From Hunting and From Hunting and Gathering to FarmingGathering to Farming

Archaic Period CulturesArchaic Period Cultures

Origins of Food ProductionOrigins of Food ProductionWhy, Where and When did Food Production Occur?Why, Where and When did Food Production Occur?

Mesoamerican Food ProductionMesoamerican Food ProductionConsequencesConsequences

Archaic Period CulturesArchaic Period Cultures

Archaic (Incipient Farming) Period 10,000-3000 BCArchaic (Incipient Farming) Period 10,000-3000 BC Ajuereado (12-9,600 B.P.), pre-agriculture, hunting and Ajuereado (12-9,600 B.P.), pre-agriculture, hunting and

gathering.gathering. El Reigo (9-7,000 B.P.), microbands in seasonal camps, El Reigo (9-7,000 B.P.), microbands in seasonal camps,

domesticated plants such as squash, amaranth, ground domesticated plants such as squash, amaranth, ground stone tools, mortars and pestles.stone tools, mortars and pestles.

Coxcatlan (7-5,400 B.P.), macrobands in semisedentary, Coxcatlan (7-5,400 B.P.), macrobands in semisedentary, bottlegourd, squash, beans, and maize.bottlegourd, squash, beans, and maize.

Abejas & Purron (5,400-3,300 B.P.), year round Abejas & Purron (5,400-3,300 B.P.), year round occupations, corn, beans, pumpkin, cotton, dogs.occupations, corn, beans, pumpkin, cotton, dogs.

Ajuereado (12-9,600 B.P.) 10000 -Ajuereado (12-9,600 B.P.) 10000 -7,200 B.C.7,200 B.C.

Hunting and GatheringHunting and Gathering 40% diet plants40% diet plants 54% meat54% meat 6% other6% other

Social Organization: BandSocial Organization: Band

Working of agave fiber to make baskets Working of agave fiber to make baskets and bags. and bags.

Agave Fiber Baskets Agave Fiber Baskets (recent example)(recent example)

El Reigo (9-7,000 B.P.): 7,000-El Reigo (9-7,000 B.P.): 7,000-5,500 B.C. 5,500 B.C.

19 species of wild plants19 species of wild plants

Beginnings of squash, avocado and chili Beginnings of squash, avocado and chili pepper domestication (about 5% of diet).pepper domestication (about 5% of diet).

Coxcatlan (7-5,400 B.P.): 5,500-Coxcatlan (7-5,400 B.P.): 5,500-4,500 B.C.4,500 B.C.

Food from gardening increases to 14%.Food from gardening increases to 14%.

Corn, chilies, squash and amaranth.Corn, chilies, squash and amaranth.

Rabbit drives and fishing.Rabbit drives and fishing.

Coxcatlan CaveCoxcatlan CaveTehuacan Valley of MexicoTehuacan Valley of Mexico

Coxcatlan cave has revealed 28 occupational layers or zones. Each layer was considered to have a distinct deposit, laid down during a single time interval. The excavation revealed objects used by humans prior to ceramics. http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/archaeology/sites/meso_america/coxcatlan_phase.html

Coxcatlan CaveCoxcatlan Cave

A small corn cob found during the excavation is shown alongside of an ink pen. The cob compares to that of a popcorn cob, and this type of corn was estimated to have grown in the Tehuacan Valley around 5000 BC.

Abejas and Purron (5,400-3,300 Abejas and Purron (5,400-3,300 B.P.): 3,500-1,500 B.C.B.P.): 3,500-1,500 B.C.

Agriculture 21-35% of diet.Agriculture 21-35% of diet.

Corn as major part of agricultural Corn as major part of agricultural economy.economy.

Origins of Food ProductionOrigins of Food Production

Changes during the Lae PleistoceneChanges during the Lae Pleistocene Warming caused glaciers to melt and sea levels rose.Warming caused glaciers to melt and sea levels rose. Extinction of many plant and animal species.Extinction of many plant and animal species.

