Chronology of How the West Was Lost

1540: Coronado leads Spanish expedition on to southern plains.

1600-1700: Horses spread from the Southwest aeross the plains.

1779-83: Major smallpox epidemie from Mexieo to Canada.

1801-02: Smallpox epidemie.

1804-06: Lewis and Clark expedition.

1830: Indian Removal Aet: Tribes from the Southeast and Great Lakes foreed west to Oklahoma and Arkansas.

1837: Smallpox breaks out on upper Missouri and spreads aeross the plains.

1846-48: War between the Vnited States and Mexico.

1848-49: California Gold Rush.

1851: Treaty of Fort Lararnie with northern plains tribes.

1854: Sioux annihilate LieutenantJohn Grattan's eommand.

1861-65: Ameriean Civil War.

1862: Sioux "uprising" in Minnesota.

1864: Colorado militia massaeres Southern Cheyennes at Sand Creek.

1866-67: "Red Cloud War": Sioux fight to dose Bozeman Trail.

1867: Treaty of Medicine Lodge with southem plains tribes.

1867-83: Buffalo herds exterminated.

1868: Vnited States Army campaigns against southern plains tribes; George Custer destroys Southem Cheyenne village on the Washita River. Treaty of Fort Laramie with the Sioux.

1869: Transeontinental railroad eompleted.

1869-70: Smallpox on the northem plains.

1870: Vnited StatesArmy destroys Piegan village on the Marias River.

1871: V.S. Congress eeases to make treaties with Indian tribes.

1874-75: Red River War on the southem plains.

1875: Seventy-two southem plains warriors sentas prisoners ofwar to Fort Marion, Florida.

209

210 CHRONOLOGY OF HOWTHE WEST WAS LOST

1876-77: "The Great Sioux War": Sioux and Cheyennes annihilate Custer's command at the Little Big Horn.

1877: Crazy Horse killed. 1879: Captain Richard H. Pratt opens Carlisie Indian School in CarlisIe, Pennsylvania.

1881: Sitting Bull surrenders.

1881: U.S. Supreme Court decides Ex Parte Crow Dog. 1883: Courts ofIndian Offenses established.

1887: Congress passes Dawes A1Iotment Act. 1889-90: Ghost Dance spreads from Nevada to the plains.

1890: Sitting BuH killed. Wounded Knee massacre at Pine Ridge reservation, South Dakota. 1903: U.S. Supreme Court mIes Congress has power to abrogate treaties with Indian tribes in Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock.

Questions for Consideration

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the documents and drawings reproduced in this book as sources for understanding or reconsidering Plains Indian history and the history of the Arnerican West?

2. What do the sources in this book tell us about the lives and experi­ences of Plains Indians? What do they omit?

3. Which, if any, ofthe sources appear (a) to be of dubious authenticity; (b) to betray the influence of non-Indian editors or interpreters; or (c) to have been created consciously for a white audience?

4. The Great Plains region in the early nineteenth century has been described as "a world in flux." To what extent do the sources justify this description?

5. Account for the relatively rapid defeat of the Plains Indians by the United States in the second half of the nineteenth century.

6. What do the sources in this book reveal about the different ways in which Indian people responded to the demands and pressures im­posed by the United States government in the late nineteenth cen­tury?

7. In what ways did the lives of Plains Indian people change between 1800 and 1900? In what ways, if any, did their lives display continuity and resilience?

8. Two Leggings said that "nothing happened" after his people were confined to the reservation. What evidence do the sources in this book provide to help us (a) understand this reaction and (b) refute this statement?

211

Selected Bibliography

The literature on the history and culture of the Plains Indians is volumi­nous. This bibliography lists only a selection of the sources used in preparing this book. Students should refer to the notes for additional works.

PRIMARY SOURCES

Annual Reports olthe Board olIndian Commissioners 1870-1880 (Washing­ton, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1871-81).

Gary Clayton Anderson and Alan R. Woolworth, eds., Through Dakota Eyes: Narrative Accounts 01 the Minnesota Indian War 011862 (St. Paul: Minne­sota Historical Society Press, 1988).

Althea Bass, The Arapaho Way: A Memoirolan Indian Boyhood (NewYork: Clarkson N. Potter, 1966).

George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Conditions 01 NorthAmerican Indians. 2 vols. (London: Author, 1844).

Raymond J. DeMallie, ed., The Sixth Grandlather: The Teachings 01 Black Elk Given to John G. Neihardt (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984).

Charles Eastman, From the Deep Woods to Civilization: Chapters in the Autobiography 01 an Indian (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1977 ed.).

Jerome A. Greene, comp. and ed., Lakota and Cheyenne: Indian Views olthe Great Sioux War (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994).

Charles J. KappIer, ed., Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties. 2 vols. (Washing­ton, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1904).

Arnold Krupat, ed., Native AmericanAutobiography: An Anthology (Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, 1994).

O. G. Libby, ed., 'The Arikara Narrative of the Campaign Against the Hostile Dakotas," Collections 01 the North Dakota State Historical Society 6 (1920).

Frank B. Linderman, Plenty Coups, Chielol the Crows (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1962).

Frank B. Linderman, Pretty-shield, Medicine Woman olthe Crows (Lincoln: University of N ebraska Press, 1972).

Garrick Mallery, "Picture Writing of the American Indians," 10th Annual Report olthe Bureau 01 American Ethnology, 1888-89 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1893),266-328.

