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"The Arctic Council planning a search for Sir John

Franklin" by Stephen Pearce, 1851. Left to right are:

George Back, William Edward Parry, Edward Bird,

James Clark Ross, John Barrow Jnr, Francis

Beaufort, Edward Sabine, William Alexander Baillie

Hamilton, John Richardson and Frederick William

Beechey

Franklin's lost expeditionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Franklin's lost expedition was a British voyage ofArctic exploration led by Captain Sir John Franklin thatdeparted England in 1845. A Royal Navy officer andexperienced explorer, Franklin had served on threeprevious Arctic expeditions, the latter two as commandingofficer. His fourth and last, undertaken when he was 59,was meant to traverse the last unnavigated section of theNorthwest Passage. After a few early fatalities, the twoships became icebound in Victoria Strait near KingWilliam Island in the Canadian Arctic. The entireexpedition complement, including Franklin and 128 men,was lost.

Pressed by Franklin's wife, Lady Jane Franklin, andothers, the Admiralty launched a search for the missingexpedition in 1848. Prompted in part by Franklin's fameand the Admiralty's offer of a finder's reward, manysubsequent expeditions joined the hunt, which at one pointin 1850 involved eleven British and two American ships.Several of these ships converged off the east coast ofBeechey Island, where the first relics of the expedition were found, including the graves of three crewmen. In 1854,explorer John Rae, while surveying near the Canadian Arctic coast southeast of King William Island, acquired relicsof and stories about the Franklin party from the Inuit. A search led by Francis Leopold McClintock in 1859discovered a note left on King William Island with details about the expedition's fate. Searches continued throughmuch of the 19th century. Finally, in 2014, one of the ships was located west of O'Reilly Island, in the easternportion of Queen Maud Gulf, in the waters of the Arctic archipelago.

In 1981, a team of scientists led by Owen Beattie, a professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta, began aseries of scientific studies of the graves, bodies, and other physical evidence left by Franklin crew members onBeechey Island and King William Island. They concluded that the crew members whose graves had been found onBeechey Island most likely died of pneumonia and perhaps tuberculosis and that lead poisoning may haveworsened their health, owing to badly soldered cans held in the ships' food stores. However, it was later suggestedthat the source of this lead may not have been tinned food, but the distilled water systems fitted to the expedition’s

ships.[2] Cut marks on human bones found on King William Island were seen as signs of cannibalism. Thecombined evidence of all studies suggested that hypothermia, starvation, lead poisoning and disease includingscurvy, along with general exposure to a hostile environment whilst lacking adequate clothing and nutrition, killedeveryone on the expedition in the years following its last sighting by Europeans in 1845.

The Victorian media portrayed Franklin as a hero despite the expedition's failure and the reports of cannibalism.Songs were written about him, and statues of him in his home town, in London, and in Tasmania credit him withdiscovery of the Northwest Passage. Franklin's lost expedition has been the subject of many artistic works,including songs, verse, short stories, and novels, as well as television documentaries.

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Map of the probable routes taken by

HMS Erebus and HMS Terror during

Franklin's lost expedition.

Legend

Disko Bay (5) to Beechey Island

(just off the southwest corner of

Devon Island, to the east of 1), in

1845.

Around Cornwallis Island (1), in

1845.

Beechey Island down Peel Sound

between Prince of Wales Island (2),

to the west, and Somerset Island (3)

and the Boothia Peninsula (4) to the

east, to an unknown point off the

northwest corner of King William

Island, in 1846.

Disko Bay (5) is about 3,200

kilometres (2,000 mi) from the mouth

of the Mackenzie River (6).

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Sir John Barrow promoted

Arctic voyages of discovery

during his long tenure as

Second Secretary to the

Admiralty.

Sir John Franklin was Barrow's

reluctant choice to lead the expedition

Contents

1 Background

2 Preparations

2.1 Command

2.2 Ships, provisions and crew

3 Loss

4 Early searches

5 Overland searches

6 Contemporary search expeditions

7 Scientific expeditions

7.1 King William Island excavations (1981–82)

7.2 Beechey Island excavations and exhumations (1984

and 1986)

7.3 NgLj-2 excavations (1992)

7.4 Wreck searches (1992–93)

7.5 King William Island (1994–1995)

7.6 Wreck searches (1997–2013)

7.7 Victoria Strait Expedition (2014)

7.8 Scientific conclusions

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Captain F. R. M. Crozier,

executive officer for the

expedition, commanded

HMS Terror.

Portrait of Jane Griffin (later

Lady Franklin), 24, in 1815.

She married John Franklin in

1828, a year before he was

knighted.[1]

8 Other factors

9 Timeline

10 Legacy

10.1 Historical

10.2 Cultural legacy

10.2.1 Portrayal in fiction and the arts

11 References

11.1 Notes

11.2 Works cited

11.3 Further reading

12 External links

Background

The search by Europeans for a northern shortcut by sea from Europe to Asiabegan with the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492 and continued throughthe mid-19th century with a long series of exploratory expeditions originatingmainly in England. These voyages, when to any degree successful, added to thesum of European geographic knowledge about the Western Hemisphere,particularly North America, and as that knowledge grew larger, attentiongradually turned toward the Canadian Arctic. Voyagers of the 16th and 17thcenturies who made geographic discoveries about North America includedMartin Frobisher, John Davis, Henry Hudson, and William Baffin. In 1670, theincorporation of the Hudson's Bay Company led to further exploration of theCanadian coasts and interior and of the Arctic seas. In the 18th century,explorers included James Knight, Christopher Middleton, Samuel Hearne, JamesCook, Alexander MacKenzie, and George Vancouver. By 1800, theirdiscoveries showed conclusively that no Northwest Passage navigable by ships

lay in the temperate latitudes between the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.[3]

In 1804, Sir John Barrow became Second Secretary of the Admiralty, a post he held until 1845, and began a pushby the Royal Navy to complete the Northwest Passage over the top of Canada and to navigate toward the NorthPole. Over the next four decades, explorers including John Ross, David Buchan, William Edward Parry, FrederickWilliam Beechey, James Clark Ross, George Back, Peter Warren Dease, and Thomas Simpson made productivetrips to the Canadian Arctic. Among these explorers was John Franklin, second-in-command of an expeditiontowards the North Pole in the ships Dorothea and Trent in 1818 and the leader of overland expeditions to and

along the Arctic coast of Canada in 1819–22 and 1825–27.[4] By 1845, the combined discoveries of all of theseexpeditions had reduced the relevant unknown parts of the Canadian Arctic to a quadrilateral area of about

181,300 km2 (70,000 sq mi).[5] It was into this unknown area that Franklin was to sail, heading west throughLancaster Sound and then west and south as ice, land, and other obstacles might allow, to complete the Northwest

Passage. The distance to be navigated was roughly 1,670 kilometres (1,040 mi).[6]

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Preparations

Command

Barrow, who was 82 and nearing the end of his career, deliberated about who should command the expedition tocomplete the Northwest Passage and perhaps also find what Barrow believed to be an ice-free Open Polar Sea

around the North Pole. Parry, his first choice, was tired of the Arctic and politely declined.[7] His second choice,

James Clark Ross, also declined because he had promised his new wife he was done with the Arctic.[7] Barrow's

third choice, James Fitzjames, was rejected by the Admiralty on account of his youth.[7] Barrow considered

George Back but thought he was too argumentative.[7] Francis Crozier, another possibility, was of humble birth and

Irish, which counted against him.[7] Reluctantly, Barrow settled on the 59-year-old Franklin.[7] The expedition wasto consist of two ships, HMS Erebus and HMS Terror, each of which had seen Antarctic service with JamesClark Ross. Fitzjames was given command of Erebus, and Crozier, who had commanded Terror during theAntarctica expedition with Ross in 1841–44, was appointed the executive officer and commander of Terror.

