACommentaryonHisLiteraryandTheologicalArt(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1982),330–36.ForargumentsthatMatt.16:17–19probablyderivesfromearly,pre-Mattheantradition,seeDaleC.AllisonJr.andW.D.Davies,ACriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheGospelaccordingtoSaintMatthew,vol.II,CommentaryonMatthewVIII–XVIII,ICC(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1991),602–15.AllisonandDaviesprudentlyconcludethatMatt.16:17–19“maypreservetheoriginalconclusiontotheincidentatCaesareaPhilippi,andthetextmaygiveusanimportantglimpseintothelifeofJesus”(615,withtheiremphasis).

3.ONPAULANDTHEQUMRANSCROLLS:SeeJosephA.Fitzmyer,“PaulandtheDeadSeaScrolls,”inTheDeadSeaScrollsafterFiftyYears:AComprehensiveAssessment,ed.PeterW.FlintandJamesC.VanderKam,2vols.(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1998–99),2:599–621.

4.ONTHESYMBOLISMOFTHETWELVE:Someinterpreterswantedtofindever-deepermeaningbehindthenumbertwelve.HecataeusofAbdera(ca.300BCE)suggestedthatGoddividedIsraelintotwelvetribes,“sincethisisregardedasthemostperfectnumberandcorrespondstothenumberofmonthsthatmakeupayear”(Aegyptiaca[OntheEgyptians],accordingtoDiodorusSiculus,Bibliothecahistorica40.3.3).HecataeusmayhavebeeninspiredbyPlato,whotwogenerationsearlierspokeofthenecessityofeverycitysettingaside“twelveportionsofland”(Plato,Laws5.745B).HecataeushimselfisechoedinPhilo,theturn-of-the-eraJewwholivedinAlexandria.Philoprobesthesignificanceoftwelve(tribes,sons,priestlyvestmentstones,sacredloaves,andthelike),commentingthat“twelveistheperfectnumber,ofwhichthecircleofthezodiacintheheavenisawitness,…forheaccomplisheshiscircleintwelvemonths”(OnFlightandFinding183–85).

5.FORFURTHERDISCUSSIONOFTHETWELVETYPOLOGYINJESUS:SeeJohnP.Meier,“TheCircleoftheTwelve:DidItExistduringJesus’PublicMinistry?,”JBL116(1997):635–72;ScotMcKnight,“JesusandtheTwelve,”BBR11(2001):203–31;CraigA.Evans,“TheBaptismofJohninaTypologicalContext,”inDimensionsofBaptism:BiblicalandTheologicalStudies,ed.AnthonyR.CrossandStanleyE.Porter,JSNTSup234(Sheffield:SheffieldAcademicPress,2002),45–71.

6.ONTHEMEANINGOF“PILLARS”:SeeCraigS.Keener,“ThePillarsandtheRightHandofFellowshipinGalatians2:9,”JGRChJ7(2010):51–58.

Chapter2:FromKingdomofGodtoChurchofChrist1.ONJESUSANDHISUSEOFISAIAH:SeeBruceD.Chilton,AGalileanRabbiandHisBible:Jesus’

UseoftheInterpretedScriptureofHisTime,GNS8(Wilmington,DE:MichaelGlazier,1984);CraigA.Evans,“TheScripturesofJesusandHisEarliestFollowers,”inTheCanonDebate,ed.LeeM.McDonaldandJamesA.Sanders(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,2002),185–95.ForahelpfultabulationofJesus’useofScripture,seeRichardThomasFrance,JesusandtheOldTestament:HisApplicationofOldTestamentPassagestoHimselfandHisMission(London:TyndalePress,1971),259–63.ForanassessmentofJesus’useofScriptureincomparisonwithrabbinicusage

andtheAramaictradition,seeBruceD.ChiltonandCraigA.Evans,“JesusandIsrael’sScriptures,”inStudyingtheHistoricalJesus:EvaluationsoftheStateofCurrentResearch,ed.BruceD.ChiltonandCraigA.Evans,NTTS19(Leiden:Brill,1994),281–335.

2.TRANSLATIONSOFTHEARAMAICAREFROMBruceD.Chilton,TheIsaiahTargum,ArBib11(Wilmington,DE:MichaelGlazier,1987),49,62,77,102.

3.ONGODASKINGINTHEOLDTESTAMENTANDRELATEDLITERATURE:SeeRudolfSchnackenburg,GottesHerrschaftundReich:Einebiblische-theologischeStudie(FreiburgimBreisgau:HerderVerlag,1959);MartinBuber,KingshipofGod(NewYork:Harper&Row,1967).FortheroleofOldTestamentliteratureinJesus’proclamationofthekingdomofGod,seeGeorgeR.Beasley-Murray,JesusandtheKingdomofGod(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1986),3–51;BruceD.Chilton,“TheKingdomofGodinRecentDiscussion,”inChiltonandEvans,StudyingtheHistoricalJesus,255–80,esp.273–80.

4.ONZECHARIAH’SRELATIONSHIPTOTHESHEMA:SeethediscussioninDavidL.Petersen,Zechariah9–14andMalachi,OTL(Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1995),148–49.IthasbeensuggestedthatZech.14:9couldbecommentaryonDeut.6:4.SeeRalphL.Smith,Micah–Malachi,WBC32(Dallas:WordBooks,1984),288–89.

5.TRANSLATIONOFTHEARAMAICISFROMSamsonH.Levey,TheTargumofEzekiel,ArBib13(Wilmington,DE:MichaelGlazier,1987),32.

6.ONEZEKIEL7ANDJUDGMENT:SeeWaltherEichrodt,Ezekiel,OTL(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1970),97–103,esp.102;WaltherZimmerli,Ezekiel1,Hermeneia(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1979),206–8;WilliamH.Brownlee,Ezekiel1–19,WBC28(Dallas:WordBooks,1986),108–15.

7.TRANSLATIONSOFTHEARAMAICOBADIAH,ZECHARIAH,ANDMICAHAREFROMKevinJ.CathcartandRobertP.Gordon,TheTargumoftheMinorProphets,ArBib14(Wilmington,DE:MichaelGlazier,1989),102,120,224.

8.TRANSLATIONSOFTHEARAMAICAREFROMChilton,TheIsaiahTargum,26–27.Fordiscussionofrepentance,thekingdomofGod,andtheMessiahinAramaicIsaiah,seeBruceD.Chilton,TheGloryofIsrael:TheTheologyandProvenienceoftheIsaiahTargum,JSOTSup23(Sheffield:JSOTPress,1982),37–46,77–81,86–96.ChiltonhaspersuasivelyarguedthattheexegeticalframeworkoftheIsaiahTargumreflectsaperiodbetweenthetwogreatJewishrebellions,thatis,between66–70CEand132–135CE.Healsorightlyobservesthepresenceofearlytradition,whichinsomecasesreachesbacktothetimeofJesusandearlier,andinothercasesisquitelate.

9.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHEFOUREMPIRESOFDANIEL2AND7:SeeJohnE.Goldingay,Daniel,WBC30(Dallas:WordBooks,1989),49–52;JohnJ.Collins,Daniel:ACommentaryontheBookofDaniel,Hermeneia(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1993),165–71.InterestintheconceptofthefourkingdomsisattestedatQumran,whichnotonlypossessedseveralcopiesofDanielandrelatedmaterialsbutalsohadatleasttwoscrolls(i.e.,4Q552and4Q553)dedicatedtovisionsaboutthefourkingdoms.

10.ONTHEPROBABILITYTHATJESUSSAIDSOMETHINGABOUTDESTROYINGTHETEMPLEMADEWITHHANDS:SeeEdParishSanders,JesusandJudaism(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:FortressPress,1985),71–76;JacquesSchlosser,“LaparoledeJésussurlafinduTemple,”NTS36(1990):398–414,esp.412–13;M.EugeneBoring,Mark:ACommentary,NTL(Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2006),412:“TheremusthavebeenahistoricalcorethatgoesbacktoJesushimself.”

11.FORDISCUSSIONOFALLUSIONTOTHESONOFMANOFDANIEL7INJESUS:SeeC.F.D.Moule,TheOriginofChristology(CambridgeandNewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1977),11–22;BruceD.Chilton,“TheSonofMan:HumanandHeavenly,”inTheFourGospels1992,ed.F.VanSegbroecketal.,BETL100(Leuven:LeuvenUniversityPress,1992),203–18,esp.215–18.

12.ONJESUS’UNDERSTANDINGOFTHEAUTHORITYOFSONOFMAN:SeeCraigA.Evans,Mark8:27–16:20,WBC34B(Nashville:ThomasNelson,2001),lxxiii–lxxviii.

13.ONBEINGSEATEDATTHERIGHTHANDOFGODANDCOMINGWITHTHECLOUDSOFHEAVEN:Itisnotnecessarytothinkthat“twoseparatescenes”havebeenawkwardlyjuxtaposedinMark14:62,asisarguedinDonaldJuel,MessiahandTemple:TheTrialofJesusintheGospelofMark,SBLDS31(Missoula,MT:ScholarsPress,1977),95.

14.ONTHEMEANINGANDBACKGROUNDOFPS.110:1:SeeMartinHengel,“‘SitatMyRightHand!’:TheEnthronementofChristattheRightHandofGodandPsalm110,”inhisStudiesinEarlyChristology(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1995),119–225.

15.ONTHEAUTHENTICITYOFTHEPASSIONPREDICTIONS:ScholarsaredividedonthequestionoftheauthenticityofJesus’predictionsofhissufferinganddeath.Thereislittledoubtthatthesepredictionswereshapedbytheeventsofthepassion,butIthinkitprobablethatJesusdidspeakofhissufferinganddeathforthefollowingreasons:First,theWordsofInstitution(1Cor.11:23–25;Mark14:22–25andparallels)makebettersenseifJesushadpreviouslyspokenofhisdeath.AsfortheauthenticityoftheWordsofInstitution,itishardtoseehowthistraditioncouldhavetakenholdsoearlyandwithsuchauthorityifitdidnotreachbacktoJesushimself.Second,thefateofJohntheBaptistsurelyimpresseditselfonJesus.Hemusthaveknownthathewouldlikelyshareit.Third,thestoryofJesus’fallingonhisfaceandbeggingGodtoremovethecupofsuffering(Mark14:33–36)presupposestheanticipationofarrest,suffering,anddeath.Itishardtoseehowthisstoryisapiouspost-Eastercreation,foritshowsJesusapparentlyunwilling,atleastinitially,to“takeupthecross,”ashehadinstructedhisowndisciplestodo(Mark8:34).SurelyafictionaltraditionwoulddepictJesusinamorecourageousorevenheroiclight.Fourth,JudasIscariot’sdecisiontobetrayJesusiseasiertounderstandifJesushadmadeknowntohisdiscipleshisanticipationsofsufferinganddeath.Forfurtherdiscussion,seeCraigA.Evans,“DidJesusPredictHisDeathandResurrection?,”inResurrection,ed.StanleyE.Porter,MichaelA.Hayes,andDavidTombs,JSNTSup186,RILP5(Sheffield:SheffieldAcademicPress,1999),82–97.