213

214 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomas B. Marquis, interpreter, Wooden Leg: A Warrior Who Fought Custer (Minneapolis: The Midwest Co., 1931). .

lames Mooney, "Calendar History ofthe Kiowa Indians," 17thAnnual Report olthe Bureau 01 American Ethnology 1895-96, part 1 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1898), 129-445.

lames Mooney, 'The Ghost-Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of1890," 14th Annual Report 01 the Bureau 01 American Ethnology, 1892-93, part 2 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1896).

Peter Nabokov, Two Leggings: The Making 01 a Crow Warrior (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1967).

lohn G. Neihardt, Black Elk Speaks: Beingthe Life Story ola HolyMan olthe Oglala Sioux (Iincoln: Vniversity of Nebraska Press, 1988 ed.).

"Prince Maximilian of Wied's Travels in the Interior of North America, 1832-1834," in Reuben G. Thwaites, ed., Early Western Travels, 1748-1846, vols. 22-25 (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1906).

Report 01 the Joint Special Committee on the Condition 01 the Indian Tribes. [Doolittle ReportJ 39th Congress, 2nd session (1866-67) Senate Report No. 156. Serial1279.

lames Willard Schultz, Blackleet and Buffalo: Memories 01 Life among the Indians (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1962).

Luther Standing Bear, My People the Sioux (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1928). M. W. Stirling, 'Three Pictographic Autobiographies of Sitting Bull," Smith­

sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 95, no. 5 (Washington: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1938).

Stanley Vestal, ed., New Sources 01 Indian History, 1850-1891 (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1934).

W. Raymond Wood and Thomas D. Thiessen, eds., Early Fur Trade on the Northern Plains: Canadian Traders among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indi­ans, 1738-1818 (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1985).

SECONDARYSOURCES

lanet Catherine Berlo, "Wo-Haw's Notebooks: 19th Century Kiowa Indian Drawings in the Collections of the Missouri Historical Sodety," Gateway Heritage 3 (Fall 1982), 5-13.

Alfred W. Bowers, "Hidatsa Sodal and Ceremonial Organization," Bureau 01 American Ethnology Bulletin 194 (Washington, D.C.: V.S. Govt. Printing Office, 1965).

H. David Brumble, III,AmericanIndianAutobiography (Berkeley: Vniversity of California Press, 1988).

Colin G. Calloway, '''The Only Way Open to Vs': The Crow Struggle for Survival in the Nineteenth Century," North Dakota History 53 (Summer 1986), 25-34.

lohn C. Ewers, The Blackleet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains (Norman: Vniversity of Oklahoma Press, 1958).

Dan Flores, "Bison Ecology and Bison Diplomacy: The Southern Plains, 1800-1850," Journal 01 American History 78 (1991),465-85.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 215

Carolyn Gilman and Mary Jane Schneider, The Way to Independence: Memo­ries 0/ a Hidatsa Indian Family, 1840-1920 (St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society Press, 1987).

FrederickE. Hoxie, Parading Through History: The Making o/the Crow Nation in America, 1805-1935 (N ew York: Cambridge University Press, 1995).

J oseph J ablow, 'The Cheyenne in Plains Indian Trade Relations, 1795-1840," Monographs 0/ the American Ethnological Society 19 (1966; reprinted Lin­coln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994).

Douglas C. J ones, The Treaty 0/ M edicine Lodge: The Story 0/ the Great Treaty Council as Told by Eyewitnesses (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1966).

Evan M. Maurer, et al. Visions o/the People: A Pictorial History o/Plains Indian Li/e (Minneapolis Institute of Arts, 1992).

James C. Olson, Red Cloud and the Sioux Problem (Iincoln: University of N ebraska Press, 1965).

Karen Daniels Peterson, Howling Wolf.· A Cheyenne Warrior's Graphie Inter­pretation 0/ His People (palo Alto, Cal.: American West Publishing, 1968).

James P. Ronda, Lewis and Clark among the Indians (Iincoln: University of NebraskaPress, 1984).

Frank R. Secoy, "Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains," Mono­graphs 0/ the American Ethnological Society 21 (1953; reprinted Iincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992).

Joyce M. Szabo, Howling Wolf and the History 0/ Ledger Art (Albuquerque: University ofNew Mexico Press, 1994.)

Russen Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987).

Robert M. Utley, The Indian Frontier 0/ the American West 1846-1890 (Albuquerque: University of N ew Mexico Press, 1984).

Robert M. Utley, The Lance and the Shield: The Li/e and Times 0/ Sitting Bult (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1993).

James Welch, Fools Crow (NewYork: Penguin, 1987). Richard White, 'The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western

Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," Journal 0/ American History 65 (1978),319-43.

216 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

(Continuedfrom page ii) Little Bear, 'The Sand Creek Massacre, 1864." From Li/e 01 George Bent: Written from

His Letters, by George E. Hyde. Copyright © 1968 by the University of Oklahoma Press. Lone Man, 'The Death of Sitting Bull, 1890." From New Sources 01 Indian History,

1850-1891: A Misceltany, by Stanley Vestal. Copyright © 1934 by the University of Oklahoma Press.

Old Lady Horse, 'The Last Buffalo Herd." From American Indian Mythology, by Allce Marriot and Carol KRachlin, pp. 173-77. Copyright © 1968 by Alice Marriot and Carol K Rachlin. Reprinted with permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Saukamappee, "Memories of War and Smallpox, 1787-1788." From David Thompson's Narrative, 1784-1812, edited by Richard Glover. Toronto: The Champlain Society, 1962, pp. 240-47.