Franklin received his expedition command on 7 February 1845, and his official instructions on 5 May 1845.[8]

Ships, provisions and crew

Erebus at 378 tons (bm) and Terror at 331 tons (bm) were sturdily built and were outfitted with recent

inventions.[9] The steam engine of Erebus came from the London and Greenwich Railway and that of Terror wasprobably from the London and Birmingham Railway. They enabled the ships to make 7.4 km/h (4 kn) on their own

power.[10] Other advanced technology included bows reinforced with heavy beams and plates of iron, an internalsteam heating device for the comfort of the crew, screw propellers and iron rudders that could be withdrawn intoiron wells to protect them from damage, ships' libraries of more than 1,000 books, and three years' worth of

conventionally preserved or tinned preserved food supplies.[11] The latter was supplied from a provisioner, Stephen

Goldner, who was awarded the contract on 1 April 1845, a mere seven weeks before Franklin set sail.[12] Goldnerworked frantically on the large and hasty order of 8,000 tins. The speed required affected quality control of aproportion of the tins manufactured, which were later found to have lead soldering that was "thick and sloppily

done, and dripped like melted candle wax down the inside surface".[13]

Most of the crew were Englishmen, many of them from the North Country, with a small number of Irishmen andScotsmen. Aside from Franklin and Crozier, the only other officers who were Arctic veterans were an assistant

surgeon and the two ice-masters.[14]

Loss

The expedition set sail from Greenhithe, England, on the morning of 19 May 1845, with a crew of 24 officers and110 men. The ships stopped briefly in Stromness Harbour in the Orkney Islands in northern Scotland, and from

there they sailed to Greenland with HMS Rattler and a transport ship, Barretto Junior.[15]

At the Whalefish Islands in Disko Bay, on the west coast of Greenland, 10 oxen carried by the transport ship wereslaughtered for fresh meat; supplies were transferred to Erebus and Terror, and crew members wrote their last

letters home. Letters written on board told how Franklin banned swearing and drunkenness.[16] Before the

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expedition's final departure, five men were discharged and sent home on Rattler and Barretto Junior, reducing theships' final crew size to 129. The expedition was last seen by Europeans in late July 1845, when Captain Dannett ofthe whaler Prince of Wales and Captain Robert Martin of the whaler Enterprise encountered Terror and Erebus

in Baffin Bay, waiting for good conditions to cross to Lancaster Sound.[17]

Over the next 150 years, other expeditions, explorers, and scientists would piece together what happened next.Franklin's men wintered in 1845–46 on Beechey Island, where three crew members died and were buried. Terrorand Erebus became trapped in ice off King William Island in September 1846 and never sailed again. According toa note dated 25 April 1848, and left on the island by Fitzjames and Crozier, Franklin had died on 11 June 1847;the crew had wintered on King William Island in 1846–47 and 1847–48, and the remaining crew had planned tobegin walking on 26 April 1848 toward the Back River on the Canadian mainland. Nine officers and fifteen menhad already died; the rest would die along the way, most on the island and another 30 or 40 on the northern coast

of the mainland, hundreds of miles from the nearest outpost of Western civilization.[18]

Early searches

After two years had passed with no word from Franklin, public concern grew and Lady Franklin—as well asmembers of Parliament and British newspapers—urged the Admiralty to send a search party. In response, theAdmiralty developed a three-pronged plan put into effect in the spring of 1848 that sent an overland rescue party,led by Sir John Richardson and John Rae, down the MacKenzie River to the Canadian Arctic coast. Twoexpeditions by sea were also launched, one entering the Canadian Arctic archipelago through Lancaster Sound, and

the other entering from the Pacific side.[19] In addition, the Admiralty offered a reward of £20,000 (£1,752,100 asof 2014) "to any Party or Parties, of any country, who shall render assistance to the crews of the Discovery Ships

under the command of Sir John Franklin".[20] After the three-pronged effort failed, British national concern and

interest in the Arctic increased until "finding Franklin became nothing less than a crusade."[21] Ballads such as "Lady

Franklin's Lament", commemorating Lady Franklin's search for her lost husband, became popular.[22][23]

Many joined the search. In 1850, 11 British and 2 American ships cruised the Canadian Arctic, including

Breadalbane, and her sister ship HMS Phoenix.[24] Several converged off the east coast of Beechey Island,where the first relics of the expedition were found, including remnants of a winter camp from 1845–46 and the

graves of John Shaw Torrington,[25] John Hartnell, and William Braine. No messages from the Franklin expedition

were found at this site.[26][27] In the spring of 1851, passengers and crew aboard several ships observed a huge

iceberg off Newfoundland which bore two vessels, one upright and one on its beam ends.[28] The ships were notexamined closely. It was suggested that the ships could have been Erebus and Terror, though it is more likely that

they were abandoned whaling ships.[29]

In 1852, Edward Belcher was given command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir John Franklin.This was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly unfortunatein an Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited to command vessels among ice. Four of the five ships

(HMS Resolute, Pioneer, Assistance and Intrepid)[30] were abandoned in pack ice, for which Belcher was court-martialed but acquitted. One of the ships, HMS Resolute, was later recovered, intact, by an American whaler.Timbers from the ship were later used to manufacture three desks, one of which, the Resolute desk, was presentedby Queen Victoria to the President of the United States, and which has often been chosen by presidents of theUnited States for use in the White House Oval Office.

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Edward Belcher

John Rae acquired the first

Franklin expedition relics

from the Inuit and reported

on starvation and

cannibalism among the dying

crewmen.

Relics of Franklin's 1845

expedition, from the

Illustrated London News,

1854

Overland searches

In 1854, John Rae, while surveying the Boothia Peninsula for the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), discoveredfurther evidence of the lost men's fate. Rae met an Inuk near Pelly Bay (now Kugaaruk, Nunavut) on 21 April1854, who told him of a party of 35 to 40 white men who had died of starvation near the mouth of the Back River.Other Inuit confirmed this story, which included reports of cannibalism among the dying sailors. The Inuit showedRae many objects that were identified as having belonged to Franklin and his men. In particular, Rae brought fromthe Pelly Bay Inuit several silver forks and spoons later identified as belonging to Fitzjames, Crozier, Franklin, andRobert Osmer Sargent, a shipmate aboard Erebus. Rae's report wassent to the Admiralty, which in October 1854 urged the HBC to send anexpedition down the Back River to search for other signs of Franklin and

his men.[31][32]

Next were Chief Factor James Anderson and HBC employee JamesStewart, who travelled north by canoe to the mouth of the Back River. InJuly 1855, a band of Inuit told them of a group of qallunaat (Inuktitut for

"whites") who had starved to death along the coast.[31] In August,Anderson and Stewart found a piece of wood inscribed with "Erebus"and another that said "Mr. Stanley" (surgeon aboard Erebus) onMontreal Island in Chantrey Inlet, where the Back River meets the

sea.[31]

Despite the findings of Rae and Anderson, the Admiralty did not plananother search of its own. Britain officially labelled the crew deceased in

service on 31 March 1854.[33] LadyFranklin, failing to convince the government tofund another search, personally commissionedone more expedition under Francis LeopoldMcClintock. The expedition ship, the steamschooner Fox, bought via public subscription,sailed from Aberdeen on 2 July 1857.