16.ONISRAELIN“EXILE”INTHETHINKINGOFJESUSANDHISCONTEMPORARIES:SeeNicholasThomasWright,JesusandtheVictoryofGod(London:SPCK;Minneapolis:FortressPress,1996),126–27,203–4;CraigA.Evans,“AspectsofExileandRestorationintheProclamationofJesusandtheGospels,”inExile:OldTestament,Jewish,andChristianConceptions,ed.JamesM.Scott,JSJSup56(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1997),299–328;JohnP.Meier,“Jesus,theTwelveandtheRestorationofIsrael,”inRestoration:OldTestament,Jewish,andChristianPerspectives,ed.JamesM.Scott,JSJSup72(Leiden:Brill,2001),365–404.

17.ONTHEANOINTEDONEOFDAN.9:26:ManyearlyChristianinterpretersassumedthattheanointedoneofDan.9:26wasinreferencetoJesustheMessiah(thoughEusebiusbelievedthereferencewastoHyrcanusII,thelastHasmoneanhighpriestrecognizedbyRome).Moderncriticalinterpretationisimportant,tobesure,butwemustaskhowthetextwasunderstoodinthetimeofJesusandhowJesushimselfmayhaveunderstoodandappliedit.

18.ONTHEDANGEROFCRUCIFIXION:Epictetuscommented:“Ifyouwanttobecrucified,justwait.Thecrosswillcome.Ifitseemsreasonabletocomply,andthecircumstancesareright,thenit’stobecarriedthrough,andyourintegritymaintained”(Discourses2.2.20).JesuswasfondofproverbiallanguagethatdidnotnecessarilyderivefromJewishScriptureandtradition.RecallwhatJesussaidononeoccasion:“Doubtlessyouwillquotetomethisproverb,‘Physician,healyourself;whatwehaveheardyoudidatCapernaum,doherealsoinyourowncountry’”(Luke4:23).Theproverb“Physician,healyourself”probablyoriginatedinanon-Jewishsetting(cf.Euripides,Fragments1086;Plutarch,Moralia32.71F),thougheventuallyitwasgivenexpressioninJewishliterature(Gen.Rab.23.4[onGen.4:23–25]).Otherexamplesofproverbsinclude“Aprophetisnotwithouthonor,exceptinhisowncountry”(Mark6:4;DioChrysostom47.6;Philostratus,LifeofApollonius1.354.12);“Whereverthebodyis,therethevultureswillbegatheredtogether”(Matt.24:28=Luke17:37;cf.Cornutus,OntheNatureoftheGods21;Seneca,Epistles95.43);and“Foriftheydothiswhenthewoodisgreen,whatwillhappenwhenitisdry?”(Luke23:31;cf.SederEliyahuRabbah§14;Gen.Rab.65.22[onGen.27:27]).

19.ONTHEIMPORTANCEOFJUDGMENTINTHEPREACHINGANDTEACHINGOFJESUS:SeetheimportantstudybyMariusReiser,JesusandJudgment:TheEschatologicalProclamationinItsJewishContext,trans.LindaM.Maloney(German,1990;Minneapolis:FortressPress,1997).Reiseroffersadevastatingcritiqueofthenoneschatological-Jesusinterpretation,whichhasbeenfashionableinNorthAmericainrecentyears.

20.ONTHEPRIORITYOFTHEJEWISHPEOPLEINTHEBOOKOFACTS:TheobservationisrightlymadeinBenWitheringtonIII,NewTestamentHistory:ANarrativeAccount(GrandRapids:BakerAcademic;Carlisle:PaternosterPress,2001),234:Acts13:46“indicatesthemissionaryprinciplebywhichPauloperates:themessagemustbebroughtfirsttotheJews,andiftheyrejectit,PaulwillturntotheGentiles.InPisidianAntioch,thismeantthathewouldturntoGentilesoncehewasnolongerwelcomeinthesynagogue.ItdidnotsignalarefusaltoapproachJewsinanothercity,nordidofferingsalvationfirsttotheJewsmeanthatPaulwouldbypassGentilesifthefirstaudience[ofJews]largelyacceptedthegoodnews.”

Chapter3:JamesasLeaderoftheJesusCommunity1.ONTHERESURRECTIONOFJESUSASOCCASIONFORTHECONVERSIONOFHISBROTHER

JAMES:ThisisarguedinFrederickF.Bruce,“JamesandtheChurchofJerusalem,”inhisMenandMovementsinthePrimitiveChurch:StudiesinEarlyNon-PaulineChristianity(Exeter:PaternosterPress,1977),86–119,here87.

2.WHYJAMESBECAMEALEADERINTHEEARLYCHURCH:SeeJosephA.Fitzmyer,TheActsoftheApostles,AB31(NewYork:Doubleday,1998),489.Fitzmyerstatesthat“JamesacquiredsuchastatusintheJerusalemchurchbecauseofhiskinshiptoJesus.”Thisisprobablytruebutonlyconjecture.

3.FORTRANSLATIONANDCRITICALSTUDYOFTHEGOSPELOFTHEHEBREWS:SeeEdgarHenneckeandWilhelmSchneemelcher,eds.,TheNewTestamentApocrypha,vol.1,GospelsandRelatedWritings(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1963),165(quotation§7);WilhelmSchneemelcher,ed.,NewTestamentApocrypha,vol.1,GospelsandRelatedWritings,rev.ed.(Cambridge:JamesClarke;Louisville,KY:Westminster/JohnKnoxPress,1991),178(quotation§7);J.KeithElliott,TheApocryphalNewTestament:ACollectionofApocryphalChristianLiteratureinanEnglishTranslationbasedonM.R.James(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1993),9–10(quotation§4).Forcommentary,seeAlbertusFrederikJohannesKlijn,Jewish-ChristianGospelTradition,VCSup17(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1992),79–86.

4.ONTHESTATUSOFJAMESINTHEEARLYCHURCH:In1Cor.15:7Paulsimplysays,“ThenheappearedtoJames.”NowhereelseistheretraditionofJames’smakingavoworfulfillingitineucharisticfashioninthepresenceoftherisenJesus.

5.ONTHEBACKGROUNDOF“PILLARS”:Seealso11Q1934.15,whichspeaksof“twelvepillars[amudim]”inthetemple.

6.ONTHEMEANINGOF“PILLARS”:SeeC.K.Barrett,“Paulandthe‘Pillar’Apostles,”inStudiaPaulina:InhonoremJohannisdeZwaanseptuagenarii,ed.JanNicolaasSevensterandW.C.vanUnnik(Haarlem:ErvenF.Bohn,1953),1–19,here17.InmyviewBarrettconvincinglyarguesthatPaulgrudginglyacknowledgesJames’spillarstatus.SeealsoCraigS.Keener,“ThePillarsandtheRightHandofFellowshipinGalatians2.9,”JGRChJ7(2010):51–58.

7.ON“PILLARS”ASSUPPORT:SeeBarrett,“Paulandthe‘Pillar’Apostles,”4.Reflectingtheandrocentrismofthetime,Iphigeneiadeclaresthat“malechildrenarethepillarsofhomes[styloigaroikon]”(Euripides,IphigeneiaatTauris57).

8.ON“PILLARS”AS“FOUNDATION”:TheHebrewyesodnormallymeans“foundation,”orthepedestalonwhichapillaroraltarrests.SeethediscussioninRichardBauckham,“JamesandtheJerusalemChurch,”inTheBookofActsinItsPalestinianSetting,ed.RichardBauckham(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1995),415–80,esp.443–45.

9.ONJAMESANDTEMPLEIMAGERY:SeeRichardBauckham,“ForWhatOffenceWasJamesPuttoDeath?,”inJamestheJustandChristianOrigins,ed.BruceD.ChiltonandCraigA.Evans,NovTSup98(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1999),199–232,here207–8.SeealsoBauckham,“JamesandtheJerusalemChurch,”441–50.

10.FORSURVEYSOFTRADITIONSCONCERNEDWITHJAMES:SeeWilhelmPratscher,DerHerrenbruderJakobusunddieJakobustradition,FRLANT139(Göttingen:Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht,1987);JohnPainter,JustJames:TheBrotherofJesusinHistoryandTradition,StudiesonPersonalitiesoftheNewTestament(Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1997;Minneapolis:FortressPress,1999;2nded.,Columbia,2004).JamesappearsinothertraditionsbesidesthosethatIhavecited.

11.FORARECENTSTUDYOFTHEJEWISHRULERAGRIPPAI:SeeDanielR.Schwartz,AgrippaI:TheLastKingofJudaea,TSAJ23(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1990).

12.ONPETER’SSHIFTINGFROMJERUSALEMTOANTIOCHANDTHENTOROME:SeeMarkusBockmuehl,“AntiochandJamestheJust,”inChiltonandEvans,JamestheJustandChristianOrigins,155–98,here183.SeealsoDavidWenham,“DidPeterGotoRomeinA.D.42?,”TynBul23(1972):94–102;RobertW.Wall,“Successorstothe‘theTwelve’accordingtoActs12:1–17,”CBQ53(1991):628–43.

13.ONTHEPHARISEESINACTS15:SeeFitzmyer,Acts,545.14.ONPAULANDTHECOUNCILOFACTS15:Seeibid.,539–40.15.ONPAULANDTHELAW:ThisdoesnotmeanthatPaulpreacheda“law-free”gospel,asisoften

asserted.Theapostlebelievedthatthelawisgood,revealingGod’srighteousnessand—veryimportantly—God’soneness.Gentilesnotonlyhadtoabandoncertainvices,inordertojointhemembershipofthechurch;theyalsohadtoabandontheirworshipoftheirgods.OnlyIsrael’sGod,revealedinthebooksofMosesandintheProphets,wastobeworshiped.ThispointisrightlydrivenhomebyPaulaFredriksen,“JudaizingtheNations:TheRitualDemandsofPaul’sGospel,”NTS56(2010):232–52.

16.ONTHEASSOCIATIONOFSTRANGLEDMEATWITHPAGANSACRIFICE:SeePhilo,Spec.Laws4.122(“Theypreparesacrificeswhichoughtneverbeoffered,stranglingtheirvictims,andstiflingtheessenceoflife,whichtheyoughttoletdepartfreeandunrestrained,buryingtheblood,asitwere,inthebody”).“Blood”mayrefertotheconsumptionofbloodduringpaganculticactivity,butitmayalsorefertomurder,i.e.,sheddingblood.Ifso,wethenhavetwomoralvicestoavoid:fornicationandmurder;andtwopaganpracticestoavoid:idolatryandfoodrelatedtoidolatry.Inrabbinicliterature(e.g.,b.Pesah.25a–b;b.Sanh.74a)threemattersarereferencedinwhichcompromisewasoutofthequestion:(1)idolatry,(2)sheddingblood,and(3)incest(theworstformoffornication).ThelistofvicesintheJerusalemletter(Acts15:23–29)mayapproximateanearlyformofthisteaching.Fordiscussionofthesepossibilities,seeC.K.Barrett,ACriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheActsoftheApostles,2vols.,ICC(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1994–98),2:732–35;Fitzmyer,Acts,556–58.

17.ONPAULANDTHEJERUSALEMCOUNCIL’SDECISION:ThemostimportantdiscussionoftheJerusalemCouncilletterandhowitrelatestoPaulisfoundinPederBorgen,“CataloguesofVices,theApostolicDecree,andtheJerusalemMeeting,”inhisEarlyChristianityandHellenisticJudaism(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1996),233–51.SeealsoBockmuehl,“AntiochandJamestheJust,”181–82.