Sweezy, Carl, "Learning the White Man's Ways" and "On Taking 'the New Road.' "From The Arapaho Way, by Althea Bass. Copyright © 1966 by Althea Bass. Reprinted by permission of Crown Publishers, Inc.

Two Leggings, 'The Dream and Reality of a Raid." From Two Leggings: The Making 01 a Crow Warrior, by Peter Nabokov, pp. 122-26. Copyright © 1967 by Peter Nabokov. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers, Inc.

Wooden Leg, "A Cheyenne Account of the Battle" and "Serving asJudge." From Wooden Leg,A Warrior Who Fought Custer, byThomas B. Marquis. Minneapolis: Midwest Co., 1931, pp. 217-21, 366-69. Reprinted by permission ofthe University ofNebraska Press.

IllUSTRATIONS

Figure 2. A Great Battle. Courtesy of the Southwest Museum, Los Angeles. Photo N.34650.

Figure 3. Lone Dog's BujJalo Robe. Courtesy of the National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, N ew Y ork.

Figure 5. Trading Gunsfor Horses. Courtesy oUoslyn Art Museum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 7. Four Bears, as Painted by Karl Bodmer in 1834. Courtesy of Joslyn Art

Museum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 8. BujJalo Robe. Courtesy of the Bernisches Historisches Museum, Bern, Swit­

zerland. Figure 9. Four Bears's Drawing Depicting His Kilting 01 a Cheyenne Chief Courtesy of

JoslynArtMuseum, Omaha, Nebraska. Figure 10. Crow Indians Pursue Sioux in a Running Battle. Courtesy of Montana State

University, Billings, Montana. Figure 11. PieganArtist George Bult Child's Hide Painting olthe Massacre on the Marias

(ca. 1930). Courtesy ofthe Denver Art Museum, 1985.106. Figure 12. Council with Army OjJicers. Courtesy of the Yale Collection of Western

Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.

Figure 13. A Drawing 01 BujJalo Hunting in the Old Days by Howling Wolf and Soaring Eagle. Courtesy of Allen Memorial Art Museum, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio.

Figure 14. Seizing a Soldier's Gun at the Battle 01 the Little Big Horn. Courtesy of the Southwest Parks and Monuments Association, Crow Agency, Montana.

Figure 15. The Indian Village in the Valley olthe Little Big Horn. Courtesy ofthe National AnthropologicalArchives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 16. Soldiers Charging the Indian Village. Courtesy ofthe N ationalAnthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 17. Repulsing Reno's Attack, as Indicated by the Cavalry Being Forced Back Over Their Own Hoofprints. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution,Washington,D.C.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 217

Figure 18. The Sioux Fighting Custer's Command. Courtesy of the National Anthropo­logicalArchives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 19. The Dead Soldiers and Indians. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 20. The Indians Leavingthe Battlejield as They Hearthat RelielColumns olInlantry Are Approaching. Courtesy of the National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institu­tion, Washington, D.C.

Figure 22. Kiowa Husbands and Wives Going to a Dance. Courtesy of the Moming Star Gallery, Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Figure 23. U.S. Indian Agent and Chiel 01 Police Take a Child to School. Courtesy of Montana State University, Billings, Montana.

Figure 24. Wohaw's Self-Portrait. Courtesy of the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis, Missouri.

Figure 25. Sitting Bult's Drawings olScenes/rom His Li/e as a Warrior (1870). Courtesy ofthe National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Figure 26. Sitting Bult. Courtesy of the Montana Historical Society, Helena, Montana. Figure 27. The Ghost Dance. Courtesy of the National Museum of Natural History,

Department ofAnthropology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Index

Afraid of Hawk, Charles, 195 Agents

cooperation of Indians with, 20 reservation life and, 150-52 role of, 15

AJcoholuse,5, 14,19, 153 AJlotmentAct (DawesAct), 17-18, 19, 187 American Fur Company, 68 American Horse, 13 American Horse, Robert (N akpa Kesela),

174,178 American Indian Movement (AlM), 206 Another Language (Eatoka), 93 Apache Indians, 49

competition among tribes and, 6 guns and tribai expansion and, 38 loss ofterritory and, 11 reservation life and, 19 Spaniards and, 5 Treaty ofMedicine Lodge and, 111, 112 warfare between the Army and, 14

Arapaho Indians, 49 competition among tribes and, 72, 76,

85,87 Ghost Dance religion and, 198 location of, 3, 4 (map) loss ofterritory and, 11 smallpox and, 40-41 trading and, 38-40 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111, 112 warfare between the Army and, 9, 103

Arapooish (Rotten Belly) , 76 describes Crow country, 77

Arikara Indians, 61 BattIe of the LittIe Big Horn and, 135-

37 location of, 3, 4 (map) smallpox and, 40, 68, 69 speech of Four Bears to, 68-69 trading and, 7, 38

Army campaigns conducted by, 9-13

resistance to, 13-14 See also speci/ic campaigns

Art decoding conventions in, 27 reservations and, 27-28 traditional use of, 27

Assiniboines, 42 and smallpox, 69

Autobiographies, 24-27

Baker, Colonel Eugene M., 106 Baker, Hiram, 108 Bald Eagle, 138 Bautista de Anza, Juan, 122 Bear Head, 107

on the Massacre on the Marias, 108-10 Bear That Catches, 192, 193 Bear's Tooth, 122 BearTongue, 104 Beef, and food customs, 159-66 Bent, George, 103 Bent, William, 10-11 Benteen, Captain Frederick, 134 Big Eagle, ]erome, 90

account of the Great Sioux Uprising by,

218

91-96 Big Foot, 20, 199, 200 Big Head, 104 Big Lake, 82, 106 Black Beaver, 22 Black Elk, 13, 123, 200

interviews with, 26 on reservation lite, 150-52 on the Ghost Dance religion, 196 on the W ounded Knee massane, 200-03