In April 1859, sledge parties set out from Foxto search on King William Island. On 5 May,the party led by Royal Navy Lieutenant WilliamHobson found a document in a cairn left by

Crozier and Fitzjames.[34] It contained twomessages. The first, dated 28 May 1847, saidthat Erebus and Terror had wintered in the iceoff the northwest coast of King William Islandand had wintered earlier at Beechey Island aftercircumnavigating Cornwallis Island. "Sir JohnFranklin commanding the Expedition. All well ",

the message said.[35] The second message,written in the margins of that same sheet of paper, was much more ominous. Dated 25 April 1848, it reported thatErebus and Terror had been trapped in the ice for a year and a half and that the crew had abandoned the ships on

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The note found by

McClintock in May 1859 in a

cairn south of Back Bay,

King William Island, detailing

the fate of the Franklin

expedition

Charles Francis Hall

22 April. Twenty-four officers and crew had died, including Franklin on 11 June 1847, just two weeks after thedate of the first note. Crozier was commanding the expedition, and the 105 survivors planned to start out the next

day, heading south towards the Back River.[36] This note contains significanterrors; most notably the date of the expedition's winter camp at Beechy Island is

incorrectly given as 1846–47 rather than 1845–46.[37]

The McClintock expedition also found a human skeleton on the southern coast ofKing William Island. Still clothed, it was searched, and some papers were found,including a seaman's certificate for Chief Petty Officer Henry Peglar (b. 1808),Captain of the Foretop, HMS Terror. However, since the uniform was that of aship's steward, it is more likely that the body was that of Thomas Armitage, gun-room steward on HMS Terror and a shipmate of Peglar, whose papers he

carried.[38] At another site on the western extreme of the island, Hobsondiscovered a lifeboat containing two skeletons and relics from the Franklinexpedition. In the boat was a large amount of abandoned equipment, includingboots, silk handkerchiefs, scented soap, sponges, slippers, hair combs, and manybooks, among them a copy of The Vicar of Wakefield. McClintock also took

testimony from the Inuit about the expedition's disastrous end.[39]

Two expeditions between 1860 and1869 by Charles Francis Hall, wholived among the Inuit near FrobisherBay on Baffin Island and later atRepulse Bay on the Canadianmainland, found camps, graves, and

relics on the southern coast of King William Island but none of theFranklin expedition survivors he believed would be found among theInuit. Though he concluded that all of the Franklin crew were dead, hebelieved that the official expedition records would yet be found under a

stone cairn.[40] With the assistance of his guides Ebierbing andTookoolito, Hall gathered hundreds of pages of Inuit testimony. Amongthese materials are accounts of visits to Franklin's ships, and an encounterwith a party of white men on the southern coast of King William Islandnear Washington Bay. In the 1990s, this testimony was extensivelyresearched by David C. Woodman, and was the basis of two books,Unravelling the Franklin Mystery (1992) and Strangers Among Us(1995), in which he reconstructs the final months of the expedition.

The hope of finding these lost papers led Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka of the U.S. Army to organise anexpedition to the island between 1878 and 1880. Traveling to Hudson Bay on the schooner Eothen, Schwatka,assembling a team that included Inuit who had assisted Hall, continued north by foot and dog sled, interviewingInuit, visiting known or likely sites of Franklin expedition remains, and wintering on King William Island. ThoughSchwatka failed to find the hoped-for papers, in a speech at a dinner given in his honour by the AmericanGeographical Society in 1880, he noted that his expedition had made "the longest sledge journey ever made both in

regard to time and distance"[41] of 11 months and 4 days and 4,360 km (2,710 mi), that it was the first Arcticexpedition on which the whites relied entirely on the same diet as the Inuit, and that it established the loss of the

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Gravestone of Lt. John Irving whose

body was found and returned to

Edinburgh for re-interment in 1881

Poster offering a reward for

help in finding the expedition

Franklin records "beyond all reasonable doubt".[41] The Schwatkaexpedition found no remnants of the Franklin expedition south of a placeknown as Starvation Cove on the Adelaide Peninsula. This was wellnorth of Crozier's stated goal, the Back River, and several hundred milesaway from the nearest Western outpost, on the Great Slave Lake.Woodman wrote of Inuit reports that between 1852 and 1858 Crozierand one other expedition member were seen in the Baker Lake area,about 400 km (250 mi) to the south, where in 1948 Farley Mowat found"a very ancient cairn, not of normal Eskimo construction" inside which

were shreds of a hardwood box with dovetail joints.[42]

Contemporary search expeditions

1848:

East: James Clark Ross, (HMS Enterprise, HMS Investigator)

only to Somerset Island because of ice.

Center: Rae–Richardson Arctic Expedition Mackenzie River and

along the coast.

West: HMS Plover, HMS Herald to Bering Strait; William Pullen

reaches Mackenzie by whaleboat.

1850:

West: Richard Collinson (HMS Enterprise), Robert McClure

(HMS Investigator) to Bering Strait. McClure frozen in at Banks

Island, when rescued becomes first man to cross the northwest

passage. Collinson reaches Coronation Gulf, furthest east of any

ship.

East: Horatio Austin (HMS Resolute), Erasmus Ommanney

(HMS Assistance), plus 2 steam tenders, Pioneer and Intrepid (cpt John Bertie Cator 1850).

Ommanney finds Franklin's Beechey Island camp. Austin's four and the below ships gather around

Beechey Island, are frozen in and in spring send out sledge expeditions in all directions. They leave the

Arctic before winter in 1851.

East: Charles Forsyth (Prince Albert) financed by Lady Franklin; sledge on Somerset Island to Fury

Beach.

East: William Penny (Lady Franklin and Sophia)

East: John Ross (schooner Felix)

East: Edwin de Haven (USS Rescue, USS Advance) = First Grinnell Expedition

1851: William Kennedy (Prince Albert again) finds Bellot Strait proving that Somerset Island is an island.

1852:

Edward Augustus Inglefield in northern Baffin Bay.

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Edward Belcher in five ships; much sledge exploration; rescues McClure; 4 ships abandoned in the

ice. Bredalbane crushed by ice.

Boat expedition up the Wellington Channel under the command of R. M'Cormick, R.N., in HMB

Forlorn Hope

1854: John Rae learns where Franklin lost his ship.

1855: Anderson and Stewart descend the Back River and find relics in Chantry Inlet.

1857: Francis Leopold McClintock finds relics at King William Island

1869: Charles Francis Hall at King William Island

1875: Allen Young blocked at Peel Sound

1878: Frederick Schwatka at King William Island

Scientific expeditions

King William Island excavations (1981–82)

In June 1981, Owen Beattie, a professor of anthropology at the University of Alberta, began the 1845–48 FranklinExpedition Forensic Anthropology Project (FEFAP) when he and his team of researchers and field assistantstravelled from Edmonton to King William Island, traversing the island's western coast as Franklin's men did132 years before. FEFAP hoped to find artefacts and skeletal remains in order to use modern forensics to establish

identities and causes of death among the lost 129.[43]

Although the trek found archaeological artefacts related to 19th-century Europeans and undisturbed disarticulated

human remains, Beattie was disappointed that more remains were not found.[44] Examining the bones of Franklin

crewmen, he noted areas of pitting and scaling often found in cases of Vitamin C deficiency, the cause of scurvy.[45]

After returning to Edmonton, he compared notes from the survey with James Savelle, an Arctic archaeologist, and

noticed skeletal patterns suggesting cannibalism.[46] Seeking information about the Franklin crew's health and diet,he sent bone samples to the Alberta Soil and Feed Testing Laboratory for trace element analysis and assembledanother team to visit King William Island. The analysis would find an unexpected level of 226 parts per million(ppm) of lead in the crewman's bones, which was 10 times higher than the control samples, taken from Inuit

skeletons from the same geographic area, of 26–36 ppm.[47]