18.FORANUMBEROFPRIMARYREFERENCESINJEWISHANDNON-JEWISHLITERATURE:SeeHansDieterBetz,Galatians,Hermeneia(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1979),100;RichardN.Longenecker,Galatians,WBC41(Dallas:WordBooks,1990),58;JamesD.G.Dunn,TheEpistletotheGalatians,BNTC(London:A&CBlack,1993),110–11.

19.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHENAZIRITEVOWANDACTS21:SeeJacobNeusner,“Vow-Taking,theNazirites,andtheLaw:DoesJames’AdvicetoPaulAccordwithHalakhah?,”inChiltonandEvans,JamestheJustandChristianOrigins,59–82.

20.ONTHEMEANINGOFTHETEMPLEWARNINGS:SeeJosephM.Baumgarten,“Exclusionsfrom

theTemple:ProselytesandAgrippaI,”JJS33(1982):215–25;PeretzSegal,“ThePenaltyoftheWarningInscriptionsfromtheTempleofJerusalem,”IEJ39(1989):79–84.

21.ONJAMESASAN“EPISTLEOFSTRAW”:LuthermakesthisstatementinhisPrefacetotheNewTestament,1522.SeeHelmutT.Lehmannetal.,eds.,Luther’sWorks,55vols.(SaintLouis:ConcordiaPublishingHouse,1955–),35:362.

Chapter4:PhinehanZealandWorksoftheLaw1.FORDISCUSSIONOFSETTINGANDBACKGROUNDOFMOUNTPEORSTORY:SeeGeorge

BuchananGray,ACriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheBookofNumbers,ICC(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1903),381–83;JohnSturdy,Numbers,TheCambridgeBibleCommentaryontheNewEnglishBible(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1976),183–85;PhilipBudd,Numbers,WBC5(Dallas:WordBooks,1984),281–83;TimothyR.Ashley,TheBookofNumbers,NICOT(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1993),516–19.

2.TRANSLATIONOFTHEDEADSEASCROLLSISBASEDON:MichaelO.Wise,MartinG.AbeggJr.,andEdwardM.Cook,TheDeadSeaScrolls:ANewTranslation(SanFrancisco:HarperCollins,1996),364.ThetranslationinElishaQimronandJohnStrugnell,QumranCave4,partV,MiqsatMaaseHa-Torah,DJD10(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1994),63,failstosoundthescripturalecho.

3.ONTHEGRAMMATICALFORMSOFTHEHEBREW:SeeAbegg’scommentinWise,Abegg,andCook,TheDeadSeaScrolls,359.

4.ONTHEIMPORTANCEOFTHEALLUSIONTOPHINEHAS:SeeCarolynJ.Sharp,“PhinehanZealandRhetoricalStrategyin4QMMT,”RevQ18(1997):207–22;DaneC.Ortlund,“PhinehanZeal:AConsiderationofJamesDunn’sProposal,”JSP20(2011):299–315.

5.ON4QMMTASOFFERINGANIMPORTANTPARALLELTOPAUL’SLANGUAGE:SeeMartinG.AbeggJr.,“Paul,‘WorksoftheLaw’andMMT,”BAR20,no.6(1994):52–55,82;idem,“4QMMTC27,31and‘WorksRighteousness,’”DSD6(1999):139–47;idem,“4QMMT,Paul,and‘WorksoftheLaw,’”inTheBibleatQumran:Text,Shape,andInterpretation,ed.PeterW.Flint,SDSSRL5(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,2001),203–16;PierreGrelot,“LesoeuvresdelaLoi(Aproposde4Q394–398),”RevQ16(1994):441–48;JohnKampen,“4QMMTandNewTestamentStudies,”inReading4QMMT:NewPerspectivesonQumranLawandHistory,ed.JohnKampenandMosheJ.Bernstein,Symposium2(Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1996),129–44,esp.138–43;JamesD.G.Dunn,“4QMMTandGalatians,”NTS43(1997):147–53;MartinusC.deBoer,“Paul’sUseandInterpretationofaJustificationTraditioninGalatians2.15–21,”JSNT28(2005):189–216;JacquelineC.R.deRoo,“WorksoftheLaw”atQumranandinPaul,NTM13(Sheffield:SheffieldPhoenix,2007);OtfriedHofius,“‘WerkedesGesetzes”—ZweiNachträge,”inhisExegetischeStudien,WUNT223(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2008),89–94.

6.FORAHELPFULDISCUSSIONOFPAUL’SOBJECTIONSTOWORKSOFTHELAW:SeeJamesD.G.Dunn,TheNewPerspectiveonPaul,rev.ed.(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,2008),23–28.The“newperspective”referstothemajorshiftinthinkingbroughtonbyEdParishSanders,PaulandPalestinianJudaism:AComparisonofPatternsofReligion(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:FortressPress,1977).Intheyearssincethepublicationofthisbook,ongoingdebateandnotleastthepublicationof4QMMThaveledtoanumberofqualifications.AmajorcritiquewillbefoundinDonaldA.Carson,PeterT.O’Brien,andMarkA.Seifrid,eds.,JustificationandVariegatedNomism,vol.1,TheComplexitiesofSecondTempleJudaism,WUNT2.140(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2001);idem,vol.2,TheParadoxesofPaul,WUNT2.181(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2004).ThenumerousstudiesinthesetwovolumeshaveunderscoredthecomplexityanddiversityofattitudestowardthelawinJewishlateantiquity.SeveralstudiesinthesecondvolumefindthatinGalatiansandRomans,PaulinallprobabilitywaschallengingtheattemptsofsometojustifythemselvesthroughkeepingthelawofMoses.Onthispoint,seeGregoryK.Beale,“TheOverstated‘New’Perspective?,”BBR19(2009):85–94.

7.THATTRUEFAITHRESULTSINRIGHTEOUSDEEDS:SeedeRoo,“WorksoftheLaw”atQumranandinPaul,217–22.

8.FORASIMILARCOMBINATIONOFFAITHANDWORKS:See4Ezra(=2Esdras),composedca.100CE:“Hewhobringstheperilatthattimewillhimselfprotectthosewhofallintoperil,whohaveworksandhavefaith[Latin:quihabentoperasetfidem]intheAlmighty”(13:23).Seealso4Ezra9:7–8“Anditshallbethateveryonewhowillbesavedandwillbeabletoescapeonaccountofhisworks[peroperasua],oronaccountofthefaithbywhichhehasbelieved[perfideminquacredidit],willsurvivethedangersthathavebeenpredicted.”Forfurtherdiscussionoftextssuchasthese,seeCraigA.Evans,“Pauland‘WorksofLaw’LanguageinLateAntiquity,”inPaulandHisOpponents,ed.StanleyE.Porter,PAST2(Leiden:E.J.Brill,2005),201–26.

9.ONBEINGPERFECT:Jesus’“You…mustbeperfect,asyourheavenlyFatherisperfect”(Matt.5:48)isanalogoustothelogicexpressedintheHolinessCode:“AndtheLORDsaidtoMoses,‘SaytoallthecongregationofthepeopleofIsrael,Youshallbeholy;forItheLORDyourGodamholy’”(Lev.19:1–2).Itisinthiscontextthatthecommandtoloveone’sneighborasoneselfappears(i.e.,19:18).

10.ONTHEROYALLAWANDLEV.19:18:SeeScotMcKnight,TheLetterofJames,NICNT(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,2011),206–7;WiardPopkes,DerBriefdesJakobus,THKNT14(Leipzig:EvangelischeVerlagsanstalt,2001),171–75.

Chapter5:JerusalemCommunitiesinConflict1.ONTHEHISTORYOFCONFLICTBETWEENTHEARISTOCRATICPRIESTSANDTHEJESUS

MOVEMENT:SeeEyalRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-PriestlyProsecutionsfromPetertoJames:BetweenNarrativeandHistory,”NTS56(2010):64–89.

2.FORIMPORTANTBACKGROUNDONTHEARISTOCRATICPRIESTSANDPOLITICS:SeealsoRichardA.Horsley,“HighPriestsandthePoliticsofRomanPalestine,”JSJ17(1986):23–55.Horsleybroadensthescopeofdiscussioninimportantways,showinghowtherulingpriests,intheirattemptstomaintainlawandorder(asRomeexpected),frequentlycameintoconflictwithvariousreformandpeasantmovements,whichoftenwereledbycharismaticsinspiredbyIsrael’sstoriesofdeliverance.

3.ONDAVIDINTHEARAMAICVERSIONOFPS.118:Davidappearsinvv.26and28:“‘WeblessyoufromthehouseofthesanctuaryoftheLord,’saidDavid”(v.26);“‘YouaremyGod,andIwillgivethanksbeforeyou;OmyGod,Iwillpraiseyou,’saidDavid”(v.28).TranslationbyDavidM.Stec,TheTargumofPsalms:Translated,withaCriticalIntroduction,Apparatus,andNotes,ArBib16(Collegeville,MN:LiturgicalPress,2004),210.

4.ONRABBINICINTERPRETATIONOFPS.118:Partofthemidrashreads:“‘Opentomethegatesofrighteousness.’…AndDavidsaid:‘Ihavedoneallthesethings.Thereforeletallthegatesbeopenedforme.’”TranslationbyWilliamG.Braude,TheMidrashonPsalms,2vols.,YJS13(LondonandNewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1959),2:243.

5.ONTRIUMPHALENTRIES:DavidCatchpolecitestwelveexamplesofcelebratedentries(mostentriesintoJerusalem),sixfrom1and2Maccabees,andsixfromJosephus,ofa“moreorlessfixedpatternofentry.”SeeDavidR.Catchpole,“The‘Triumphal’Entry,”inJesusandthePoliticsofHisDay,ed.ErnstBammelandC.F.D.Moule(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1984),319–35,esp.319–21.

6.ONTHEMEANINGOFJESUS’DEMONSTRATIONINTHETEMPLEPRECINCTS:SeeEdParishSanders,JesusandJudaism(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:Fortress,1985),61–76.SandersrightlychallengesthenotionthatJesusprotestedthepracticeofsacrifice.

7.ONTHECURRENCYOFISA.56:See1Macc.7:34–38;NicholasPerrin,JesustheTemple(London:SPCK;GrandRapids:BakerAcademic,2010),84–88.

8.FORASURVEYOFEVIDENCEFORPERCEIVINGCORRUPTIONINTHEFIRST-CENTURYTEMPLE:SeeCraigA.Evans,“Jesus’ActionintheTempleandEvidenceofCorruptionintheFirst-CenturyTemple,”inSocietyofBiblicalLiterature1989SeminarPapers,ed.DavidJ.Lull,SBLSP28(Atlanta:ScholarsPress,1989),522–39.

9.ONJESUS’RESPECTFORTHELAWOFMOSES:RecallthatwhenJesushealedtheleper,heorderedhimtogoandshowhimselftothe(local,village)priestanddoasMosescommanded(Mark1:40–44).