Blackfeet Indians buffalo hunting and, 123 cholera and, 40 guns and tribai expansion and, 40 location of, 3, 4 (map) Massane on the Marias and, 105-10,

107 (illus.)

smallpox and, 42, 69, 105 trading and, 7,40

Blackfoot Confederacy, 41, 72 Blackfoot Sioux (Sihaspa), 6 Black Head, 80 Black Hills, 10, 12, 23, 87 Black Kettle, 9, 11, 103, 104 Black Shield, 74, 75 Black Short Nose, 198 Bloody Knife, 135 Boarding schools, 16--17,20,168-81,205

"American" values emphasized in, 16-17,168

difficulties of students after leaving, 178-80

hair cutting in, 169, 174-75 as a haven from difficult conditions,

171 literacy and, 24 Standing Bear on life at, 168, 169, 171,

172-78 taking of children for, 169, 170 (iBus.) visits by parents to, 178

Board ofIndian Commissioners, 16 Bobtail Wolf, 81 Bob-tailed BuB, 135, 136 Bodmer, Karl, 62, 63 (illus.), 64, 66 Boils His Leggings, 80-81 Bonin, Gertrude, 205 Bourke, Captain]ohn, 49 Boy Chief, B6 Bozeman Trail, 9-10 Brings Plenty, 145 Brule Indians

competition among tribes and, 6 trading and, 39 warfare between the Army and, 9 winter count mention of, 35

Buffalo, 121-32 current revival of populations of, 207 eating beef in place of, 159-66 estimates of population of, 121 expansion westward and, 122-23 farming as alternative to, 121-22 impact of slaughter of, 9, 12, 13, 102,

121 Kiowa Indians and, 123, 128-30 OId Lady Horse on, 129-30 Pawnee Indians and, 56, 59-60 Piegan Indians and, 206 Pretty Shield on, 130-32 railroads and, 123, 129 Sioux Indians and, 94, 121,122 Standing Bear on, 125-26 Sweezy on, 126-28

INDEX

Buffalo Bird Woman, 155, 169 on child-rearing, 168 on life before reservations, 156 on smallpox, 69

Buffalo Calf Road, 84 Buffalo Hump, 15 Buffalo robes

of Four Bears, 64-67, 65 (iBus.) Pawnee Indians and, 60

219

Bullhead, Lieutenant Henry, 191-94 Bureau ofAmerican Ethnology, 33,186 Bureau ofindian Affairs, 15, 24, 106 Burleigh, Agent, 97, 98, 99, 100

California, settlement of, 8 Carlisle Industrial School, Pennsylvania,

16,171 difficulties of students after leaving,

178-80 founding of, 169 Standing Bear on attending, 168, 169,

172-78 visits of parents to, 178

Carson, Kit, 103 Catlin, George, 61, 62, 64, 66 Chardon, Francis, 61, 68 Cherokee Indians

competition among tribes and, 6 warfare and, 102

Cheyenne Indians Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 1:15,

137-40, 139 (illus.) competition among tribes and, 6, 72,

76,84,85,87,135 epidemie diseases and, 41 Ghost Dance religion and, 198 killing of, by Four Bears, 64, 67 (illus.) ledger art and, 27 location of, :1, 4 (map) loss ofterritory and, 10 reservation life and, 18 trading and, 7, :18-40, 47-49, 48 (illus.) Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111,

112 tribaI judges and, 156--59 warfare between the Army and, 9, 13,

103 winter count mcntion of, 34

Chief.T oseph, 13 Chinook Indians, 7 Chippewa Indians, 93. See also Ojibwa In-

dians Chiricahua Indians, 14 Chisholm, J esse, 22 Chivington, Colonel John, 9, 103

220

Cholera, 8, 40, See also Diseases Christianity, 15, 17 Civil War, 9, 111, 122 Clark, Ben, 49 Clark, Malcolm, 106 Cochise,14 Cody, Buffalo Bill, 183 Collier, J ohn, 205 Co manche Indians

cholera and, 40 competition among tribes and, 6, 76 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 location of, 3, 4 (map) loss of territory and, 10 reservation life and, 19 smallpox and, 8 Spaniards and, 5 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111,

112,115-16 Comes In Sight, 84 Coolidge, Sherman, 205 Coronado, Francisco de, 3-5 Courts ofIndian Offenses, 15, 159

Wooden Leg on being ajudge in, 156-59

Crazy Horse, 10 Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 133,

148 pacification campaign and, 12-13

Cree Indians competition among tribes and, 6 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 trading and, 42

Crook, General George, 13, 133 Crooked Arm, 78, 84 CrowDog,19 Crow Foot, 191, 19:1, 194 Crow Indians

alliance between the United States and, 86-87

Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 135 buffalo hunting and, 130-32 competition among tribes and, 6, 72,

84, 135 location of, 3, 4 (map) reservation life and, 20 smallpox and, 50, 69 trading and, 7, 40 Two Leggings's quest for power and,