In June 1982, a team made up of Beattie; Walt Kowall, a graduate student in anthropology at the University ofAlberta; Arne Carlson, an archaeology and geography student from Simon Fraser University in British Columbia;and Arsien Tungilik, an Inuk student and field assistant, were flown to the west coast of King William Island, where

they retraced some of the steps of McClintock in 1859 and Schwatka in 1878–79.[48] Discoveries during thisexpedition included the remains of between six and fourteen men in the vicinity of McClintock's "boat place" and

artifacts including a complete boot sole fitted with makeshift cleats for better traction.[49]

Beechey Island excavations and exhumations (1984 and 1986)

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Graves of the crewmen buried on

Beechey Island (2004)

After returning to Edmonton in 1982 and learning of the lead-level findings from the 1981 expedition, Beattiestruggled to find a cause. Possibilities included the lead solder used to seal the expedition's food tins, other foodcontainers lined with lead foil, food colouring, tobacco products, pewter tableware, and lead-wicked candles. Hecame to suspect that the problems of lead poisoning compounded by the effects of scurvy could have been lethalfor the Franklin crew. However, because skeletal lead might reflect lifetime exposure rather than exposure limited tothe voyage, Beattie's theory could be tested only by forensic examination of preserved soft tissue as opposed to

bone. Beattie decided to examine the graves of the buried crewmen on Beechey Island.[50]

After obtaining legal permission,[51] Beattie's team visited Beechey Islandin August 1984 to perform autopsies on the three crewmen buried

there.[52] They started with the first crew member to die, Leading StokerJohn Torrington. After completing Torrington's autopsy and exhumingand briefly examining the body of John Hartnell, the team, pressed fortime and threatened by the weather, returned to Edmonton with tissue

and bone samples.[53] Trace element analysis of Torrington's bones andhair indicated that the crewman "would have suffered severe mental and

physical problems caused by lead poisoning".[54] Although the autopsyindicated that pneumonia had been the ultimate cause of the crewman's

death, lead poisoning was cited as a contributing factor.[55]

During the expedition, the team visited a place about 1 km (0.6 mi) north of the grave site to examine fragments ofhundreds of food tins discarded by Franklin's men. Beattie noted that the seams were poorly soldered with lead,

which had likely come in direct contact with the food.[56][57] The release of findings from the 1984 expedition andthe photo of Torrington, a 138-year-old corpse well preserved by permafrost in the tundra, led to wide mediacoverage and renewed interest in the lost Franklin expedition.

Recent research has suggested that another potential source for the lead may have been the ships' fresh-watersystems rather than the tinned food. K.T.H. Farrer argued that “it is impossible to see how one could ingest fromthe canned food the amount of lead, 3.3 mg per day over eight months, required to raise the PbB to the level80 μg/dL at which symptoms of lead poisoning begin to appear in adults and the suggestion that bone lead in adultscould be ‘swamped’ by lead ingested from food over a period of a few months, or even three years, seems

scarcely tenable.”[58] In addition, tinned food was in widespread use within the Royal Navy at that time and its usedid not lead to any significant increase in lead poisoning elsewhere. However, and uniquely for this Expedition only,the ships were fitted with converted railway locomotive engines for auxiliary propulsion which required an estimatedone tonne of fresh water per hour when steaming. It is highly probable that it was for this reason that the ships werefitted with a unique water distillation system which, given the materials in use at the time, would have produced largequantities of water with a very high lead content. William Battersby has argued that this is a much more likely source

for the high levels of lead observed in the remains of expedition members than the tinned food.[2]

A further survey of the graves was undertaken in 1986. A camera crew filmed the procedure, shown in Nova's

television documentary, Buried in Ice in 1988.[59] Under difficult field conditions, Derek Notman, a radiologist andmedical doctor from the University of Minnesota, and radiology technician Larry Anderson took many X-rays ofthe crewmen prior to autopsy. Barbara Schweger, an Arctic clothing specialist, and Roger Amy, a pathologist,

assisted in the investigation.[60]

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Beattie and his team had noticed that someone else had attempted to exhume Hartnell. In the effort, a pickaxe had

damaged the wooden lid of his coffin, and the coffin plaque was missing.[61] Research in Edmonton later showedthat Sir Edward Belcher, commander of one of the Franklin rescue expeditions, had ordered the exhumation ofHartnell in October 1852, but was thwarted by the permafrost. A month later, Edward A. Inglefield, commander of

another rescue expedition, succeeded with the exhumation and removed the coffin plaque.[62]

Unlike Hartnell's grave, the grave of Private William Braine was largely intact.[63] When he was exhumed, thesurvey team saw signs that his burial had been hasty. His arms, body, and head had not been positioned carefully in

the coffin, and one of his undershirts had been put on backwards.[64] The coffin seemed too small for him; its lidhad pressed down on his nose. A large copper plaque with his name and other personal data punched into it

adorned his coffin lid.[65]

NgLj-2 excavations (1992)

In 1992, a team of archaeologists and forensic anthropologists identified a site, which they referenced as "NgLj-2",on the western shores of King William Island. The site matches the physical description of Leopold McClintock's"boat place". Excavations there uncovered nearly 400 bones and bone fragments, as well as physical artefactsranging from pieces of clay pipes to buttons and brass fittings. Examination of these bones by Anne Keenleyside,the expedition's forensic scientist, showed elevated levels of lead and many cut-marks "consistent with de-fleshing".On the basis of this expedition, it has become generally accepted that at least some groups of Franklin's men

resorted to cannibalism in their final distress.[66]

Wreck searches (1992–93)

In 1992, Franklin author David C. Woodman, with the help of magnetometer expert Brad Nelson, organised"Project Ootjoolik" to search for the wreck reported by Inuit testimony to lie off the waters of Adelaide Peninsula.Enlisting both a National Research Council and a Canadian Forces patrol aircraft, each fitted with a sensitivemagnetometer, a large search area to the west of Grant Point was surveyed from an altitude of 200 ft (61 m). Over60 strong magnetic targets were identified, of which five were deemed to have characteristics most congruent tothose expected from Franklin's ships.

In 1993, Dr. Joe McInnis and Woodman organised an attempt to identify the priority targets from the year before.A chartered aircraft landed on the ice at three of the locations, a hole was drilled through the ice, and a smallsector-scan sonar was used to image the sea bottom. Unfortunately, due to ice conditions and uncertain navigation,it was not possible to exactly confirm the locations of the holes, and nothing was found although hitherto-unknowndepths were found at the locations that were consistent with Inuit testimony of the wreck.

King William Island (1994–1995)

In 1994 Woodman organised and led a land search of the area from Richard Collinson Inlet to (modern) VictoryPoint in search of the buried "vaults" spoken of in the testimony of the contemporary Inuit hunter Supunger. A 10-person team spent 10 days in the search, sponsored by the Royal Canadian Geographical Society, and filmed bythe CBC Focus North. No trace of the vaults was found.

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In 1995, an expedition was jointly organised by Woodman, George Hobson, and American adventurer StevenTrafton – with each party planning a separate search. Trafton's group travelled to the Clarence Island to investigateInuit stories of a "white man's cairn" there but found nothing. Dr. Hobson's party, accompanied by archaeologistMargaret Bertulli, investigated the "summer camp" found a few miles to the south of Cape Felix, where some minorFranklin relics were found. Woodman, with two companions, travelled south from Wall Bay to Victory Point andinvestigated all likely campsites along this coast, finding only some rusted cans at a previously unknown campsitenear Cape Maria Louisa.