10.ONTHEINTERPRETATIONOFISA.5:1–7:Theanti-temple-establishmentorientationofIsa.5:1–7isattestedintheAramaicparaphraseandinrabbinicinterpretation(cf.t.Me il.1.16;t.Sukkah3.15).Theantiquityofthisinterpretationisattestedby4Q500.Onthispoint,seeJosephM.Baumgarten,“4Q500andtheAncientConceptionoftheLord’sVineyard,”JJS40(1989):1–6;GeorgeJ.Brooke,“4Q5001andtheUseofScriptureintheParableoftheVineyard,”DSD2(1995):268–94.

11.ONTHETESTIMONYOFJOSEPHUSREGARDINGJESUS:Foranabledefenseofthisposition,seeJohnP.Meier,“JesusinJosephus:AModestProposal,”CBQ52(1990):76–103;VictorUlrich,“DasTestimoniumFlavianum:EinauthentischerTextdesJosephus,”NovT52(2010):72–82.Ulrichrightlyobservesthatmuchoftheskepticismwithrespecttotheauthenticityofthistestimoniumgrowsoutofmisunderstandingwhatitreallysays.SeealsoShlomoPines,AnArabicVersionoftheTestimoniumFlavianumandItsImplications(Jerusalem:IsraelAcademyofSciencesandHumanities,1971).PinesthinkstheArabicversionofthepassage,whichlackssomeoftheglossedmaterial,maybeclosetothe

originalformofthetext.TheArabicversionofthepassageisfoundinAgapius,MelkitebishopofManbijinSyria(tenthcenturyCE),Kitabal- Unwan[BookofHeadings/Titles=UniversalHistory].Formorerecentsupportofthissuggestion,seeDavidFlusser,“BerichtdesJosephusüberJesus,”inhisEntdeckungenimNeuenTestament,vol.1(Neukirchen-Vluyn:NeukirchenerVerlag,1992),216–25;and,withsomeimportantqualifications,AliceWhealey,“TheTestimoniumFlavianuminSyriacandArabic,”NTS54(2008):573–90.

12.ONJOSEPHUSANDHISREFERENCESTOTHEJEWISHLEADERS:SeeAnt.11.140–41;18.121;Luke19:47(“theprincipalmenofthepeople”).

13.ONPETERANDTHETEMPLE:SeeRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-PriestlyProsecutions,”66–67.

14.ONTHELINGUISTICELEMENTSTHATLIEBEHINDTHESTORYOFSTEPHEN’SMARTYRDOM:SeeMartinHengel,BetweenJesusandPaul:StudiesintheEarliestHistoryofChristianity(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1983),1–18.

15.ONTHEQUARRELWITHSTEPHEN:TheaccusationsagainstStephenoriginateamongpersonswhoarepartofthe“SynagogueoftheFreedman,”whosemembershipincludespersonsfromtheDiaspora(Acts6:9).ThefamousTheodotosSynagogueInscriptionmentionsroomsavailableforthosefromabroad(CII2.332–35§1404;http://members.bib-arch.org/publication.asp?PubID=BSBA&Volume=29&Issue=4&ArticleID=14).ForthisreasonsomescholarswonderifthisistheverysynagoguementionedinActs6:9.

16.ONSTEPHEN’SDEATHUNDERTHEAUTHORITYOFCAIAPHAS:ThatStephen,anearlymartyroftheJesusmovement,waskilledbythesamehigh-priestlyleadershipthathadopposedJesusisnotlostonEusebius,thefourth-centurychurchhistorian,whoremarks:“Stephen…wasstonedtodeath…bytheslayersoftheLord”(Hist.eccl.2.1.1;cf.3.5.2).

17.ONTHESTONINGOFSTEPHEN:SeeRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-PriestlyProsecutions,”67:“akindofpubliclynching.”FormoreonthequestionofStephen’sblasphemyanddeath,seeHengel,BetweenJesusandPaul,19–25.

18.ONTHEMEANINGOF“LAIDVIOLENTHANDS”(ACTS12:1):Thetextliterallyreads,“laidhandstodoevil”(epebalen…tascheiraskakōsai).

19.ONTHEMOTIVEFORKILLINGJAMESSONOFZEBEDEE:SeeRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-PriestlyProsecutions,”67.TheaccountinEusebiusishagiographicandinanycaseoffersnomotive(Hist.eccl.2.9.1–4).

20.ONKILLINGJAMESTOAVOIDPOLITICALDISTURBANCE:SeeDanielR.Schwartz,AgrippaI:TheLastKingofJudaea,TSAJ23(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1990),119–24.

21.JosephA.Fitzmyer,TheActsoftheApostles,AB31(NewYork:Doubleday,1998),487:“WearenottoldwhyHerodtakessuchactionagainstChristiansinJudea.”

22.ONAGRIPPA’SMOTIVES:Ibid.,487:“Herod’sactionsaremarkedbycaprice.”Onthecontrary,Agrippa’smotiveswereprobablyfarmoreintentional.

23.ONTHEAPPOINTMENTOFANANIASSONOFNEDEBAEUS:AnaniaswasappointedbytheRomanprocuratorVentidiusCumanusin47CEandserveduntil59CE(cf.Josephus,Ant.20.103).

24.ONPAUL’SCONFLICTWITHTEMPLEAUTHORITIES:SeeRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-PriestlyProsecutions,”68–69.

25.ONPAULINCUSTODY:Seeibid.,69.26.AVERSIONOFTHESTORYOFJAMES’SDEATHISRECOUNTEDinEusebius,Hist.eccl.

2.23.21–24.27.ONTHEMOTIVESFORKILLINGJAMES:SeeRichardBauckham,“ForWhatOffencewasJames

PuttoDeath?,”inJamestheJustandChristianOrigins,ed.BruceD.ChiltonandCraigA.Evans,NovTSup98(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1999),199–232.BauckhambelievesJameswasputtodeathforleadingthepeopleastrayinthesenseofthefalseprophet,whoenticesIsraeltogoafterothergods(cf.Deut.13).

28.ONCOMPETINGFORTHEHEARTSOFTHEJEWISHPEOPLE:SeeJamesS.McLaren,“Ananus,

James,andtheEarliestChristianity:Josephus’sAccountoftheDeathofJames,”JTS52(2001):1–25.29.ONATTITUDESTOWARDTHETEMPLE:SeeRegev,“TempleConcernsandHigh-Priestly

Prosecutions,”88.30.ONTHESTORYOFJESUSBENANANIAS:EusebiusrecountsaversionofthisstoryinHist.eccl.

3.8.7–9.31.ONTHEPARALLELSBETWEENTHEEXPERIENCESOFJESUSOFNAZARETHANDJESUS

BENANANIAS:TheseparallelsaredelineatedinCraigA.Evans,“Jesusandthe‘CaveofRobbers’:TowardaJewishContextfortheTempleAction,”BBR3(1993):93–110,esp.105–7.Impressedbytheseparallels,TheodoreWeedenhasarguedthatMark’sstoryofJesusdependsonJosephus’sstoryofJesusbenAnanias.SeeTheodoreJ.Weeden,“TwoJesuses,JesusofJerusalemandJesusofNazareth:ProvocativeParallelsandImaginativeImitation,”Forum6(2003):137–341.Thisismostunlikely,notleastinlightofthefactthatMark’sGospelwaswrittenbefore70CE,andJewishWarswaswrittennoearlierthan74CE.TheparallelsbetweenMarkandJosephusbearwitnesstoRomanjuridicalprocessinpre-70-CEJerusalem,inwhichtheJewishpriestlyaristocracyandRomanauthoritycollaboratedinmaintaininglawandorder.ThereisnohintanywhereintheGospelofMarkoftheinfluenceofthewritingsofJosephus.SeealsoDaleC.AllisonJr.,ConstructingJesus:Memory,Imagination,andHistory(GrandRapids:BakerAcademic,2010),237n.67.AllisonfindsWeeden’sinterpretationimplausibleandunnecessary.

32.FORACRITICALSTUDYOFTHEORACLEUTTEREDBYJESUSBENANANIAS:SeeAnnaMariaSchwemer,“IrdischerundhimmlischerKönig:BeobachtungenzursogenanntenDavid-ApokalypseinHekhalotRabbati§§122–126,”inKönigsherrschaftGottesundhimmlischerKultimJudentum,UrchristentumundinderhellenistischenWelt,ed.MartinHengelandAnnaMariaSchwemer(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1991),309–59,here352–58.

Chapter6:TheChurchbetweenPaul,James,andIgnatius1.ONTHEPARTINGOFTHECHRISTIANCHURCHFROMTHEJEWISHPEOPLEANDJUDAISM:

Inrecentyearsscholarlyliteratureconcernedwiththistopichasmushroomed.Forasample,seeJamesD.G.Dunn,ThePartingsoftheWays:BetweenChristianityandJudaismandTheirSignificancefortheCharacterofChristianity(London:SCMPress,1991;2nded.,2006);idem,ed.,JewsandChristians:ThePartingoftheWays,A.D.70to135,WUNT66(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1992;repr.,GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,2001).Ofcourse,importantlinesofcontinuityremained.SeeAdamH.BeckerandAnnetteYoshikoReed,eds.,TheWaysThatNeverParted:JewsandChristiansinLateAntiquityandtheMiddleAges,TSAJ95(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2003;repr.,Minneapolis:FortressPress,2007);OskarSkarsauneandReidarHvalvik,eds.,JewishBelieversinJesus:TheEarlyCenturies(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,2007).

2.FORCAUTIONSABOUTDEFININGETHNICANDRELIGIOUSCATEGORIESTOOSHARPLY:SeeDavidFrankfurter,“Beyond‘JewishChristianity’:ContinuingReligiousSub-CulturesoftheSecondandThirdCenturiesandTheirDocuments,”inBeckerandReed,TheWaysThatNeverParted,131–43.Otheressaysinthisvolumemakesimilarpoints.

3.ONANTI-SEMITISMANDTHEEARLYCHRISTIANMOVEMENT:SeeCraigA.EvansandDonaldA.Hagner,eds.,Anti-SemitismandEarlyChristianity:IssuesofPolemicandFaith(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1993).Amongotherthings,thecontributorstothisvolumefoundnoanti-SemitismintheNewTestament,butdidfindsomeinitslaterinterpretationanduse.ThisimportanttopichasrecentlybeenexploredfurtherinTerenceL.Donaldson,JewsandAnti-JudaismintheNewTestament(London:SPCK;Waco:BaylorUniversityPress,2010).

4.ONTHEMATTHEANCOMMUNITYASAJEWISHSECT:SeeJ.AndrewOverman,Matthew’sGospelandFormativeJudaism:AStudyoftheSocialWorldoftheMattheanCommunity(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1990).

5.ONMATTHEWASAJEWISHTEACHER:SeeAnthonyJ.Saldarini,Matthew’sChristian-Jewish

Community,CSHJ(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1994).6.ONTHEMATTHEANCOMMUNITYASJEWSWHOBELIEVEINJESUS:SeeDavidC.Sim,The

GospelofMatthewandChristianJudaism:TheHistoryandSocialSettingoftheMattheanCommunity(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1998).Toanimportantdegree,thestudiesofOverman,Saldarini,andSim(seepreviousnotes)confirmessentialelementsofthegroundbreakingredaction-criticalstudiesofGüntherBornkamm,GerhardBarth,andHeinzJoachimHeld,TraditionandInterpretationinMatthew(Philadelphia:Westminster,1963);ÜberlieferungundAuslegungimMatthäusevangelium,5thed.(Neukirchen-Vluyn:NeukirchenerVerlag,1968).