Cultural ChangesCultural Changes Humans shifted from a focus on megafauna to broad spectrum Humans shifted from a focus on megafauna to broad spectrum

collecting.collecting. Smaller game, fishing, increase in plant gathering.Smaller game, fishing, increase in plant gathering.

Specialized regional patterns and technology: Mesolithic Specialized regional patterns and technology: Mesolithic in Europe, Archaic in Americas.in Europe, Archaic in Americas.New WorldNew World

Archaic adaptations, such as at Koster site in Illinois.Archaic adaptations, such as at Koster site in Illinois. Wide variety of food-fish, mussels, nuts, deer, small game.Wide variety of food-fish, mussels, nuts, deer, small game.

Food ProductionFood Production

Shift from food gathering to food production in Shift from food gathering to food production in different parts of the world.different parts of the world. Deliberate gathering of seeds for planting.Deliberate gathering of seeds for planting. Taming of wild animals.Taming of wild animals.

People began to rely on certain plants or People began to rely on certain plants or animals.animals. Artificial selection-people encourage the reproduction Artificial selection-people encourage the reproduction

of certain plants or animals.of certain plants or animals. Gradually results in types of plants and animals that Gradually results in types of plants and animals that

are distinct from wild species.are distinct from wild species.

DomesticationDomestication

The process of establishing human control The process of establishing human control over a plant or animals reproduction. over a plant or animals reproduction.

Humans select mates for animals/plants Humans select mates for animals/plants with particular characteristics.with particular characteristics.

How do we recognize this How do we recognize this archaeologically?archaeologically?

PlantsPlants Domesticated plants have stronger stem areas where Domesticated plants have stronger stem areas where

the seeds attach (rachis).the seeds attach (rachis). Also tend to have larger edible parts.Also tend to have larger edible parts.

AnimalsAnimals Species outside native area. Species outside native area.

i.e. Horses not native to Egypt, but found there i.e. Horses not native to Egypt, but found there archaeologically 4,000 years ago.archaeologically 4,000 years ago.

Morphological changes.Morphological changes. Measurements-get smaller during domestication.Measurements-get smaller during domestication. Sex ratios and age profiles.Sex ratios and age profiles. Cultural EvidenceCultural Evidence

Why, Where, and When did Food Why, Where, and When did Food Production Occur?Production Occur?

Why?Why? Today we take food production for granted, just go to Today we take food production for granted, just go to

the supermarket and get what we want.the supermarket and get what we want. Hunting and gathering actually takes less time and Hunting and gathering actually takes less time and

effort than food production.effort than food production.i.e. soil has to be worked, crops planted, pests controlled, i.e. soil has to be worked, crops planted, pests controlled, harves, processed. Hunters-gatherers spend about 12-19 harves, processed. Hunters-gatherers spend about 12-19 days per week.days per week.

Agriculture is also risky-could have crops die due to Agriculture is also risky-could have crops die due to bad weather.bad weather.

TheoriesTheoriesOasis Theory-V. Gordon Childe, climate at end of Pleis Oasis Theory-V. Gordon Childe, climate at end of Pleis forced peopleto change, move to isolated areas and forced peopleto change, move to isolated areas and produce food. However, no real evidence that the produce food. However, no real evidence that the environment changed that dramatically.environment changed that dramatically.Readiness Hypothesis-Robert Braidwood suggested that Readiness Hypothesis-Robert Braidwood suggested that humans became increasingly familiar with plants and humans became increasingly familiar with plants and animals in their area and began to domesticate them, but animals in their area and began to domesticate them, but does not explain how.does not explain how. Human Selection and Environment-Particular local Human Selection and Environment-Particular local conditions may have affected different patterns of conditions may have affected different patterns of domestication.domestication.

i.e. in East Asia, people were sedentary food collectors and i.e. in East Asia, people were sedentary food collectors and logically started planting.logically started planting.