78-84, 83 (illus.) warfare and, 76, 77 winter count mentions of, 33, 35-36

Crow King, 148 Crow Neck, 104 Cuerno Verde, 122

INDEX

CurlewWoman,110 Custer, George Armstrong, 85

Indian expeditions led by, 11, 12, 103 Little Big Horn and, 13, 18, 133, 144,

147, 148, 157 Sioux counts on, 31

Cut-Lip-Bear, 104

Dakota Indians location of, 89 winter count mentions of, 33, 34 See also Great Sioux Uprising; Mdewa-

kanton Darlington, Brinton, 160, 161, 163 Dawes, Henry, 17, 187 DawesAct (AllotmentAct), 17-18, 19,

187 DeMallie, Raymond J., 22, 23, 26 Diseases

American expansion and spread of, 8 impact of, 7-8, 37, 40-41 Pawnee Indians and, 56 winter count mentions of, 33 See also Cholera; Measles; Smallpox

Dog Chief, 202, 2m Doolittle, J ames R., 96 Dorman, Isaiah, 135 Drawings

decoding conventions in, 27 reservations and, 27-28 traditional use of, 27 in winter counts, 32-36, 32 (illus.)

DuBray, Fred, 207 Dull Knife, 13

Eastman, Charles, 24, 157,205 education of, 20, 169, 171 on reservation life, 152-53 Wounded Knee massacre and, 200

Eddy, Agent, 157, 159 Edson, Casper, 198, 199 Education, 16-17,20

"American" vaIues emphasized in, 16-17 government policies on, 16 literacy and, 24, 205 See also Boarding schools

Evans, John, 103 Ex Parte Crow Dog, 19

Farming, 18, 121-22 Fetterman, Captain William, 10 Films, Hollywood images of Indians in, 1,

2,8,56 Firearms. See Guns First Worker, 76

Fishermore, 22 Flathead Indians, 7

trading and, 40 wariare and, 76

Forsyth, ColonelJames, 199 Fort Berthold reservation, North Dakota,

69 Fort Laramie

Treaty of 1851,9 Treaty of 1868, 10, 12, 121, 133

Fort Marion, Florida, 12,27,47 Four Bears (Mato Tope) , 61, 66--68,108

buffalo robe of, 64-66, 65 (illus.) combat with a Cheyenne chief, 67

(illus.), 66 death of, 69 portrait of, 62, 63 (illus.) smallpox and, 61, 68 speech of, to the Arikaras and

Mandans, 68-69 Four Dancers, 73

on Three Coyotes leading a skirmish, 73-76

Four Horns, 183 France, explorers from, 5, 23,42 Fremont, J ohn C., 86

Gerard, Frederick, 135 Ghost Dance religion, 179, 196

origin of, 20 Sitting Bull and, 183 W ovoka letter on, 198-99 Yellow Nose drawing of, 197 (illus.)

Goes Ahead, 85, 135 Goes First, 81, 82 Gold, discovery of, 8, 12, 87 Goodbird, 155 Grant, Ulysses S., 15-16, 153 Grattan,John,9 Gray Eyes, 106 Greasy Grass, Battle on the. See Little

Big Horn, Battle of the Great Plains

Arnerican expansion and settlement of, 1,8-14

geographie area of, 2 Great Sioux Uprising (1862), 33, 89

krome Big Eagle's account of, 90-96 GreatSpirit, 57,58,60, 76,154 Gros Ventre Indians, 40 Guns

impact of, 7, 37, 38-40 trading in horses and, 38-40, 39 (illus.),

42,47-50 Guts (Hidatsa), 73, 74, 75

INDEX 221

Harney, General William S., 9, 35, 111, 114

Hawk High Up, 80 Hawkman, 194 Heavy Runner, 106, 107, 108, 109 Henderson, John B., 111, 112 Hidatsa Indians, 24, 61

competition among tribes and, 6, 72 location of, 3, 4 (map) smallpox and, 68, 69 trading and, 7, 40

Higheagle, Robert, 191 Historical records

oral tradition and, 21-22, 50 winter counts as, 31-36

Horses Arapooish on, 77 intertribaI competition and, 37-38 Saukamappee on, 44 trading in guns and, 38-40, 39 (illus.),

42,47-50 transformation of Indian life and, 3, 5,

7,37 winter count mentions of, 33

Howling Wolf buffalo hunting illustrated by, 124

(illus.) drawings of, 27, 28, 47 trading guns for horses illustrated by,

47-49,48 (illus.) Hudson Bay Company, 6 Hump,148 Hunkpapa Indians (Uncpapa), 6, 35 Hunting, 123, 124 (illus.), 127-28

Arapooish on, 77 Pawnee Indians and, 56, 59-60 Sioux Indians and, 90, 91 treaties on, 121 wariare and, 71

Indian Removal Act (1830), 6 Indian Reorganization Act (1934),205 Indian Rights Association, 16 Inter-tribal Bison Cooperative, 207 Iroquois Indians, 102 Iron Hawk, 144

on Battle ofthe Little Big Horn, 144-45

Johnson,Andrew,l11 Jumping Bull, 183

Ketumse, 14, 15 Kingfisher, 104 Kiowa Indians

boarding schools and, 179

222

Kiowa Indians (cont.) buffalo hunting and, 123, 128-30 ledger art and, 27 location of, 3, 4 (map) loss ofterritory and, 10 reservation life and, 19, 152 (illus.) smallpox and, 50-53 trading and, 38-40, 47-49, 48 (illus.) Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111,