7.ONMATTHEW’SPORTRAITOFJESUSASFULFILLEROFTHELAW:SeeScotMcKnight,“ALoyalCritic:Matthew’sPolemicwithJudaisminTheologicalPerspective,”inEvansandHagner,eds.,Anti-SemitismandEarlyChristianity,55–79;Donaldson,JewsandAnti-Judaism,30–54.

8.FORFURTHERDISCUSSIONOFTHEMESSIAHPASSAGEINTHEMISHNAH:SeeCraigA.Evans,“MishnaandMessiah‘inContext’:SomeCommentsonJacobNeusner’sProposals,”JBL112(1993):267–89.

9.IFZECHARIAHISTHESONOFJEHOIADA:WemayhaveexamplesofmurderfromthebeginningofHebrewScripture(i.e.,AbelinGen.4)toitsend(i.e.,Zechariahin2Chr.24).

10.FORADISCUSSIONOFTHEVARIOUSINTERPRETATIONSTHATHAVEBEENPUTFORWARDCONCERNINGTHEIDENTITYOFZECHARIAH:SeeDaleC.AllisonJr.andW.D.Davies,ACriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheGospelaccordingtoSaintMatthew,vol.3,CommentaryonMatthewXIX–XXVIII,ICC(Edinburgh:T&TClark,1997),318–19.

11.ONJOHNANDTHESYNAGOGUGE:SeeDonaldson,JewsandAnti-Judaism,81–108.12.THATJOHN’SIOUDAIOISHOULDBETRANSLATED“JUDEANS”:SeeSteveMason,“Jews,

Judeans,Judaizing,Judaism:ProblemsofCategorizationinAncientHistory,”inhisJosephus,Judea,andChristianOrigins:MethodsandCategories(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,2009),141–84.

13.ONTHEGOSPELOFJOHNANDEXPULSIONFROMTHESYNAGOGUE:SeeJ.LouisMartyn,HistoryandTheologyintheFourthGospel(NewYork:Harper&Row,1968);3rded.,withanintroductionbyD.MoodySmith(Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2003).PartofMartyn’sthesiswasanticipatedbyKennethL.Carroll,“TheFourthGospelandtheExclusionofChristiansfromtheSynagogue,”BJRL40(1957–58):19–32.

14.ONTHETWELFTHBENEDICTIONOFTHEAMIDAH:Forcriticaldiscussionandnotes,seeIsmarElbogen,JewishLiturgy:AComprehensiveHistory(Philadelphia:TheJewishPublicationSociety;NewYorkandJerusalem:TheJewishTheologicalSeminaryofAmerica,1993),45–46and397–98(notes).SeealsothetextandcriticalapparatusinGustafH.Dalman,DieWorteJesu:MitBerücksichtigungdesnachkanonischenjüdischenSchrifttumsundderaramäischenSprache(Leipzig:Hinrichs,1898),303.

15.FORSCHOLARLYDISCUSSIONOFMARTYN’SHYPOTHESIS:SeeWayneA.Meeks,“BreakingAway:ThreeNewTestamentPicturesofChristianity’sSeparationfromtheJewishCommunities,”in“ToSeeOurselvesasOthersSeeUs”:Christians,Jews,“Others”inLateAntiquity,ed.JacobNeusnerandErnestS.Frerichs(Chico,CA:ScholarsPress,1985),93–115.Hiscriticismsnotwithstanding,MeeksdoesaccepttheessenceofMartyn’sthesis.

16.FORFURTHERSCHOLARLYDISCUSSIONOFMARTYN’SHYPOTHESIS:SeeD.MoodySmith’sintroductoryessayinMartyn,HistoryandTheologyintheFourthGospel,3rded.(2003),1–23.

17.ONTHEAPOLOGETICFUNCTIONOFSCRIPTUREINTHEGOSPELOFJOHN:SeeCraigA.Evans,“OntheQuotationFormulasintheFourthGospel,”BZ26(1982):79–83;idem,WordandGlory:OntheExegeticalandTheologicalBackgroundofJohn’sPrologue,JSNTSup89(Sheffield:JSOTPress,1993),173–81.

18.ONTHECOMPOSITIONOFTHEDIALOGUEWITHTRYPHO:JustinMartyr’sDialoguewithTryphoisartificial.InallprobabilityJustinhaseditedaJewishtract,perhapsactuallyauthoredbya

mannamedTrypho,andinsertedhisanswers.TheimportantpointisthattheobjectionsandargumentsattributedtoTryphoareauthenticallyJewishandcirculatedintheearlydecadesofthesecondcentury.SeeTimothyJ.Horner,ListeningtoTrypho:JustinMartyr’sDialogueReconsidered,CBET28(Leuven:Peeters,2001).

19.FORSTUDYOFTHELETTERSTOTHESEVENCHURCHESINASIAMINOR:Inadditiontothemajorcommentaries,seeColinJ.Hemer,TheLetterstotheSevenChurchesofAsiainTheirLocalSetting,JSNTSup11(Sheffield:JSOTPress,1986).

20.ONTHEDATEANDTEXTUALCOMPLEXITYOFTHELETTERSOFIGNATIUS:SeethesuccinctsummaryinMichaelW.Holmes,TheApostolicFathers:GreekTextsandEnglishTranslations,3rded.(GrandRapids:BakerAcademic,2007),166–73.

21.ONTHEMEANINGOFTHE“ARCHIVES”INTHELETTERTOTHEPHILADELPHIANS:SeeJosephB.Lightfoot,TheApostolicFathers:Clement,Ignatius,andPolycarp,5vols.(London:Macmillan,1889–90),2:270–71.Lightfootbelievesarcheia,theoldbooks,standincontrasttothenew,theeuangelion.Hecites2Clement14.2(tabibliakaihoiapostoloi,“thebooksandtheapostles”)asaparallel.

22.ONTHEMEANINGOF“IDONOTBELIEVEIT”INTHELETTERTOTHEPHILADELPHIANS:SeeLightfoot,TheApostolicFathers,2:271–72.

23.ONTHEPLACEOFTHEOLDTESTAMENTINTHELETTERSOFIGNATIUS:SeeHemer,LetterstotheSevenChurches,169.

24.ONTHEEFFORTSTOLUREJEWSBACKTOTHESYNAGOGUE:ThisisplausiblysuggestedbyHemer,LetterstotheSevenChurches,169–70.IdisagreewithLightfoot(TheApostolicFathers,2:242)whenhesaysIgnatiusisattacking“DoceticJudaism.”Thereisnothingdocetichere.

25.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHECONTINUITYBETWEENREV.3:9ANDTHELETTERTOTHEPHILADELPHIANS8.2:SeeHemer,LetterstotheSevenChurches,168–70.

26.ONDOCETISMINTHELETTERTOTHEMAGNESIANS:IdonotagreewithLightfoot,TheApostolicFathers,2:103,124.ThereisnoclearevidenceofdocetisminTotheMagnesians.

27.ONSUNDAYASTHELORD’SDAY:SeeRev.1:10;Did.14.1;cf.1Cor.16:2.28.FORADDITIONALCOMMENTARYONTOTHEMAGNESIANS10:SeeLightfoot,TheApostolic

Fathers,2:124–34;RobertM.Grant,TheApostolicFathers:ATranslationandCommentary,vol.4,IgnatiusofAntioch(NewYork:ThomasNelson,1966),62–64.

29.TRADITIONATTRIBUTEDTORABBISIMEONBENYOHAI:“RabbiSimeonbenYohaitaught:‘Aqiba,mymaster,usedtointerpret“astar[kokav]goesforthfromJacob”[Num.24:17]—Kozeba[kozeva ]goesforthfromJacob.”’RabbiAqiba,whenhesawBarKozeba,said:‘ThisistheKingMessiah.’”ThankstothediscoveryofsomeofhislettersintheCaveofLettersofNahalHever,weknowSimon’snameinGreekwasspelledSimonChosiba(cf.P.Yadin59line2).ThevariousAramaicandHebrewspellingsencounteredinrabbinicliterature—koseba ,kosebah,kosbah,kozebah,kozeba ,andothers(thelastfromkazav,“tolie,”“todisappoint”)—representexegesisandpuns,whetherpositiveornegative.

30.ONAQIBA’SRECOGNITIONOFSIMONBENKOSIBAASTHEMESSIAH:SeePeterSchäfer,“R.AqivaundBarKokhba,”inhisStudienzurGeschichteundTheologiedesrabbinischenJudentums,AGJU15(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1978),65–121;idem,“RabbiAqivaandBarKokhba,”inApproachestoAncientJudaism,ed.WilliamS.Green,vol.2,BJS9(Chico,CA:ScholarsPress,1980),113–30.LesscautiousisAdeleReinhartz(“RabbinicPerceptionsofSimeonbarKosiba,”JSJ20[1989]:171–94)whospeaksof“irrefutableevidenceforthemessianicidentificationofBarKosiba”(192).Ibelievethattheevidenceiscompelling,buthardlyirrefutable.

31.FORAREVIEWOFTHEPRIMARYLITERATURERELATINGTOSIMON:SeeCraigA.Evans,“WasSimonbenKosibaRecognizedasMessiah?,”inhisJesusandHisContemporaries:ComparativeStudies,AGJU25(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1995),183–211.

32.ONEOFSIMONBENKOSIBA’SLETTERS:“SimeonbarKosibatoYehonathan:…YouaretodelivertomeEleazar,…andwhoeverraisesaclamoragainstyouonthissortofmatter,dispatchhim

tomyside,andIwillexactpunishment”(P.Yadin50);“[col.1]SimeonbarKosiba,thePrinceoverIsrael,toYehonathanandtoMasabala:Peace!Youaretoexamineandtoseizethewheatthathebroughtup.…Andplacethemunderguard,becausetheywerefoundtobestolen.…[col.2]AndanyTeko anmanwhoisfoundwithyou—letthehouseinwhichtheyresidebeburneddown,andfromyouIshallexactpunishment.AndseizeYeshua,sonofthePalmyrene,andsendhimtomeunderguard.Donotfailtoseizetheswordthatisonhim”(P.Yadin54).ForAramaicandHebrewtexts,withEnglishtranslation,seeYigaelYadinetal.,eds.,TheDocumentsfromtheBar-KokhbaPeriodintheCaveofLetters,vol.3,part1,Hebrew,AramaicandNabataean-AramaicPapyri;part2,Plates(Jerusalem:IsraelExplorationSociety,2002),290and308.Foradditionalexamplesthatspeakofpunishment,see314(P.Yadin55),319(P.Yadin56),and364(P.Yadin59).

33.ONTHEQUESTIONOFTHESOCIETYFOUNDEDBYJESUS:SeeGézaVermès,TheReligionofJesustheJew(London:SCMPress;Minneapolis:FortressPress,1993),215.AlthoughIdisagreewithProfessorVermèsatthispoint,Idoagreewithmanyotherpointshemakesinthisinsightfulbook.