Coevolution-David Rindos suggests that humans Coevolution-David Rindos suggests that humans unintentionally promoted dispersal of certain types of unintentionally promoted dispersal of certain types of plants by weeding, stroing, or irrigating particular wild plants by weeding, stroing, or irrigating particular wild resources.resources.

Population ModelsPopulation Models

Esther Boserup suggested that societies will Esther Boserup suggested that societies will intensify food produciton only when forced to by intensify food produciton only when forced to by pop pressure on food resources.pop pressure on food resources.

Binford agrees with this and says that Binford agrees with this and says that demographic stress such as more people demographic stress such as more people moving into an area will require food moving into an area will require food intensification.intensification.

Mark Cohen said that population got so great Mark Cohen said that population got so great acress the world that no natural resources were acress the world that no natural resources were left.left.

Where and When?Where and When?

Southwest Asia-Israel, Jordan, Syria, Trukey, Iraq, and Iran-Fertile Southwest Asia-Israel, Jordan, Syria, Trukey, Iraq, and Iran-Fertile CrescentCrescent

Natufians-best known southwest asians to cultivate wild grains and Natufians-best known southwest asians to cultivate wild grains and cereal grasses around 12-14,000.cereal grasses around 12-14,000.

Farming communities emerged in Jericho with subsistence on wheat, Farming communities emerged in Jericho with subsistence on wheat, barley, peas, beans, lentils, sheep and goats, pigs, and cattle.barley, peas, beans, lentils, sheep and goats, pigs, and cattle.

Europe-Mediterranean to Sweden, northwest Russia. Many Europe-Mediterranean to Sweden, northwest Russia. Many agricultural products introduced but became established by 6,000.agricultural products introduced but became established by 6,000.East Asia-China, Thailand. East Asia-China, Thailand.

Domestication of root crops such as yams, around 11,000 years ago.Domestication of root crops such as yams, around 11,000 years ago. rice cultivation as early as 9,000 years ago, also pig, dog and chicken.rice cultivation as early as 9,000 years ago, also pig, dog and chicken.

Africa-8,000 years ago, emmer wheat, flax, lentils, chickpeas, sheep Africa-8,000 years ago, emmer wheat, flax, lentils, chickpeas, sheep and goats.and goats.New WorldNew World

North America-domestication of starchy and oily seeds around 4,000 North America-domestication of starchy and oily seeds around 4,000 years ago, maize, squash and beans by 1,000 years ago.years ago, maize, squash and beans by 1,000 years ago.

South America-manioc, maize, and beans, peanuts, and potatoes South America-manioc, maize, and beans, peanuts, and potatoes around 6,500 years ago.around 6,500 years ago.

Mesoamerican Food ProductionMesoamerican Food Production

Settlement and DomesticationSettlement and Domestication During the 1950s and 1960s there was an increased During the 1950s and 1960s there was an increased

effort to study domestication in this area.effort to study domestication in this area.

Teosinte is the ancestor of maize and was Teosinte is the ancestor of maize and was domesticated by 7-5,400 years ago in Balsas, domesticated by 7-5,400 years ago in Balsas, Guerrero.Guerrero. also domestication of avocados, squash, beans, also domestication of avocados, squash, beans,

chilis.chilis. Fields would grow all of these together, unlike mono-Fields would grow all of these together, unlike mono-

cropping that we see today.cropping that we see today.

Tehuacan Archaeological Botanical Tehuacan Archaeological Botanical ProjectProject

MacNeish’s project was run from 1960-1965 and MacNeish’s project was run from 1960-1965 and made a concerted effort to find botanical made a concerted effort to find botanical remains from arch sites.remains from arch sites. Early cobs in caves only 2-2.5 cm long.Early cobs in caves only 2-2.5 cm long. Controversy concerning the progenitors of maize. It Controversy concerning the progenitors of maize. It

now clear that maize developed from a wild grass now clear that maize developed from a wild grass teosinte. Domestication of teosinte involves a change teosinte. Domestication of teosinte involves a change from hard seed cases to shallow softer cupules with from hard seed cases to shallow softer cupules with elongated glumes. Made the wild teosinte easier to elongated glumes. Made the wild teosinte easier to thresh.  Selection for mutated form when wild maize thresh.  Selection for mutated form when wild maize grew around occupation sites. grew around occupation sites.