112,113-15,116-19 Kutenai Indians, 40

Lake Mohonk, NewYork, conferences, 16

Lakota Indians competition among tribes and, 6 Ghost Dance religion and, 196 smallpox and, 56 warfare between the Army and, 9 See also Sioux

Languages, Indian, 22-23 Laws, proteetion of Indians under, 18-19 Ledger art, 27-28 Left Hand, 103 Legends

buffalo hunting in, 207 spread of smallpox depicted in, 50, 51-

53 Lewis and Clark expedition, 1,2-:3,5,7,

39,42,61,64,105 Lincoln, Abraham, 91, 9:3, 115 Linderman, Frank, 26, 50, 130 Little Bear, 103

on the Sand Creek Massacre, 104-05 Little Big Horn, Battle of the, 13, 18, 133-

49, 157 Arikara premonitions of, 135-37 background to, 133-34 Iron Hawk, 144-45 Mrs. Spotted Horn Bull on, 146-48 Red Horse's pictorial record of, 140,

141-44 (illus.) Sitting Bull's vision before, 134-:35 Wooden Leg on, 137-40, 139 (illus.)

Little Bird, 140

INDEX

Looking Glass, 13 Loud Hawk, 82

McChesney, Dr. Charles E., 140 Mackenzie, Charles, 5 Mackenzie, Ranald, 12, 13 McLaughlin, Major James, 146, 183, 187,

195 Major Crimes Act, 19 Mallery, Colonel Garrick, 33, 140 Mandan Indians, 61

location of, 3, 4 (map) speech of Four Bears to, 68-69 trading and, 7, 61 warfare and, 61-62, 64-66, 65 (illus.),

67 (illus.) Manifest Destiny, 1,8 Massacre on the Marias (1870), 105-10,

107 (illus.) background to, 105-07 Bear Head on, 108-10

Mato Tope. See Four Bears Maximilian ofWied, Prince, 62, 67 Mdewakanton Indians, 89, 90 Measles,8

boarding schools and, 170 winter count mentions of, 31, 34 See also Diseases

Medicine Bottle, 93 Medicine Cow, 96

speech before the Special loint Commit­tee, 98-100

Medicine Lodge, Treaty of (1867),11,22, 111-20

buffalo hunting under, 121 Satank's speech at, 116-19 Satanta's speech at, 113-15, 123 Ten Bear's speech at, 115-16

Mexico, Warwith (1846-48),8 Miles, lohn, 160, 161 Miles, General Nelson, 122-23 Miniconjou Indians, 6

Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 140, 141-44 (illus.)

LittIe Crow (Taoyateduta), 89, 90, 92, 93, 95 Wounded Knee massacre and, 196

Missionaries, and Pawnee Indians, 56, 57, Little Eagle, 194 . Little Sh<lkopee (Little Six) , 93 Logan, lohn A., 106 Lone Dog, 33

winter count of, 32-36, 32 (illus.) Lone Man Uohn Loneman), 191

on the death of Sitting BuB, 191-95 Lone Wolf, 19, 41,106 Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock, 19

60 Modoc Indians, 13 Mooney,]ames, 197-98,200 Mountain Chief, 106, 108, 110 Myrick, Andrew, 94

Navajo Indians competition among tribes and, 6 Spaniards and, 5

INDEX 223

Neihardt, John G., 26,123,144,150 Nez Perce Indians, 7, 13 N orthwest Company, 5

Oglala Indians competition among tribes and, 6 warfare between the Army and, 9

Ojibwa Indians, 38, 93 Old Lady Horse, 128

on the slaughter of the buffalo, 129-:~O Old Tobaceo, 82 Old White Bull, 157 Omaha Indians

loeation of, 3, 4 (map) smallpox and, 40

One Blue Bead, 80, 81 Oral histories, 21-22, 50 Oregon, settlement of, 8 Owl Child, 105, 108

Paints His Body Red, 80 Parker, Quanah, 159 Passing Hail, 96

speech before the Special Joint Commit­tee, 100-01

Pawnee Indians, 56-60 competition among tribes and, 72 guns and tribai expansion and, 38 loeation of, 3, 4 (map) Sharitarish speech on, 57-59 smallpox and, 53 warfare between the Army and, 13

Penateka Indians, 14-15, 112 Petalesharo, 57 Peyote religion, 20 Piegan Indians, 41

importance ofbuffalo to, 206 Massacre on the Marias and, 105-10,

107 (illus.) smallpox and, 46-47 warfare and, 43-46, 85

Plains Indians, 1-28 a1cohol and, 5, 14, 19 American expansion and loss oflands

by,I,8-14 Army campaigns and, 9-13 autobiographies composed by, 24-27 broad groups of, 3, 4 (map) competition among tribes and, 6-7, 72 drawings by, 27-28 edueation policies and, 16-17, 20, 24 geographie area inhabited by, 2 gunsand, 7 Hollywood images of, 1,2,8,56 horses and, 3, 5, 7

languages of, 22-23 legal protection for, 18-19 oral histories of, 21-22 reservations and, 12, 14-19 resistance to paeification among, 13-14 responses to govemment policies

among, 19-21 slaughter of the buffalo and, 9, 12, 13 smallpox and, 5, 7-8, 40 Spanish explorers and, 3-5 trading by, 5, 7, 22, 41-50 treaty council records of, 22, 23 triballegends of, 3 visits to capital cities by, 23-24 See also specijic tribes