Appendix:RootCausesoftheJewish-ChristianRift1.ONTHEPARTINGOFTHEWAYS:Seeesp.JamesD.G.Dunn,ed.,JewsandChristians:The

PartingsoftheWaysA.D.70to135,WUNT66(Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1992);idem,ThePartingsoftheWays(London:SCMPress;Philadelphia:TrinityPressInternational,1991).

2.ONTHEUSEFULNESSOF“PARTINGOFTHEWAYS”LANGUAGE:SeeJudithLieu,“‘ThePartingoftheWays’:TheologicalConstructorHistoricalReality?,”JSNT56(1994):101–19.

3.FORAMAJORTREATMENTOFTHEORIGINSOFTHEDIVINITYOFJESUS:SeeLarryW.Hurtado,LordJesusChrist:DevotiontoJesusinEarliestChristianity(GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,2003).

4.FORDISCUSSIONOFTHECHURCH’SUSEOFTHESEPTUAGINT:SeeMartinHengel,withtheassistanceofRolandDeines,TheSeptuagintasChristianScripture:ItsPrehistoryandtheProblemofItsCanon,withanintroductionbyRobertHanhart,OldTestamentStudies(Edinburgh:T&TClark,2002).

5.ONALLUSIONINBARNABASTOJEWISHHOPESTOREBUILDTHETEMPLE:SeeWilliamHorbury,“Jewish-ChristianRelationsinBarnabasandJustinMartyr,”inDunn,JewsandChristians,315–45.SeeadditionalcommentaryinRobertA.Kraft,TheApostolicFathers:ATranslationandCommentary,vol.3,BarnabasandtheDidache(NewYork:ThomasNelson,1965),130–31.

6.ONJEWISHMENWHOMAYHAVEBEENREGARDEDASMESSIANICCLAIMANTS:SeeRichardA.Horsley,“PopularMessianicMovementsaroundtheTimeofJesus,”CBQ46(1984):471–95;RichardA.HorsleyandJohnS.Hanson,Bandits,Prophets,andMessiahs:PopularMovementsattheTimeofJesus(SanFrancisco:Harper&Row,1985),88–134;CraigA.Evans,AncientTextsforNewTestamentStudies:AGuidetotheBackgroundLiterature(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,2005),431–43.However,MarinusdeJonge(ChristologyinContext:TheEarliestChristianResponsetoJesus[Philadelphia:WestminsterPress,1988])hashisdoubtsandcomments:“Thisisanattractivetheory,butunfortunatelydifficulttosubstantiatefromliterarysources:wehaveonlyJosephus’veryone-sidedpresentationofthefacts”(164).Thisistrue,butJosephus’sbiastendstodownplaythemessianicelementsandaccompanyingscripturalfoundations.

7.MOREONMESSIANICCLAIMANTS:ItisprobablethatbothMenahemandSimonbarGiora(inthefirstwarwithRome:66–70CE)mademessianicclaimsofonesortoranother,whileitisvirtuallycertainthatSimonbenKosiba(inthesecondwarwithRome:132–35)claimedtobeIsrael’sMessiah.SeeCraigA.Evans,JesusandHisContemporaries:ComparativeStudies,AGJU25(Leiden:E.J.Brill,1995),183–211.

8.FORASURVEYOFPRIMARYLITERATURERELATINGTOCRUCIFIXIONINLATEANTIQUITY:SeeMartinHengel,CrucifixionintheAncientWorldandtheFollyoftheMessageoftheCross(Philadelphia:FortressPress,1977),1–10;idem,“ChristologicalTitlesinEarly

Christianity,”inTheMessiah:DevelopmentsinEarliestJudaismandChristianity,ed.JamesH.Charlesworth(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1992),425–48,esp.425–30.

9.ONJEWISHCHRISTIANITYANDITSRELATIONSHIPTOTHELARGER,PREDOMINANTLYGENTILECHURCH:seeRayA.Pritz,NazareneJewishChristianity:FromtheEndoftheNewTestamentPerioduntilItsDisappearanceintheFourthCentury(Jerusalem:Magnes;Leiden:E.J.Brill,1988);andtheessaysbyOskarSkarsaune(ontheEbionites)andWolframKinzig(ontheNazoreans)inJewishBelieversinJesus:TheEarlyCenturies,ed.OskarSkarsauneandReidarHvalvik(Peabody,MA:HendricksonPublishers,2007),419–62and463–87,respectively.

10.ONTHEAFTERMATHOFTHEBARKOKHBAWAR:FollowingthedefeatofSimonin135CE,itwouldbethreecenturiesbeforethereappearanceofmessianicfervor.Basedonvariouscalculations,itwasbelievedthattheMessiahwouldcomeeitherin440CE(cf.b.Sanh.97b)orin471CE(cf.b.Abod.Zar.9b).Otherdatesweresuggested.Answeringthisexpectation,one“MosesofCrete”(ca.448CE)promisedtoleadtheJewishpeoplethroughthesea,dry-shod,fromCretetoPalestine.AthiscommandmanyofhisfollowersthrewthemselvesintotheMediterranean.Somedrowned;otherswererescued.Moseshimselfdisappeared(cf.SocratesScholasticus,Historiaecclesiastica7.38;12.33).EvidentlyMosestypologyhadcontinuedtoplayanimportantroleinshapingrestorationhopes.Avarietyofotherpseudo-messiahsappearedintheIslamicperiod(esp.intheeighthcentury),duringthelaterCrusades(esp.inthetwelfthandthirteenthcenturies),andevenaslateasthesixteenth,seventeenth,andeighteenthcenturies(cf.JewishEncyclopedia[1906],10:252–55,http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/12416-pseudo-messiahs).

SuggestionsforFurtherReading

TheTimebetweentheTestaments

Barclay,J.M.G.JewsintheMediterraneanDiaspora:FromAlexandertoTrajan(323BCE–117CE).Edinburgh:T&TClark,1996.

Grabbe,LesterL.JudaismfromCyrustoHadrian.Vol.1,ThePersianandGreekPeriods.Vol.2,TheRomanPeriod.Minneapolis:FortressPress,1992.

Hayes,JohnH.,andSaraR.Mandell.TheJewishPeopleinClassicalAntiquity:FromAlexandertoBarKochba.Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,1998.

Horbury,William,etal.,eds.TheCambridgeHistoryofJudaism.Vol.3,TheEarlyRomanPeriod.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1999.

Reicke,Bo.TheNewTestamentEra.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1974.Russell,DavidS.TheJewsfromAlexandertoHerod.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1967.Stern,Menahem.GreekandLatinAuthorsonJewsandJudaism.3vols.Jerusalem:TheIsraelAcademyof

SciencesandHumanities,1974,1980,1984.

TheTimeofJesusandtheEarlyChurchBarnett,Paul.JesusandtheRiseofEarlyChristianity:AHistoryofNewTestamentTimes.DownersGrove,

IL:InterVarsityPress,1999.Bond,HelenK.Caiaphas:FriendofRomeandJudgeofJesus?Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnox

Press,2004._____.PontiusPilateinHistoryandInterpretation.SNTSMS100.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity

Press,1998.Bruce,FrederickF.NewTestamentHistory.NewYork:Doubleday,1972.Chilton,BruceD.,andCraigA.Evans,eds.JamestheJustandChristianOrigins.NovTSup98.Leiden:E.

J.Brill,1999._____,eds.TheMissionsofJames,Peter,andPaul:TensionsinEarlyChristianity.NovTSup115.Leiden:

E.J.Brill,2004.Chilton,BruceD.,andJacobNeusner,eds.TheBrotherofJesus:JamestheJustandHisMission.

Louisville,KY:WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,2001.Duriez,Colin.AD33:TheYearThatChangedtheWorld.DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2007.Goodman,Martin.TheRulingClassofJudaea:TheOriginsoftheJewishRevoltagainstRome,A.D.66–

70.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1987.Hengel,Martin.The“Hellenization”ofJudaeaintheFirstCenturyafterChrist.London:SCMPress;

Philadelphia:TrinityPressInternational,1989._____.Jews,GreeksandBarbarians:AspectsoftheHellenizationofJudaisminthePre-ChristianPeriod.

London:SCMPress,1980._____.JudaismandHellenism:StudiesinTheirEncounterinPalestineduringtheEarlyHellenistic

Period.2vols.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1974.Repr.asonevol.,1981._____.WasJesusaRevolutionist?FBBS28.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1971._____.TheZealots:InvestigationsintotheJewishFreedomMovementinthePeriodfromHerodIuntil70

A.D.Edinburgh:T&TClark,1989.Horsley,RichardA.Galilee:History,Politics,People.ValleyForge,PA:TrinityPressInternational,1995._____.JesusandtheSpiralofViolence:PopularJewishResistanceinRomanPalestine.SanFrancisco:

Harper&Row,1987.Horsley,RichardA.,andJohnS.Hanson.Bandits,Prophets,andMessiahs:PopularMovementsatthe

TimeofJesus.NewVoicesinBiblicalStudies.Minneapolis:Winston,1985.Repr.,SanFrancisco:Harper&Row,1988.

Jeffers,JamesS.TheGreco-RomanWorldoftheNewTestamentEra:ExploringtheBackgroundofEarlyChristianity.DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,1999.

Jensen,MortenH.HerodAntipasinGalilee.2nded.WUNT2/215.Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,2010.Mendels,Doron.TheRiseandFallofJewishNationalism:JewishandChristianEthnicityinAncient

Palestine.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,1992.Painter,John.JustJames:TheBrotherofJesusinHistoryandTradition.StudiesonPersonalitiesofthe

NewTestament.Columbia:UniversityofSouthCarolinaPress,1997.Minneapolis:FortressPress,1999.2nded.,Columbia,2004.

Rhoads,DavidM.IsraelinRevolution6–74C.E.Philadelphia:FortressPress,1976.Richardson,Peter.Herod:KingoftheJewsandFriendoftheRomans.Columbia:UniversityofSouth

CarolinaPress,1996.Schnabel,EckhardJ.EarlyChristianMission.Vol.1,JesusandtheTwelve.Vol.2,PaulandtheEarly

Church.DownersGrove,IL:InterVarsityPress,2004.Schürer,Emil.TheHistoryoftheJewishPeopleintheAgeofJesusChrist.3vols.RevisedbyGéza

Vermès,FergusMillar,andMatthewBlack.Edinburgh:T&TClark,1973–87.Smallwood,E.MaryTheJewsunderRomanRule:FromPompeytoDiocletian:AStudyinPolitical

Relations.SJLA20.Leiden:E.J.Brill,1976.Repr.withcorrections,1981.Witherington,Ben,III.NewTestamentHistory:ANarrativeAccount.GrandRapids:BakerAcademic;

Carlisle:PaternosterPress,2001.

CommentariesandStudiesontheBookofActsBarrett,CharlesKingsley.ACriticalandExegeticalCommentaryontheActsoftheApostles.2vols.ICC.