Wreck searches (1997–2013)

In 1997, a "Franklin 150" expedition was mounted by the Canadian film company Eco-Nova to use sonar toinvestigate more of the priority magnetic targets found in 1992. Senior archaeologist was Robert Grenier, assistedby Margaret Bertulli, and Woodman again acted as expedition historian and search coordinator. Operations wereconducted from the Canadian Coast Guard Icebreaker Laurier. Approximately 40 square kilometres (15 sq mi)were surveyed, without result, near Kirkwall Island. When detached parties found Franklin relics, primarily coppersheeting and small items, on the beaches of islets to the north of O'Reilly Island the search was diverted to that area,but poor weather prevented significant survey work before the expedition ended. A documentary, "Oceans of

Mystery: Search for the Lost Fleet", was produced by Eco-Nova about this expedition.[67]

In 2000, James Delgado of the Vancouver Maritime Museum organised a re-enactment of the historic St. Rochpassage westward through the NW Passage using the RCMP vessel Nadon supported by the Canadian BuoyTender Simon Fraser. Knowing that ice would delay the transit in the area of King William Island, he offered theuse of the Nadon as a search vessel to his friends Hobson and Woodman, and using the Nadon'sKongsberg/Simrad SM2000 forward-looking sonar, the survey of the northern search area around Kirkwall Islandwas continued without result.

Three expeditions were mounted by Woodman to continue the magnetometer mapping of the proposed wrecksites, a privately sponsored expedition in 2001, and the Irish-Canadian Franklin Search Expeditions of 2002 and2004. These made use of sled-drawn magnetometers working on the sea ice and completed the unfinished surveyof the northern (Kirkwall Island) search area (2001), and the entire southern O'Reilly Island area (2002 and 2004).All high-priority magnetic targets were identified by sonar through the ice as geological in origin. In 2002 and 2004,small Franklin artefacts and characteristic explorer tent sites were found on a small islet northeast of O'Reilly Island

during shore searches.[68]

In August 2008, a new search was announced, to be led by Robert Grenier, a senior archaeologist with ParksCanada. This search hopes to take advantage of the improved ice conditions, using side-scan sonar from a boat inopen water. Grenier also hopes to draw from newly published Inuit testimony collected by oral historian Dorothy

Harley Eber.[69] Some of Eber's informants have placed the location of one of Franklin's ships in the vicinity of theRoyal Geographical Society Island, an area not searched by previous expeditions. The search will also include localInuit historian Louie Kamookak, who has found other significant remains of the expedition and will represent the

indigenous culture.[70]

On 25 July 2010, HMS Investigator, which had become icebound and was subsequently abandoned whilesearching for Franklin's expedition in 1853, was found in shallow water in Mercy Bay along the northern coast ofBanks Island in Canada's western Arctic. The Parks Canada team reported that it was in good shape, upright in

about 11 metres (36 feet) of water.[71]

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In August 2013, a new search was announced by Parks Canada.[72]

Victoria Strait Expedition (2014)

On 1 September 2014, a larger search under the banner of the "Victoria Strait Expedition"[73] found two items on

Hat Island in the Queen Maud Gulf near Nunavut's King William Island:[74]

Part of a boat-launching davit bearing the stamps of two Royal Navy broad arrows.

A wooden object, possibly a plug for a deck hawse, the iron pipe through which the ship's chain cable would

descend into the chain locker below.

On 9 September 2014, the expedition announced that it had on 7 September[75] located one of Franklin's twoships. While it is not known which of the two has been located, it is preserved in very good condition, with side-

scan sonar picking up even the deck planking.[76] The wreck lies at the bottom of the eastern portion of Queen

Maud Gulf, west of O'Reilly Island.[77]

Scientific conclusions

The FEFAP field surveys, excavations and exhumations spanned more than 10 years. The results of this study fromKing William Island and Beechey Island artefacts and human remains showed that the Beechey Island crew had

most likely died of pneumonia[78] and perhaps tuberculosis, which was suggested by the evidence of Pott's disease

discovered in Braine.[79] Toxicological reports pointed to lead poisoning as a likely contributing factor.[80][81] Blade

cut marks found on bones from some of the crew were seen as signs of cannibalism.[82] Evidence suggested that acombination of cold, starvation and disease including scurvy, pneumonia and tuberculosis, all made worse by lead

poisoning, killed everyone in the Franklin party.[83]

Other factors

Franklin's chosen passage down the west side of King William Island took Erebus and Terror into "... a ploughing

train of ice ... [that] does not always clear during the short summers...",[84] whereas the route along the island's east

coast regularly clears in summer[84] and was later used by Roald Amundsen in his successful navigation of theNorthwest Passage. The Franklin expedition, locked in ice for two winters in Victoria Strait, was naval, not well-equipped or trained for land travel. Some of the crew members heading south from Erebus and Terror hauledmany items not needed for Arctic survival. McClintock noted a large quantity of heavy goods in the lifeboat at the"boat place" and thought them "a mere accumulation of dead weight, of little use, and very likely to break down the

strength of the sledge-crews".[85] In addition, cultural factors might have prevented the crew from seeking help asquickly as possible from the Inuit or adopting their survival techniques.

Timeline

1845, 19 May: Franklin expedition sails from England

1845, July: Expedition docks in Greenland, sends home five men and a batch of letters

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1845, 28 July: Last sighting of expedition by Europeans (a whaling ship in Baffin Bay)

1845–46: Expedition winters on Beechey Island. Three crewmen die of tuberculosis and are buried.

1846: Erebus and Terror leave Beechey Island and sail down Peel Sound towards King William Island

1846, 12 September: Ships trapped in the ice off King William Island

1846–47: Expedition winters on King William Island

1847, 28 May: Date of first note, says "All well"

1847, 11 June: Franklin dies

1847–48: Expedition again winters on King William Island, after the ice fails to thaw in 1847

1848, 22 April: Erebus and Terror abandoned after one year and seven months trapped in the ice

1848, 25 April: Date of second note, saying 24 men have died and the survivors plan to start marching south

on 26 April to the Back River

1850 (?): Inuit board an abandoned ship, which is icebound off King William Island

1850 (?): Inuit see 40 men walking south on King William Island

1851 (?): Inuit hunters see four men still trying to head south, last verified sighting of survivors (as reported to

Charles Hall)

1852–1858 (?): Inuit may have seen Crozier and one other survivor much further south in the Baker Lake

area

1854: John Rae interviews local Inuit, who give him items from the expedition and tell him the men starved to

death, after resorting to cannibalism

1859: McClintock finds the abandoned boat and the messages on an admiralty form in a cairn on King

William Island

2014: Ryan Harris, an underwater archeologist who was Parks Canada's project lead for the 2014 search,

said the wreck was "indisputably" one of Franklin's two ships.[86]

Legacy

Historical

The most meaningful outcome of the Franklin expedition was the mapping of several thousand miles of hithertounsurveyed coastline by expeditions searching for Franklin's lost ships and crew. As Richard Cyriax noted, "the lossof the expedition probably added much more [geographical] knowledge than its successful return would have

done".[87] At the same time, it largely quelled the Admiralty's appetite for Arctic exploration. There was a gap ofmany years before the Nares expedition and when Nares declared there was "no thoroughfare" to the North Pole,his words marked the end of the Royal Navy's historical involvement in Arctic exploration, the end of an era inwhich such exploits were widely seen by the British public as worthy expenditures of human effort and monetaryresources. As a writer for The Athenaeum put it, "We think that we can fairly make out the account between thecost and results of these Arctic Expeditions, and ask whether it is worth while to risk so much for that which is so

difficult of attainment, and when attained, is so worthless."[88] The navigation of the Northwest Passage in 1903–05by Roald Amundsen with the Gjøa expedition effectively ended the centuries-long quest for the Northwest Passage.