Plenty Coups, 20, 86,152 interview with, 26 on alliance with the Uni ted States, 86-

87 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 123

Plenty Horses, 179-80 Plenty Kill, 171 Pockmark, .Tim, 115 Polygamy, 157 Potawatomi Indians, 6 Pratt, Captain Richard H., 12,47

Carlisle Industrial Sehool and, 16, 169, 171,176,178,179

Pretty Shield, 84, 130 interview with, 26 on changes to her way of life, 19 on child-rearing, 168 on horses, 37 on reservation life, 153 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 130-32 on smallpox, 50 on war, 85

Primeau, Louis, 194 Pueblo Indians, 5

Quaker missionaries, and Pawnee Indians, 56,57

Railroads, 12, 123, 129 Red Bear, 136, 192 Red Cloud, 23, 153, 203

Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 133 on the Black Hills, 12 on literacy, 24 on reservation life, 150 speech to the secretary of the interior,

154-55 Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 111 war (1866-67) with the United States,

Army, 9-10

224

Red Cloud War (1866-67), 153 Red Horn Buffalo, 145 Red Horse, 140

drawings of Battle of the L1ttlt Big Horn, 141-43 (illus.)

Red River War (1874-75), 119 Red Star (Strikes the Bear), 135 Red Tomahawk, 192, 193, 194 Religious beliefs

Christianity and, 15 government attack on, 17 missionaries and, 56, 57, 58, 60 Pawnee Indians and, 58 peyote religion and, 20 tribaliegends of, 3 warfare and, 71-72 See also Ghost Dance religion

Reno, Major Marcus, 134, 137, 147 Reservations, 12, 14-19,150-67

agents and, 15, 20, 150-52 allotment policy and, 17-18 Army campaigns for movement to, 12-

14 attack on Indian religions and, 17 Black Elk on, 150-52 boarding schoollife and, 16-17, 20, 24 Buffalo Bird W oman on life before, 156 buffalo herds on, 207 eating habit changes on, 159-66 farming on, 18, 121-22 govemment hierarchy and, 15 legal proteetion and, 18-19 polygamy prohibition in, 157 recent policies on, 205-06 Red Cloud on, 154-55 reform of government policies and, 15-

16 Shanaco on,14 sociallife on, 152 (illus.) Treaty of Medicine Lodge and, 112 W ooden Leg on life as a judge on, 156-

59 Rosebud, Battle ofthe, 13,84,133 Rosebud reservation, 171 Rotten Belly. See Arapooish (Rotten

Belly) Royer, Daniel, 199 Running Hawk, 194

Sanborn,johnB., 111, 114 Sand Creek Massacre (1864), 96, 102-05

background to, 102-03 Iittle Bear on, 104-05

Sans Arc Indians, 6 Satank (Sitting Bear), 116, 118, 119

INDEX

speech at the Treaty of Medicine Lodge,117-18

trading guns for horses and, 47-49, 48 (illus.)

Satanta (White Bear), 113, 115, 119, 123 speech at the Treaty of Medicine

Lodge,114-15 Saukamappee,41,42

on war and smallpox, 43-47 Saynday (hero), 50, 51-53 Scarletfever,8 Schools. See Boarding schools Schultz, james Willard, 107 Seattle (Seeathl), speech of, 24 Senate select committee, Sitting Bull's

meeting with, 189-90 Sharitarish, 57, 59, 122

''We Are Not Starving Yet" speech of, 57-60

Shavehead, 192, 193,194 Shawnee Indians

competition among tribes and, 6 warfare and, 102

Sheridan, General Philip, 11, 106, 123 Sherman, General William Tecumseh,

35,119,123 Short Bull, 196 Shoshoni Indians, 20

competition among tribes and, 6, 72, 76 game depletion and, 8 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 origins of, 41-42 smallpox and, 42, 50 trading and, 7,41-42 warfare between the Army and, 13

Sibley, General, 94 Sicangu Indians (Brule), 6 Sihaspa Indians (Blackfoot Sioux), 6 Silver Brooch (fooshaway), 112 Sioux Indians, 89-101

account of Four Dancers of a skirmish with, 73, 74-76

Battle of the Little Big Horn and, 135, 139-40,144-48

Big Eagle's account of uprising and, 90-96

boarding schools and, 179-80 buffalo hunting and, 94, 121, 122, 207 competition among tribes and, 6, 72,

76,84,135 guns and tribaI expansion and, 38 loeation of, 3, 4 (map), 89 loss of territory and, 12 mass executions of, 90 pacification campaign against, 12-13

Sand Creek Massacre and, 96, 102-05 smallpox and, 40, 56, 69 speeches before the Special Joint Com­

mittee on, 96--101 trading and, 7 warfare between the Army and, 9, 12-

13,20,89-90 warfare between Crow Indians and, 78-

84, 83 (illus.), 86--87 white men and abuse of, 90-91, 92

Sitting Bear. See Satank (Sitting Bear) Sitting Bull, 10, 1:3, 182-95

Battle ofthe Little Big Horn and, 134-;)5,1;)6

on the Hlack Hills, 12 death of, 20, 191-95, 196 on his way of life, 183-86 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 123 photograph of, 188 (illus.) report to the Senate select committee

by,189-90 scenes from the life of, 183, 184-85

(illus.), 187 Senate select committee report of, 189-

90 Sioux winter count mentioning, 35 spirituality of, 182 surrender song of, 187 Wooden Leg on, 182

Smallpox,5 Blackfeet Indians and, 105 impact of, 7-8, 40, 68 Kiowa Indians and, 50-53 Mandan Indians and, 61, 68 Pawnee Indians and, 56 Saukamappee on, 46--47 spread of, 39-40, 42, 50 vaccination program for, 68 winter count mentions of, 31, 33, 50