Edinburgh:T&TClark,1994–98.Bauckham,Richard,ed.TheBookofActsinItsPalestinianSetting.GrandRapids:Wm.B.Eerdmans

PublishingCo.,1995.Bruce,FrederickF.CommentaryontheBookofActs.Rev.ed.NICNT.GrandRapids:Wm.B.Eerdmans

PublishingCo.,1988.Fitzmyer,JosephA.TheActsoftheApostles.AB31.NewYork:Doubleday,1998.Foakes-Jackson,FrederickJ.,andKirsoppLake.TheBeginningsofChristianity.5vols.London:

Macmillan,1920–33.Pervo,RichardI.,andHaroldWAttridge.Acts:ACommentary.Hermeneia.Minneapolis:FortressPress,

2008.Peterson,DavidG.TheActsoftheApostles.PNTC.GrandRapids:Wm.B.EerdmansPublishingCo.,

2009.Porter,StanleyE.ThePaulofActs:EssaysinLiteraryCriticism,RhetoricandTheology.WUNT115.

Tübingen:MohrSiebeck,1999.TalbertCharles.H.ReadingActs:ALiteraryandTheologicalCommentaryontheActsoftheApostles.

ReadingtheNewTestament.NewYork:Crossroad,1997.Witherington,Ben,III.ActsoftheApostles:ASocio-RhetoricalCommentary.GrandRapids:Wm.B.

EerdmansPublishingCo.,1998).

IndexofAncientSources

OLDTESTAMENT

Genesis

1:1 1322:2–3 492:9 1273:22 1273:24 1274 164n94:23–25 156n1815 85,8815:6 75,77,84–85,88–89,9122 88,9122:15–18 8823:4 2327:27 157n1834:7 8334:14 8334:25–26 8334:30 8335:1–3 8342:13 2642:32 2649:8–12 4,151n249:28 26

Exodus

6:25 7815:17 716:4–36 13016:4

16:4130

20:3 14420:8–11 4922:28 98,10126:15–37 6127:10–17 6128:21 2629:37 12132:32 12535:11 6135:17 6136:36 6136:38 6138:10–19 6139:14 2639:33 6139:40 6140:10 12140:18 61

Leviticus

18:5 7519:1–2 27,160n919:18 76,91,94,160nn9–10

Numbers

6:14–15 7210:1–10 4521:29 7822:5–8 12923:28 7824:2 7824:17 2–4,137,151nn1–3;166n2925 80,8325:11–13 7925:13 7931:1–12 8031:6

31:680

31:7–12 8031:16 78

Deuteronomy

3:29 784:3 784:39 425:7 1446:4–5 76,91,946:4 42,776:5 7713 163n2718:15–19 2821:23 14827:26 14829:2–4 12630:4 2330:15 3530:19 35

Joshua

3:14–17 284:2–4 304:8–9 304:8 264:20–22 304:21 304:24 306:20 2922 8022:13–20 8022:30–34 80

Judges

20

2080

20:27–28 80

1Samuel

12:12 4116:1–10 110

1Kings

7:15–22 618:41–43 54,9616:29–31 13016:31 13018:4 13018:13 13018:31 3121:5–16 130

2Kings

9:30–37 13011:14 6123:3 6125:13–17 61

1Chronicles

6:4 78,836:50 789:20 78,8017:9 51

2Chronicles

24 164n924:20–21 121

Ezra

5:11 247:5 78

Nehemiah

1:9 2310:29 2410:30(LXX) 24

Psalms

2:7 492:8–9 1305:2 4138:13(LXX) 2339:12 2340:3 13344:4 4147:6–7 4168:24 4169:28 12574:12 4184:3 4195:3 4198:1 133106 80,84–85106:28–31 80106:28 78106.31 85,87107:2–3 53110:1 49,98,155n14118 95,110,161n3118:19–20 110118:19 95,111118:22 63118:25–26 95,111122:1–5

122:1–527

122:5 27139:16 125145:1 41147:2 23

Proverbs

8:22–23 1329:1 63

Ecclesiastes

9:8 131

Isaiah

5:1–7 97,161n106 536:9–10 34,526:11–12 346:13 34,5310:21 4411 3,13011:1–10 151n211:1–9 4,13022:22 13224:23 40–41,4425:6 5428:16 6331:4 40–4140:3 1944:6 12849:6 2340:9 40–4142:10 13343:5 5348:12 12849:2

49:2130

49:7 13252:7 40–4153 14753:7 14754:11–12 6354:11 6356 54,161n756:3–8 54,9556:7 95–9661 3961:1–2 39,10261:1 3966:7–16 152n9

Jeremiah

3:22(LXX) 247 9,11,14–15,96,112–137:11 9,12,54,95–967:34 1113:18(LXX) 12915:1 2315:7 2321:8 3552:17 6152:20 61

Lamentations

2:15(LXX) 129

Ezekiel

1 497 447:7 427:10 4310

1049

34:8–15 11837:27 840–48 152n940:49 6142:6 6147:12 12847:13 2648 132

Daniel

1:12 1291:19 832 46,48,155n92:31–35 462:35 472:44–45 482:44 462:45 473:12–30 837 46,48–50,147,155nn9,117:2–8 467:9–14 27,497:9–10 47,987:9 27,49,1317:11 477:12 477:13–14 47,987:13 48–507:25 50–519:26 51,152n11;156n1710:6 13011:35 13112:10 131

Amos

5:18 43

Obadiah

21 41

Jonah

1:9 24

Micah

4:7–8 437:6 119

Nahum

2:11 7

Habakkuk

2:4 75

Haggai

2:3 62:9 152n9

Zechariah

1:1 1214:14 5011:1 1214:9 42,155n414:11–17 152n9

Malachi

3:16 125

NEWTESTAMENT

Matthew

2:1–2 33:9 31,1333:10 343:12 345 1175:4 395:11–12 117,1365:17 1185:19 905:20 1185:21–48 905:23–24 1205:48 90,160n96:24 517:1–2 517:13–14 35,51–527:21 907:24 907:26 908:10 548:11–12 35,52,1228:11 538:12 5210 119–2010:1–2 2610:2 2010:5–6 54,56,9510:5 2710:16–18 11810:17 11810:18 56,11910:21–22 11910:23 11911:1 2711:4–5

11:4–539

11:20–24 5111:21–24 5511:29–30 35,5112:41 5512:42 5512:50 9013:38 12215:22 5315:24 5415:27 5415:28 5416:13–19 153n216:17–19 19,153n216:18 18,33,63,14116:19 3518:15–17 1918:17 19,3318:18 3519:28 20,2719:30 3520:20–28 2021:31 9022:14 5223:3 9023:5 9023:13 12123:18–20 12123:27 12223:34–35 12124 11924:28 156n1826:3 9826:29 6026:57 13,9827:37 14628:19 56

Mark

1:14–15

1:14–15 391:15 41,511:40–44 161n92:10 492:28 493:14 20,27,1333:28–29 514:3–9 344:3–8 51–524:10 274:11–12 34,524:14–20 516:3 596:4 156n186:7 276:12 516:15–28 647:26 537:27 547:28 547:29 548:27–30 198:31 508:34–35 518:34 156n158:35 519:31 509:35 35,5110:31 5110:32–34 5010:35–45 2010:41–45 5610:43 5111–12 10911:4–10 9511:9–10 95,11011:12–14 9711:15–18 9,9511:17 54,9611:18 9511:20–22 97

12:1–12 9712:10–11 11012:12 95,9712:28–34 76,91–9213 5113:1–2 9,10213:2 48,9713:18 1014:2 9514:22–25 51,56,156n1514:25 6014:33–36 156n1514:43–65 9814:56 4814:58 9–10,48,97,10214:59 48,9714:61–62 9814:61 4914:62 49,155n1314:63–64 4914:64 10215:6–15 10115:21 5115:26 14615:29 48

Luke

3:2 14,983:8 31,1333:9 343:17 344 394:16–30 1254:16–21 394:23 156n186:13 20,277:9 547:22 399:1 27

9:12 2710:13–15 51,5510:25–29 9110:25–28 76,9211:31 5511:32 5511:51 12113:1–5 5113:24 3513:28–30 35,5213:28–29 12213:28 5213:29 5313:30 3513:34–35 914:15–24 20,5214:21 2016:13 5116:19–30 35,5117:3–4 1917:37 156n1818:31 2719:41–44 919:47 162n1221:12–13 11821:12 5621:20–24 922:16 6022:18 6022:24–27 2022:28–30 20,2723:27–31 923:31 157n1823:38 146

John

2:19 48,976:67 276:70 277:3–5

7:3–5 598:44 1229:22 123,12511:49 9812 12412:37–41 12612:42 12414–16 12416:2 12418:10 6018:13–14 13–1418:13 9818:14 9818:24 13,9818:28 13,9819:19–21 14620:5–7 6020:24 2720:30–31 126

Acts

1:8 561:15–26 571:23–26 612–3 992:23 1012:36 1012:44–47 1052:44–45 922:46 1442:47 1053:1–10 68,1003:1–9 1053:1 1443:9 1053:11–26 683:12–26 993:14–15 1013:17 1014–8

4–8 554:1–22 684:1–4 134:1–3 994:5–6 994:6 14,984:10 1014:11 1104:14–22 134:19 994:21 100,1054:32–37 92,1055:13 1055:14–16 1055:17–18 100–1015:17–20 68,1055:20 1445:25 1005:27–28 1005:28 1015:29 995:36 285:40 1185:42 1446:1–6 216:1 92,101,1056:9 14,162n156:11 1016:12–15 146:13–14 1027:1 147:45–50 1027:56 1027:58–60 148–14 558:1 1038:9–24 689:1 1249:2 1910:1–48 6811 143

11:1–18 6811:19–26 10312:1–5 14,6412:1–2 10312:1 162n1812:3–5 10512:6–11 10512:6–16 6412:6 6412:11 64,10612:17 14,65–6612:19–21 6413–14 6713:4–12 6813:14 5613:16–41 6813:44–51 6713:44–52 6813:46 56,157n2014:1 5614:4–6 6714:8–10 6814:19 6715 65–68,70,72,14315:1–5 6615:1–35 6815:5 6615:7–11 6815:12 6815:19 6915:23–29 69,158n1615:28 6915:30–33 6916:3 7116:19–34 6817:1 5617:5–9 6717:10 5617:13–14 6717:17 5618:2

18:2140

18:4 5618:6 6718:12–17 6718:14–15 10918:15 10918:19 5619:8–9 6719:9 1919:23 1920:3 6721 159n1921:17–19 7221:17 7221:18 7021:19–20 7121:20 7121:20–21 6821:20–25 7121:21 7121:24 72,7421:25 7321:26 14421:27–36 7321:28 73,10621:30–36 10621:30 10621:38 2822:1–22 6822:4 2922:17 106,14422:19 11822:25–29 10622:30 10623:1–5 10623:2–5 98,10124:1 10624:6 10624:12 10624:14 1924:17–18 72

24:22 1925:2 10625:8 10625:15 10626:6–7 3228:16 107

Romans

1:16 56,951:17 222:9–10 562:25–29 723:20 22,87,933:21–28 753:21 223:28

IndexofModernNames

Abegg,M.G.,Jr.,87,159nn2–3,5Ådna,J.,152n7Allison,D.C.,Jr.,153n2,163n31,164n10Ashley,T.R.,159n1Avshalom-Gorni,D.,25