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Statue of John Franklin in his

home town of Spilsby,

Lincolnshire, England

Cultural legacy

For years after the loss of the Franklin Party, the Victorian media portrayedFranklin as a hero who led his men in the quest for the Northwest Passage. Astatue of Franklin in his home town bears the inscription "Sir John Franklin –Discoverer of the North West Passage", and statues of Franklin outside theAthenaeum in London and in Tasmania bear similar inscriptions. Although theexpedition's fate, including the possibility of cannibalism, was widely reported anddebated, Franklin's standing with the Victorian public was undiminished. Theexpedition has been the subject of numerous works of non-fiction, including twobooks by Ken McGoogan, Fatal Passage and Lady Franklin's Revenge.

The mystery surrounding Franklin's last expedition was the subject of a 2006episode of the NOVA television series Arctic Passage; a 2007 televisiondocumentary, "Franklin's Lost Expedition" on Discovery HD Theatre; as well asa 2008 Canadian documentary Passage. In an episode of the 2009 ITV1 traveldocumentary series "Billy Connolly: Journey to the Edge of the World", presenterConnolly and his crew visited Beechey Island, filmed the gravesite, and gavedetails of the Franklin expedition.

In memory of the lost expedition, one of Canada's Northwest Territoriessubdivisions was known as the District of Franklin. Including the high Arctic islands; this jurisdiction was abolishedwhen the area was set off into the newly created Nunavut Territory on April 1, 1999.

On 29 October 2009, a special service of thanksgiving was held in the chapel at the Old Royal Naval College inGreenwich, to accompany the rededication of the national monument to Franklin there. The service also includedthe solemn re-interment of the remains of Lieutenant Henry Thomas Dundas Le Vesconte, the only remains ever

repatriated to England, entombed within the monument in 1873.[89] The event brought together members of theinternational polar community and invited guests included polar travellers, photographers and authors anddescendants of Franklin, Captain Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier and their men, and the families of those who wentto search for them, including Admiral Sir Francis Leopold McClintock, Rear Admiral Sir John Ross and ViceAdmiral Sir Robert McClure among many others. The gala was directed by the Rev Jeremy Frost and polarhistorian Dr Huw Lewis-Jones and was organised by Polarworld and the High Commission of Canada to theUnited Kingdom. It was a celebration of the contributions made by the United Kingdom in the charting of theCanadian North, which honoured the loss of life in the pursuit of geographical discovery. The Navy wasrepresented by Admiral Nick Wilkinson, prayers were led by the Bishop of Woolwich and among the readingswere eloquent tributes from Duncan Wilson, chief executive of the Greenwich Foundation and H.E. James Wright,

the Canadian High Commissioner.[90][91] At a private drinks reception in the Painted Hall following this Arcticservice, Chief Marine Archaeologist for Parks Canada Robert Grenier spoke of his ongoing search for the missingexpedition ships. The following day, a group of polar authors went to London's Kensal Green Cemetery to pay

their respects to the Arctic explorers buried there.[92] After some difficulty, McClure's gravestone was located. It ishoped that his memorial, in particular, may be conserved in the future. Many other veterans of the searches forFranklin are buried there, including Admiral Sir Horatio Thomas Austin, Admiral Sir George Back, Admiral SirEdward Augustus Inglefield, Admiral Bedford Clapperton Trevelyan Pim, and Admiral Sir John Ross. Franklin'sredoubtable wife Jane Griffin, Lady Franklin, is also interred at Kensal Green in the vault, and commemorated on amarble cross dedicated to her niece Sophia Cracroft.

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Illustration by Édouard Riou for the

title page of Jules Verne's Voyages et

aventures du capitaine Hatteras

(Journeys and Adventures of Captain

Hatteras)

Portrayal in fiction and the arts

From the 1850s through to the present day, Franklin's last expedition inspired numerous literary works. Among thefirst was a play, The Frozen Deep, written by Wilkie Collins with assistance and production by Charles Dickens.The play was performed for private audiences at Tavistock House early in 1857, as well as at the Royal Gallery ofIllustration (including a command performance for Queen Victoria), and for the public at the Manchester TradeUnion Hall. News of Franklin's death in 1859 inspired elegies, including one by Algernon Charles Swinburne.

Fictional treatments of the final Franklin expedition begin with JulesVerne's Journeys and Adventures of Captain Hatteras, (1866), inwhich the novel's hero seeks to retrace Franklin's footsteps anddiscovers that the North Pole is dominated by an enormous volcano. TheGerman novelist Sten Nadolny's The Discovery of Slowness (1983;English translation 1987) takes on the entirety of Franklin's life, touchingonly briefly on his last expedition. Other recent novelistic treatments ofFranklin include Mordecai Richler's Solomon Gursky Was Here,William T. Vollmann's The Rifles (1994), John Wilson's North WithFranklin: The Journals of James Fitzjames (1999); and DanSimmons's The Terror (2007) - the latter of which is being developed asan AMC television series, announced in February 2013. The expeditionhas also been the subject of a horror role-playing game supplement, TheWalker in the Wastes. Most recently, Clive Cussler's 2008 novel ArcticDrift incorporates the ordeal of the Franklin expedition as a centralelement in the story, and Richard Flanagan's Wanting (2009) deals withFranklin's deeds in both Tasmania and the Arctic. 2013’s The White

Passage rounds out the list with a vaguely science-fiction take on the concepts of Time-travel and the consequencesof an alternate fate of the lost expedition. On 12 January 2012, BBC Radio 4 broadcast a radio play entitled

"Erebus" based on the Franklin expedition.[93]

Franklin's last expedition also inspired a great deal of music, beginning with the ballad "Lady Franklin's Lament"(also known as "Lord Franklin"), which originated in the 1850s and has been recorded by dozens of artists, amongthem Martin Carthy, Pentangle, Sinéad O'Connor, the Pearlfishers, and John Walsh. Other Franklin-inspired songsinclude Fairport Convention's "I'm Already There", and James Taylor's "Frozen Man" (based on Beattie'sphotographs of John Torrington).

The influence of the Franklin expedition on Canadian literature has been especially significant. Among the best-known contemporary Franklin ballads is "Northwest Passage" by the late Ontario folksinger Stan Rogers (1981),

which has been referred to as the unofficial Canadian national anthem.[94] The distinguished Canadian novelistMargaret Atwood has also spoken of Franklin's expedition as a sort of national myth of Canada, remarking that "Inevery culture many stories are told, (but) only some are told and retold, and these stories bear examining ... in

Canadian literature, one such story is the Franklin expedition."[95] Other recent treatments by Canadian poetsinclude a verse play, Terror and Erebus, by Gwendolyn MacEwen that was broadcast on Canadian BroadcastingCorporation (CBC) radio in the 1960s, as well as David Solway's verse cycle, Franklin's Passage (2003).Dominique Fortier's 2008 French language novel, Du bon usage des étoiles, creatively considers the Franklinexpedition from a variety of perspectives and genres and was both shortlisted and a finalist for several literaryawards in Canada. Sheila Fischman's English translation of the novel, On the Proper Use of Stars, was alsoshortlisted for the Governor General's Literary Award for French to English Translation in 2009.

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Man Proposes, God Disposes by

Edwin Henry Landseer, 1864

In the visual arts, the loss of Franklin's expedition inspired a number ofpaintings in both the United States and Britain. In 1861, Frederic EdwinChurch unveiled his great canvas "The Icebergs"; later that year, prior totaking it to England for exhibition, he added an image of a broken ship'smast in silent tribute to Franklin. In 1864, Sir Edwin Landseer's "ManProposes, God Disposes" caused a stir at the annual Royal Academyexhibition; its depiction of two polar bears, one chewing on a tatteredship's ensign, the other gnawing on a human ribcage, was seen at the timeas in poor taste, but has remained one of the more powerful imaginings ofthe expedition's final fate. The expedition also inspired numerous popular engravings and illustrations, along with

many panoramas, dioramas, and magic lantern shows.[96]

References

Notes

1. ^ "Franklin, Jane, Lady (1792–1875)" (http://gutenberg.net.au/dictbiog/0-dict-biogF.html#franklin1). Dictionary of

Australian Biography. Project Gutenberg Australia. Retrieved 2 March 2008.