(illus.) See also Diseases

Snake Indians. See Shoshoni Society of Arnerican Indians, 205 Soldiers' Lodge, 94 Spain

explorers from, 3-5 Indian policy of, 23, 38

Special Joint Committee on the Condition ofthe Indian Tribes, 97-101

Spotted Cow. See Wohaw (Spotted Cow) Spotted Horn Bull, Mrs., 146

on the Battle of the I jttle Big Horn, 146-48

Spotted Tail, 19, 153, 178 Standing Bear, 178

INDEX 225

Standing Bear, Henry, 205 Standing Bear, Luther (Plenty Kill), 1,2,

24, 125 on attendingschool, 168, 169, 171, 172-

78 on the slaughter of the buffalo, 125-26,

207 Stands in Timber, John, 137 Stanley, Henry Morton, ll3-14, ll5 Strike the Ree, 96, 97

speech before the Special Joint Commit­tee, 97-98

Strikes the Bear. See Red Star (Strikes the Bear)

StrikesTwo, 136 Strong Arms, John, 193-94 Students. See Boarding schools Sullivan, General John, 102 Sully, General Alfred, 35, 106 Sun Dance

buffalo sacrifice in, 129 government suppression 0[, 17, 196

Supreme Court decisions, 19 Sweezy, Carl, 126, 159-60

on attending school, 171 on reservation life, 160-66 on the slaughter ofthe buffalo, 127-28

Sword Bearer, 20

Taoyateduta. See Little Crow (faoyateduta)

Tappan, Samuel F., III Taylor, Nathaniel G., III Ten Bears, ll5, ll9

speech at the Treaty of Medicine Lodge, ll6

Terry, GeneralAlfred H., 35, III The Other Magpie (Craw) , 84 Thompson, David, 44 Three Bears, 110 Three Coyotes, 73-76 Tirawa,57 Tomahawk, 104 Tooshaway (Silver Brooch), 112 To-pay, 159 Trade

guns and horses in, 38-39, 40 (illus.), 42,47-50

languages used in, 22 Mandan Indians and, 61 Piegan Indians and, 105 among Plains Indians, 5, 7, 4[-50 warfare and, 71 winter count mentions of, :1:1

Traveling Hail, 92

226 INDEX

Treaties Fort Laramie (1851, 1868), 9, 10, 12,

121,1:13 Medicine Lodge (1867), 11, 22, 111-20 protection of Indians under, 19 Traverse des Sioux (1851, 1858),89,91,

92 Treaty councils, 22, 2:1 Two Belly, 78, 84 Two Kettle Indians, 6 Two Leggings, 78-79, 130

on the dream and reality of a raid, 79-84 on oral tradition, 21-22 on reservation life, 152 on war preparations, 71-72 recording of autobiography of, 25, 78

Two Moons, 134

Uncpapa Indians (Hunkpapa), 6, 35 Ute Indians

guns and tribai expansion and, 38 warfare between the Army and, 13

Villasur, Pedro de, 5 Visions, and warfare, 71, 72, 78, 79

Warfare, 71-88 Warfare (cant.)

account of Four Dancers of a skirmish in, 72-76

alliance with the Uni ted States and, 85-87

Army campaigns and, 9-12 Big Eagle's account of Sioux uprising

and,90-96 causes of, 71 competition among tribes and, 6--7 concepts of, 10-11 (illus.) Crow Indians and, 76--77 horses and, 37-38 Mandan Indians and, 61-62, 64~66, 65

(illus.), 67 (illus.) Massacre on the Marias and, 105-10,

107 (illus.) as a sacred activity, 71-72 Sand Creek Massacre and, 96,102-05 Saukamappee on, 43-46

status and success in, 7 Two Leggings's quest for power and,

78-84 visions and, 71, 72, 78, 79 woman's view of, 84, 85

War with Mexico (1846-48), 8 Washakie, 8, 19-20 Wa-sui-hi-ya-ye-dan,92 Welch, J ames, 206 Whistler, 174 White Antelope, 103 White Bear. See Satanta (White Bear) White Bird, 192 White Buffalo Woman, 207 Whitewolf, Jim, 12:1, 169-70 Whooping-cough, 34 Wichita Indians, :18 Wilson, J ack. See W ovoka 0 ack Wilson) Winnebago Indians, 93 Winter counts,

buffalo robes used in, 31 cvents mentioned in, 31-32 limitations of, 32 Lone Dog's example of, 32-36, 32

(illus.) smallpox in, 50 (illus.)

Wohaw (Spotted Cow) , 179 self-portrait of, 180 (illus.)

Wolf Chief, 24, 155 on training men for war, 72-73

Wooden Leg, 19, 121, 137, 157 drawings of Battle of the Little Big

Horn, 139 (illus.), 144 on serving as ajudge, 157-59

Wounded Knee massacre (1890),20-21, 196

Black Elk on, 200-203 Wounded Knee siege (1973),206 Wovoka 0ackWilson), 196, 199

on the Ghost Dance religion, 198-99

YaSlo, 174 Yellow Bird, 202-03 Yellow Wolf, 122 Y oung Hawk, 136 Young Mountain, 79, 80, 81, 82, 84