Bammel,E.,161n5Barrett,C.K.,61,157n6,158nn7,16Barth,G.,164n6Bauckham,R.,61,158nn8–9,163n27Baumgarten,J.M.,159n20,161n10Beale,G.K.,160n6Beasley-Murray,G.R.,154n3Becker,A.H.,163n1,164n2Bernstein,M.J.,159n5Betz,H.D.,159n18Boccaccini,G.,152n8Bockmuehl,M.,158n11,159n17Borgen,P.,69,159n17Boring,M.E.,155n10Bornkamm,G.,164n6Braude,W.G.,161n4Brooke,G.J.,161n10Brownlee,W.H.,155n6Bruce,F.F.,157n1Buber,M.,154n3Budd,P.,159n1

Carroll,K.L.,164n13Carson,D.A.,160n6Casey,M.,153n1Catchpole,D.R.,161n5Cathcart,K.J.,155n7Charles,R.H.,152n10Charlesworth,J.H.,152n10,167n8Chilton,B.D.,154nn1–3,155nn8,11,158nn9,12,159n19,163n27Collins,J.J.,151n2,152n8,155n9Cook,E.M.,159nn2–3Cross,A.R.,154n5

Dalman,G.H.,165n14Davies,W.D.,153n2,164n10

DeBoer,M.C.,160n5DeJonge,M.,167n6DeRoo,C.R.,160nn5,7DeVaux,R.,20Deichmann,H.-H.,xiDeines,R.,xi,167n4Donaldson,T.L.,164nn3,7,11Doudna,G.L.,152n12Dunn,J.D.G.,87,159n18,160nn5–6,163n1,166n1,167n5

Eichrodt,W.,155n6Elbogen,I.,165n14Elliott,J.K.,157n3Evans,C.A.,153n17,154nn1,3,5,155n12,156nn15–16,158nn9,12,159n19,160n8,161n8,163nn27,31,164nn3,7,8,165n17,166n31,167nn6–7

Evans,G.,viii,ix,xi,73,79,100,139

Figueras,P.,xiFitzmyer,J.A.,152n9,153n3,157n2,158nn13–14,16,162nn21–22Flint,P.W.,153n3,159n5Flusser,D.,162n11France,R.T.,154n1Frankfurter,D.,163n2Fredriksen,P.,153n1,158n15Frerichs,E.S.,165n15

Goldingay,J.E.,155n9Gordon,R.P.,155n7Grant,R.M.,166n28Gray,G.B.,159n1Grelot,P.,159n5Gundry,R.H.,153n2

Hagner,D.A.,164nn3,7Hanhart,R.,167n4Hanson,J.S.,167n6Hare,D.,8–9,153nn13–15Hayes,M.A.,156n15Held,H.J.,164n6Hemer,C.J.,165nn19,23,25Hengel,M.,151n1,155n14,162nn14,17,163n32,167nn4,8Hennecke,E.,157n3Himmelfarb,M.,152n8Hofius,O.,160n5Holmes,M.W.,165n20Horbury,W.,167n5Horner,T.J.,165n18Horsley,R.A.,160–61n1,167n6Hurtado,L.W.,167n3Hvalvik,R.,163n1,167n9

Juel,D.,155n13

Kampen,J.,159n5Kee,H.C.,152nn10–11Keener,C.S.,154n6,157n6Klijn,A.F.J.,157n3Kooten,G.H.van,151n1Kraft,R.A.,167n5

Lehmann,H.T.,159n21Levey,S.H.,155n5Lieu,J.,167n2Lightfoot,J.B.,165nn21–22,24,166nn26,28Longenecker,R.N.,159n18Lull,D.J.,153n17,161n8

Maloney,L.M.,157n19Martyn,J.L.,124,126,164n13,165nn15–16Mason,S.,164n12McDonald,L.M.,154n1McKay,K.J.,151n4McKnight,S.,154n5,160n10,164n7McLaren,J.S.,163n28Meeks,W.A.,165n15Meier,J.P.,154n5,156n16,161n11Monette,G.,xiMoore,C.A.,152n9Moore,C.F.,151n4Moule,C.F.D.,155n11,161n5

Najar,A.,25Neusner,J.,159n19,165n15Nickelsburg,G.W.E.,152n8Nicklas,T.,151n1

O’Brien,P.T.,160n6Oegema,G.,151n2Ortlund,D.C.,159n4Overman,J.A.,164nn4,6

Painter,J.,158n10Perrin,N.,161n7Petersen,D.L.154n4Pines,S.,161n11Popkes,W.,160n10Porter,S.E.,154n5,156n15Pratscher,W.,158n10Pritz,R.A.,167n9

Qimron,E.,159n2

Reed,A.Y.,163n1,164n2Regev,E.,94,100,103,106,111,160n1,162nn13,17,19,24,25,163n29Reinhartz,A.,166n30Reiser,M.,157n19Rolfe,J.C.,152n5Ruiten,J.van,151n1Runesson,A.,viii,ix,xi,65

Saldarini,A.J.,164nn5–6Sanders,E.P.,153n16,155n10,160n6,161n6Sanders,J.A.,154n1Schäfer,P.,166n30Schick,A.,xiSchlosser,J.,155n10Schnackenburg,R.,154n3Schneemelcher,W.,157n3Schwartz,D.R.,103,158n11,162n20Schwemer,A.M.,163n32Scott,J.M.,156n16Segal,P.,159n20Segbroeck,F.Van,155n11Seifrid,M.A.,160n6Sevenster,J.N.,157n6Sharp,C.J.,159n4Sim,D.C.,164n6Skarsaune,O.,163n1,167n9Smith,D.,151n1Smith,D.M.,164nn13,16Smith,R.L.,155n4Stern,M.,5,151n4,152nn5–6Strange,J.F.,20Strugnell,J.,159n2Stuckenbruck,L.,152n8Sturdy,J.,159n1

Talshir,Z.,xiTombs,D.,156n15Torrey,C.C.,153n13

Ulrich,V.,161n11

VanderKam,J.C.,153n3VanUnnik,W.C.,157n6Vermès,G.,153n1,166n33

Wall,R.W.,158n12Weeden,T.J.,163n31Wenham,D.,153n1,158n12Werman,C.,xiWhealey,A.,162n11

Wise,M.O.,159nn2–3Witherington,Ben,III,157n20Wrede,W.,153n1Wright,N.T.,153n1,156n16

Yadin,Y.,166n32

Zimmerli,W.,155n6Zimmermann,F.,152n9

IndexofSubjects

AlexandertheGreat,46–47Amidah,124,165n14AntiochofSyria,1anti-Semitism,129,143,164n3AristobulusIV,64

Balaam,129Barabbas,101BarKokhba,1,16,57,116–17,137–39,144166nn29–32,167n7Barnabas,67–70,87

Capernaum,55Celsus,148Chorazin,55

churchfathersAgapius,161n11ClementofAlexandria,63Eusebius,63,110,138,145,162n26Hegesippus,63,110–11Ignatius,16,133–37,139,165nn20,23–24Jerome,59–60JustinMartyr,16,126,137–38,144,147,165n18Origen,148Polycarp,133

David,81–82,110diaspora/dispersion,23–24,26,32,68,101

Elijah,31Ephesus,127Essenes/Qumran,1,19–21,34,83,98

HerodiansAgrippaI,14,64,89,103–6,162n22AgrippaII,32,64,89,108Antipas,30,46,89AntipaterI,89AntipaterII,89Archelaus,89Herod(theGreat),13–14,64,89,105Philip,14,89,103

highpriestsAnanias,106AnnassonofAnnas,14–16,98–100,103–4,108–9,111,113–14AnnassonofSeth,2,13–14Boethos,104Caiaphas,13–14,16,98,102,104,109,111,162n16EleazarsonofAnnas,14JesussonofDamneus,108JonathansonofAnnas,14MatthiassonofAnnas,14,104–6,114Qatros,104Shim‘on,104TheophilussonofAnnas,14,103–4,114

HyrcanusII,156n17

JamesbrotherofJesus,1,14–16,21,24–26,32,36,57,59–61,63–66,68,70–78,87–93,107–11,157nn2,4,163n27

JamessonofZebedee,14,64,103,105,162n19Jerusalem,1,6,8–9JerusalemTemple,1–2,5–13,24,73–74,95–98,102,104,106–7,110,116,120,127,152nn7,9,153nn16–17,155n10,161n8,163n29,167n5

JesusbenAnanias,11,14–16,111–14,163nn30,32JesusofNazareth,passimJob,129JohntheBaptist,29–31,45,133JohnMark,64Jonah,24JordanRiver,26,28–31Josephus,2–3,5,10–11,22,28,98–99,101,108,112,114,161n11,163n31Joshua,26,28,30–31,82JudasIscariot,57,156n15

keys,35kingdomofGod,38–47,51–54,56,145,154n3

Laodicea,132LastSupper,51,56,60Luther,Martin,76,159n21Lysaniusthetetrarch,14,103

Magnesia,135manna,130Masada,113Moses,24,78–79,81,102,158n15,160n6

Nebuchadnezzar,46

passionpredictions,50–51,156n15Passover,1,95

PatriarchsAbraham,26,32,74–75,77,82,87–88,91,122,135Isaac,122,135Jacob,26,83,122,135

Paul(Saul),1,16,21–22,26,32–33,36,55–56,59,61,64,66–78,87–88,91–95,102,106–7,111,133,137,141,148,153nn1,3,157n6,158n15,159n17,160n6,162nn24–25

Pergamum,129Peter,13–14,18–19,21–23,36,57,63–66,68,76,87,99–101,103–5Petronius,104Pharisees,1,90,110,118,121Philadelphia,132,134Philo,22,154n4,158n16Phinehas,78–86,92,124,159n4PtolemyI,46

rabbisandsagesAqiba,137,166n29Gamaliel,123Ishmael,123Jonathan,44SimeonbenYohai,166n29YohananbenZakkai,12Zadok(Rabbi),12

RomanemperorsAugustus,46Caligula,46,64,104Claudius,14,46,104,140Domitian,46Galba,3,46Hadrian,46Nero,3,46Nerva,46Otho,3,46Tiberius,46Titus,4,46,114Trajan,46,140Vespasian,3–5,46,114,151n3Vitellius,3,46

RomanEmpire,1,34,149

RomangovernorsAlbinus,14–15,29,108–9,112,114Fadus,29Felix,29Festus,14,29,108–9Florus,29,114Gallio,109Gratus,29Marcellus,29Marullus,29PontiusPilate,13,29,98–99,109,133,140TiberiusAlexander,29VentidiusCumanus,29

Roman/Greek/paganwritersCornutus,156n18DioChrysosom,156n18Diodorus,154n4Epictetus,156n18Euripides,156n18,158n7HecataeusofAbdera,154n4Philostratus,156n18Plato,154n4PlinytheYounger,140Plutarch,156n18Seneca,156n18Suetonius,3,5,140Tacitus,3–4,140

Sadducees,1,99,101Samuel,110Sardis,131SeleucusI,46SimonbarGiora,167n7Smyrna,128,133Solomon,6,54–55,96SonofMan,48–50,155nn11–12Stephen,14,101–4,111,162nn15,17SufferingServant,148SynagogueoftheFreedmen,14synagogues,24,36–37,125

Targum,39–44,154nn1–2,155n8Theudas,28–29Thyatira,130Tribes(twelve),25–27,31–32

zeal,78–82,92