2. ̂a b Battersby, William, "Identification of the Probable Source of the Lead Poisoning Observed in Members of the

Franklin Expedition (http://www.hakluyt.com/PDF/Battersby_Franklin.pdf)", Journal of the Hakluyt Society, 2008.

Retrieved 25 November 2008.

3. ^ Savours (1999), pp. 1–38.

4. ^ Savours (1999), pp. 39–166.

5. ^ Savours (1999), p. 169.

6. ^ Cyriax (1939), pp. 18–23.

7. ̂a b c d e f Sandler (2006), pp. 65–74.

8. ^ Gibson, William, F.R.G.S. (June 1937). "Sir John Franklin's Last Voyage: A brief history of the Franklin

expedition and the outline of the researches which established the facts of its tragic outcome". The Beaver: 48.

9. ^ Sandler (2006), p. 70.

10. ^ Savours (1999), p. 180.

11. ^ Sandler (2006), pp. 71–73.

12. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 25, 158.

13. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 113.

14. ^ Potter, Russell A. (ed.) (Fall 2006). "Interview with Michael Smith, author of Captain Francis Crozier: Last Man

Standing?" (http://www.ric.edu/faculty/rpotter/abr/Smith_Interview.htm). The Arctic Book Review, Vol. 8, Nos. 1

and 2. Retrieved 14 February 2008.

15. ^ Cookman (2000), p. 74.

16. ^ Owen, Roderick (1978). The fate of Franklin. London: Hutchinson. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-09-131190-2.

17. ^ Cyriax (1939), pp. 66–68.

18. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 19–50.

19. ^ Savours (1999), pp. 186–89.

20. ^ Sandler (2006), p. 80.

21. ^ Sandler (2006), pp. 87–88.

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21. ^ Sandler (2006), pp. 87–88.

22. ^ Sandler (2006), p. 266.

23. ^ Potter, Russell A. "Songs and Ballads about Sir John Franklin" (http://www.ric.edu/faculty/rpotter/ballad.html).

Retrieved 26 February 2008.

24. ^ Sandler (2006), p. 102.

25. ^ Geiger, John (9 December 1984). " 'Iceman' Torrington was last of his line". The Edmonton Sun.

26. ^ Geiger, John (3 October 1984). "Was Murder Uncovered?". The Edmonton Sun.

27. ^ Picard, Carol (10 October 1984). "Iceman wasn't 'iced' – Autopsy on seaman reveals no evidence of foul play".

The Edmonton Sun.

28. ^ Gould (1928), pp. 52–81.

29. ^ "Arctic Blue Books – British Parliamentary Papers Abstract, 1852k."

(http://www.umanitoba.ca/libraries/units/archives/digital/abb/1852k.html). Retrieved 10 September 2014.

30. ^ Mowat, Farley (1973). "The Fate of Franklin". Ordeal by ice; the search for the Northwest Passage. Toronto:

McClelland and Stewart Ltd. p. 285. OCLC 1391959 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1391959).

31. ̂a b c Klutschak (1989), pp. xv–xvi.

32. ^ Savours (1999), pp. 270–277.

33. ^ Cookman (2000), p. 2.

34. ^ Cookman (2000), pp. 8–9.

35. ^ Savours (1999), p. 292.

36. ^ "NOVA Arctic Passage – The Note in the Cairn (transcript)" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/arctic/note-

transcript.html). PBS. Retrieved 31 January 2008.

37. ^ Woodman, David C., Strangers Among Us. Montréal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995, p. 5.

38. ^ Savours (1999), pp. 295–296.

39. ^ Beattie, 1987, pp. 34–40.

40. ^ Schwatka (1965), pp. 12–15.

41. ̂a b Schwatka (1965), pp. 115–116.

42. ^ Woodman, David C. (1992). Unravelling the Franklin Mystery: Inuit Testimony. Montreal: McGill-Queen's

University Press. p. 317, ISBN 0-7735-0936-4. Note: Woodman was unable to track down the origin of these Inuit

reports and the builder or origins of the cairn found by Mowat are unknown.

43. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 51–52.

44. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 58.

45. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 56.

46. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 58–62.

47. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 83.

48. ^ Beattie (1989), p. 63.

49. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 77–82.

50. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 83–85.

51. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 86–87.

52. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 85.

53. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 111–120.

54. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 123.

55. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 122–123.

^ Beattie (1987), p. 158.

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56. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 158.

57. ^ Kowall, W.A.; Krahn, P.M.; Beattie, O. B. "Lead Levels in Human Tissues from the Franklin Forensic Project".

International Journal Environmental Analytical Chemistry (Gordon and Breach Science Publishers) 35: 121.

doi:10.1080/03067318908028385 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F03067318908028385).

58. ^ K. T. H. Farrer, ‘Lead and the Last Franklin Expedition’, Journal of Archaeological Science, 20, 1993, pp. 399–

409.

59. ^ Owen Beattie. Buried in Ice (television). Beechey Island, 1988: WGHB and NOVA.

60. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 130–145.

61. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 116.

62. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 116–118.

63. ^ Beattie (1987), pp. 146–147.

64. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 150.

65. ^ Beattie (1987), p. 148.

66. ^ Bertulli, Margaret; Fricke, Henry C. (March 1997). "The Final Days of the Franklin Expedition: New Skeletal

Evidence" (http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic50-1-36.pdf) (PDF). Arctic (journal) 50 (1): 36–46. Retrieved

14 February 2008.

67. ^ Oceans Discovery. "Oceans Of Mystery Documentary" (http://www.oceansdiscovery.com/about-

us/impressum/oceans-of-mystery-documentary.html). Retrieved 10 September 2014.

68. ^ "Irish-Canadian Franklin Search Expedition, 2004"

(http://www.ric.edu/faculty/rpotter/woodman/2004_Field_Report_short.htm). Retrieved 10 September 2014.

69. ^ Grenier, Robert. "IPY Proposal" (http://classic.ipy.org/development/eoi/proposal-details.php?id=330).

Classic.ipy.org.

70. ^ Gilles, Rob (August 2008). "Canada to search for Arctic explorer's ships"

(http://apnews.myway.com/article/20080816/D92J5FK00.html). Associated Press. Retrieved 17 August 2008.

71. ^ Collins, Nick (30 July 2010). "Sir John Franklin search ship found"

(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/canada/7917134/Sir-John-Franklin-search-ship-

found.html). Telegraph. Retrieved 1 August 2010.

72. ^ "Parks Canada | On the Hunt for a Missing Piece of Canadian History – Parks Canada Continues Search for Lost

Franklin Ships" (http://www.newswire.ca/en/story/1208845/on-the-hunt-for-a-missing-piece-of-canadian-history-

parks-canada-continues-search-for-lost-franklin-ships). Newswire.ca. Retrieved 2014-05-19.

73. ^ [http://www.pc.gc.ca/apps/cp-nr/release_e.asp?bgid=1799&andor1=bg Victoria Strait Expedition.

74. ^ "Franklin expedition ship pieces believed discovered in Arctic" (http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/franklin-

expedition-ship-pieces-believed-discovered-in-arctic-1.2759925). CBC. Retrieved 9 September 2014.

75. ^ http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x25m7ya_british-ship-lost-in-arctic-170-years-ago-found_news

76. ^ "Lost Franklin expedition ship found in the Arctic" (http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/lost-franklin-expedition-

ship-found-in-the-arctic-1.2760311). CBC. 2014-09-09. Retrieved 2014-09-09.