Differences between the ear of Differences between the ear of maize and the ear of teosintemaize and the ear of teosinte

Teosinte pocesses a fragile ear that breaks easily at Teosinte pocesses a fragile ear that breaks easily at the rachis joint. Maize has developed a non the rachis joint. Maize has developed a non scattering rachis (seeds do not dispures when scattering rachis (seeds do not dispures when contacted). contacted). Teosinte has a two ranked ear, maize pocesses a Teosinte has a two ranked ear, maize pocesses a four or more ranked ear. four or more ranked ear. Teosintes outer glumes are hard, while maize is soft. Teosintes outer glumes are hard, while maize is soft. In teosinte the glume covers the seed, while in maize In teosinte the glume covers the seed, while in maize the seed is exposed. the seed is exposed. The maize grain is borne in shallow cupules, while The maize grain is borne in shallow cupules, while teosinte is embedded in deep cupules in the rachis. teosinte is embedded in deep cupules in the rachis. Maize can produce small or large seeds, while Maize can produce small or large seeds, while teosinte is usually small. This is typical of teosinte is usually small. This is typical of domesticated plants, producing larger seeds. domesticated plants, producing larger seeds.

Téosinte (Téosinte (Zea mays sspZea mays ssp))

Domestication of MaizeDomestication of Maize

PNAS | PNAS | February 13, 2001February 13, 2001 | vol. 98 | no. 4 | | vol. 98 | no. 4 | 2104-21062104-2106

Photograph of three Guilá Naquitz archaeological cobs. Two of three specimens were AMS dated at 5,420 ± 60 (C9, Fig. 1, specimen b) and 5,410 ± 40 (D10) 14C years B.P. (6,235 calibrated years B.P.).

Domestication of Maize: ProblemsDomestication of Maize: Problems

Manglesdorf's hypothesis (first published in 1939) Manglesdorf's hypothesis (first published in 1939) Cultivated maize descended from a now extinct wild pod-Cultivated maize descended from a now extinct wild pod-

popcorn. popcorn. kernels were individually enclosed in, and protected by, a pod or kernels were individually enclosed in, and protected by, a pod or chaffy shell chaffy shell

Teosinte is a mutation of maize Teosinte is a mutation of maize Name comes from Nahuatl "teocintli" - grain of the gods Name comes from Nahuatl "teocintli" - grain of the gods Maize's closest relative Maize's closest relative maize and annual teosinte have ten pairs of chromosomes with maize and annual teosinte have ten pairs of chromosomes with nearly identical structures nearly identical structures are often 100% inter-fertile are often 100% inter-fertile both classified as subspecies of Zea mays both classified as subspecies of Zea mays practically indistinguishable morphologically practically indistinguishable morphologically

Manglesdorf favors gradual process of natural speciation Manglesdorf favors gradual process of natural speciation of teosinte from primitive maize, which excludes man of teosinte from primitive maize, which excludes man from the selective process. from the selective process.

http://www.ku.edu/~hoopes/506/Lectures/Maize.html

Domestication of Maize: ProblemsDomestication of Maize: Problems

Archaeological research Archaeological research Herbert W. Dick (Harvard) excavated at Bat Herbert W. Dick (Harvard) excavated at Bat Cave in 1948 Cave in 1948 found corn cobs and other remains found corn cobs and other remains charcoal "pooled" for dating charcoal "pooled" for dating published paper in Scientific American on "oldest ear published paper in Scientific American on "oldest ear

of corn" of corn"