77. ^ Chase, Steven (9 September 2014). "Finding of Franklin ship fuels Harper's new nationalism"

(http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/finding-of-franklin-ship-fuels-harpers-new-

nationalism/article20508270/). The Globe and Mail (Ottawa). Retrieved 10 September 2014.

78. ^ Amy, Roger; Bhatnagar, Rakesh; Damkjar, Eric; Beattie, Owen (15 July 1986). "The last Franklin Expedition:

report of a postmortem examination of a crew member"

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1491204). Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) 135

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(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1491204). Canadian Medical Association Journal (CMAJ) 135

(2): 115–117. PMC 1491204 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1491204). PMID 3521821

(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3521821).

79. ^ Notman, Derek N.H.; Anderson, Lawrence, Beattie, Owen B.; Amy, Roger (1987). "Arctic Paleoradiology:

Portable Radiographic Examination of Two Frozen Sailors from the Franklin Expedition (1845–48)"

(http://www.ajronline.org/search.dtl) (PDF). American Journal of Roentgenology (AJR) (American Roentgen Ray

Society) 149: 347–350. doi:10.2214/ajr.149.2.347 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2214%2Fajr.149.2.347). ISSN 0361-803X

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80. ^ Kowall, Walter; Beattie, Owen B.; Baadsgaard, Halfdan (25 January 1990). "Did solder kill Franklin's men?".

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Works cited

"Franklin Saga Deaths: A Mystery Solved?" (1990). National Geographic Magazine, Vol 178, No 3.

Atwood, Margaret (1995). "Concerning Franklin and his Gallant Crew," in Strange Things: The Malevolent North

in Canadian Literature. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-811976-3.

Beattie, Owen, and Geiger, John (1989). Frozen in Time: Unlocking the Secrets of the Franklin Expedition.

Saskatoon: Western Producer Prairie Books. ISBN 0-88833-303-X.

John Brown, F.R.G.S. (1860), The North-West Passage and the Plans for the Search for Sir John Franklin: A

Review with maps, &c., Second Edition with a Sequel Including the Voyage of the Fox, London, Edward

Stanford, 1860.

Berton, Pierre (1988). The Arctic Grail: The Quest for the Northwest Passage and The North Pole, 1818–1909.

Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-1266-7.

Cookman, Scott (2000). Iceblink: The Tragic Fate of Sir John Franklin's Lost Polar Expedition. New York: John

Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-37790-2.

Cyriax, Richard (1939) Sir John Franklin's last Arctic expedition; a chapter in the history of the royal navy.

London: Methuen & Co. OCLC 9183074 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9183074)

Klutschak, Heinrich; Barr, William (1989). Overland to Starvation Cove. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

ISBN 0-8020-5762-4.

McGoogan, Ken (2002). Fatal Passage: The True Story of John Rae, the Arctic Hero Time Forgot. New York:

Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-0993-6

McGoogan, Ken (2005). Lady Franklin's Revenge: A True Story of Ambition, Obsession and the Remaking of

Arctic History. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-200671-2.

Gould, Rupert (1928). Oddities a Book of Unexplained Facts (http://books.google.com/books?

id=eGbmWr2AFQMC&lpg=PP1&ots=yOY4xAFRSm&dq=Oddities%20--

%20A%20Book%20of%20Unexplained%20Facts&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false). London: P. Allan & Co.

Retrieved 19 May 2011.

Potter, Russell (2007). Arctic Spectacles: The Frozen North in Visual Culture. Seattle: University of Washington

Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98680-7.

Sandler, Martin (2006). Resolute: The Epic Search for the Northwest Passage and John Franklin, and the

Discovery of the Queen's Ghost Ship. New York: Sterling Publishing Co. ISBN 978-1-4027-4085-5.

Savours, Ann (1999). The Search for the North West Passage. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-22372-

2.

Schwatka, Frederick (1965). The Long Arctic Search. Ed. Edouard A. Stackpole. New Bedford, Mass.: Reynolds-

DeWalt. OCLC 1012693 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1012693).

Simmons, Dan (2007). The Terror. Armonk: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-01744-2.

Woodman, David C. (1995). Strangers Among Us. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-1348-

5.

Woodman, David C. (1992). Unravelling the Franklin Mystery: Inuit Testimony. Montreal: McGill-Queen's

University Press. ISBN 0-7735-0936-4

Alvarado, Kassandra, (2013). The White Passage. Smashwords. ISBN 9781301113293

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9/11/2014 Franklin's lost expedition - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Wikimedia Commons hasmedia related to FranklinExpedition.

Further reading

External links

Arctic Passage (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/arctic/), NOVA's

companion website for Arctic Passage

Books by John Franklin

(http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/5108) Gutenberg Project

Doomed Franklin Expedition (http://historicmysteries.com/events/the-doomed-franklin-expedition), Historic

Mysteries

Expedition reports for Woodman-involved efforts

(http://www.ric.edu/faculty/rpotter/woodman/mainpage.html), Russell Potter

Fate of Franklin (http://www.ric.edu/rpotter/SJFranklin.html), Russell Potter

Franklin biography (http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=37516), Dictionary of Canadian

Biography Online

Franklin collection (http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collections.html#!csearch;searchTerm=john_franklin), Royal

Museums Greenwich

Franklin Expedition (http://www.flickr.com/photos/nationalmaritimemuseum/tags/franklinexpedition/),

National Maritime Museum images on Flickr

Beardsley, Martin (2002). Deadly Winter: The Life of Sir John Franklin. London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-

86176-187-2.

Brandt, Anthony (2010). The Man Who Ate His Boots: The Tragic History of the Search for the Northwest

Passage. ISBN 978-0-307-26392-6.

Coleman, E. C. (2006). History of the Royal Navy and Polar Exploration: From Franklin to Scott: Vol. 2.

Tempus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7524-4207-5.

Davis-Fisch, Heather. (2012). Loss and Cultural Remains in Performance: The Ghosts of the Franklin Expedition.

Toronto: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-23034-032-6.

M'Clintock, Francis L. (1860). The Voyage of the Fox in the Arctic Seas: A Narrative of the Discovery of the Fate

of Sir John Franklin and His Companions. Boston: Ticknor and Fields.

Lambert, Andrew (2010). Franklin: Tragic Hero of Polar Exploration. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-

571-23161-4.

Mirsky, Jeannette (1970). To the Arctic!: The Story of Northern Exploration from Earliest Times, ISBN 0-226-

53179-1.

Murphy, David (2004). The Arctic Fox: Francis Leopold McClintock. Toronto: Dundurn Press, ISBN 1-55002-

523-6.

Poulsom, Neville W., and Myers, J. A. L. (2000). British Polar Exploration and Research; a Historical and

Medallic Record with Biographies 1818–1999. (London: Savannah). ISBN 978-1-902366-05-0.

9/11/2014 Franklin's lost expedition - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin%27s_lost_expedition 24/24

Life and Times of Sir John Franklin (http://blogs.abc.net.au/tasmania/2012/07/the-life-and-times-of-sir-john-

franklin.html) (audio file from 936 ABC Hobart)

Llanelli’s Lost Arctic Explorer (http://www.llanellich.org.uk/Files/llanellis-lost-arctic-explorer.html), Llanelli

Community Heritage

Searching for Franklin (http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/features/franklin/), Canadian Broadcasting

Corporation

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Categories: 1840s 1845 in Canada 1845 in the British Empire Arctic expeditions

Expeditions from the United Kingdom Exploration of the Arctic Geography of Canada History of Nunavut

History of the Northwest Territories Incidents of cannibalism Maritime history of Canada

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