MacNeish and Tehuacan Valley Project MacNeish and Tehuacan Valley Project recovered 23,000 specimens of corn recovered 23,000 specimens of corn worked together with Manglesdorf and Walton Galinat worked together with Manglesdorf and Walton Galinat

concluded lower levels had primitive popcorn (a pod concluded lower levels had primitive popcorn (a pod corn) corn)

this earliest corn was thought to be wild this earliest corn was thought to be wild

Alternate hypothesisAlternate hypothesis

Questions raised: Questions raised: If maize evolved gradually from teosinte, why have no If maize evolved gradually from teosinte, why have no intermediates been found? intermediates been found? If teosinte was domesticated for its grains, why have none of the If teosinte was domesticated for its grains, why have none of the durable fruitcases of teosinte been found contemporaneous or durable fruitcases of teosinte been found contemporaneous or predating the earliest archaeological maize? predating the earliest archaeological maize? Given the hardness and concavity of teosinte fruitcases, why Given the hardness and concavity of teosinte fruitcases, why are the glumes of the earliest archaeological maize soft and are the glumes of the earliest archaeological maize soft and thin and cupules relatively shallow? thin and cupules relatively shallow? If teosinte ears became transformed into maize ears, why do If teosinte ears became transformed into maize ears, why do both modern and archaeological maize ears often exhibit both modern and archaeological maize ears often exhibit staminate "tails"? staminate "tails"? Compared with the gradual evolution documented for all other Compared with the gradual evolution documented for all other cereals, how did maize arise so suddenly, from ancestors cereals, how did maize arise so suddenly, from ancestors difficult to identify? difficult to identify? Why does maize suddenly appear in the archaeological record? Why does maize suddenly appear in the archaeological record?

Catastrophic Sexual Transmutation Catastrophic Sexual Transmutation TheoryTheory

Teosinte is ancestral to corn, however, teosinte Teosinte is ancestral to corn, however, teosinte ear is not ancestral to corn ear. ear is not ancestral to corn ear. Key is catastrophic change in plant: Key is catastrophic change in plant: Corn is not the result of a step-by-step accumulation Corn is not the result of a step-by-step accumulation

of single-gene mutations, but a gross re-expression of of single-gene mutations, but a gross re-expression of existing mutations. existing mutations.

may have been caused by cold, viruses, may have been caused by cold, viruses, mycoplasmas, fungi, or other pressures.mycoplasmas, fungi, or other pressures.

Barbara McClintock discovered that extracellular Barbara McClintock discovered that extracellular process could trigger changes in chromosomal DNA process could trigger changes in chromosomal DNA in corn. in corn.

Catastrophe could have been lethal if not for Catastrophe could have been lethal if not for man's intervention.man's intervention.

ConsequencesConsequences

Population GrowthPopulation Growth Domestication caused food supplies to become more stable and Domestication caused food supplies to become more stable and

reliable.reliable. More food per acre of land, so can support larger population.More food per acre of land, so can support larger population.

i.e. Paleolithic population=30 million, 2,000 years ago=300 million.i.e. Paleolithic population=30 million, 2,000 years ago=300 million.

Health and NutritionHealth and Nutrition Not necessarily improve quality of lifeNot necessarily improve quality of life Closer contact with people, so easier spread of disease.Closer contact with people, so easier spread of disease. Non-variable diet, poorer nutrition.Non-variable diet, poorer nutrition.

i.e. increase in dental caries, bone diseases, etc.i.e. increase in dental caries, bone diseases, etc.

Increasing Intellectual/Skill CapacityIncreasing Intellectual/Skill Capacity Increase in quantity and type of artifacts.Increase in quantity and type of artifacts. More sophisticated material culture, innovations in transportation More sophisticated material culture, innovations in transportation

(wheels), more durable buildings.(wheels), more durable buildings.

Increased Social Stratification and Cultural ComplexityIncreased Social Stratification and Cultural Complexity Shift from egalitarian to stratified societies.Shift from egalitarian to stratified societies. Full-time craft specialists.Full-time craft specialists.