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Università degli Studi di Salerno
CELPE Centro di Economia del Lavoro e di Politica Economica
Francesca AMENDOLA
University of Modena e Reggio Emilia – “Marco Biagi” Foundation
CELPE
The Public Service Motivation: Lessons from the Literature
Corresponding author
Discussion Paper 158
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Scientific Commitee Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Marcello D’AMATO, Cesare IMBRIANI, Pasquale PERSICO CELPE - Centro di Ricerca Interdipartimentale di Economia del Lavoro e di Politica Economica Università degli Studi di Salerno Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132 - 84084 Fisciano, I- Italy http://www.celpe.unisa.it E-mail [email protected]
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Index
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 4
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 5
1. Methodological approach ............................................................................................ 6
2. The PSM research evolution ....................................................................................... 8
2.1 Origins and evolution of the construct ...................................................................... 8
2.2. The evolution in the analysis of the construct ......................................................... 12
3. Reorganizing the literature ........................................................................................ 14
3.1. PSM and other variables ........................................................................................ 15
3.2. PSM: type of sample .............................................................................................. 17
3.3. Geographical criterion: PSM in the world ............................................................... 20
4. Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 23
4.1. PSM: teachings from the research and suggestions for the future ......................... 23
References .................................................................................................................... 28
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The Public Service Motivation: Lessons from the Literature
Francesca AMENDOLA
University of Modena e Reggio Emilia – “Marco Biagi” Foundation
CELPE
Abstract
Public Service Motivation (PSM) has been defined as a “general altruistic motivation to serve the interests of a
community of people, a state, a nation or humankind” (Rainey & Steinbauer, 1999). Public Service Motivation
research began in the 1990s mainly within the field of public administration, but, in the last two decades, it
became much more multidisciplinary and its trajectory increased. Even if there are several literature reviews
about the construct, is still missing a cataloguing that takes into account some specific factors, such as the
location of the studies and the type of samples used. Therefore, the objective of this work is to reorganize the
literature using three criteria: 1) the relation of PSM with other variables, 2) the type of sample used by the
scholars; 3) the geographical location of the studies. Those three criteria are going to be partially "crossed" in
order to individuate some best practices in the PSM research. Finally, further lines of research are shown.
JEL Classification H83; M1; H19
Keywords Public Service Motivation; Organizational Behaviour; Motivation; Public
Sector
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Introduction
Public Service Motivation (PSM) research began in the 1990s mainly within the field of public
administration, but in the last two decades it became much more multidisciplinary and international.
Since its initial formulation in 1990 many definitions and measurement scales were created, making
progressively PSM a cornerstone of the public administration research. The PSM construct was firstly
created in the attempt to solve the US public administration crisis of the 1990s, specifically the
difficulties about the rewards based on the performance of US public servants (Scuola Nazionale
dell’Amministrazione – SDA Bocconi School of management, 2010). In spite of the fact that the
research was firstly developed looking at the US public administration, it reached Europe quite
quickly. In this case, the scholars had to face a different framework and different practices in the
public sector and to understand how to use the PSM construct in different kinds of public
organizations. Apparently one of the most common problems about the public sector in Europe is the
lack of appropriate motivational leverages for the public servants. In some countries, for instance, in
Italy, there is still a strong focus on some organizational practices, like monetary incentives, while
some others, like motivational leverages, are still overlooked.
One of the strengths of the PSM construct is its dynamic nature that allows scholars to use it as an
instrument to explain and analyze different topics. In fact, there is a large amount of essays that
deals with the relationship between PSM and other organizational variables, refining, even more, the
full spectrum of the construct. Moreover, PSM could also become an important keystone for the
Human Resources Management practices, especially in the public sector. That is why Public Service
Motivation could be a great opportunity to reorganize and recalibrate the approach to the public
servants' job policies (Scuola Nazionale dell’ Amministrazione – SDA Bocconi School of
management, 2010). On the other hand, PSM still has quite a low impact on administrative practices,
so there is the need to understand if it could gain more importance and if it could be further
developed (Bozeman & Su, 2015).
The large amount of works published about PSM, especially in the last decade, shows the great
interest in the construct within different research areas and countries. Even if there are several
literature reviews about PSM (Brewer 2008; Pandey & Stazyk, 2008; Perry & Hondeghem, 2008;
Perry et.al, 2010; Wright & Grant, 2010; Bellé & Cantarelli, 2012; Perry, 2012, 2014; Perry &
Vandenabeele, 2015; Ritz et al., 2016), is still missing a cataloguing that underlines two important
factors: the location of the studies and the samples used.
In order to reorganize the PSM literature shedding light on those aspects, we use three criteria: 1) the
relationship of the construct with other variables, 2) the type of sample used; 3) the geographical
location of the studies.
The first criterion has the objective to investigate the relationship between PSM and other variables.
In particular, we aim to classify its role as a variable that explains some of the most important topics
in the organizational sciences. The second one focuses mainly on the type of occupation and on the
job sector (public, private and no-profit) of the individuals composing the sample, in order to
understand where the research lead in the last years and which job categories have been more
investigated. The objective is to identify new paths for the PSM research. The last criterion has the
objective to individuate the countries where PSM has been more investigated and to possibly extend
the range of the studies. Specifically, those three criteria are going to be partially "crossed" in order to
individuate some best practices in the PSM research. Finally, further lines of research are shown.
1. Methodological Approach
The PSM construct was introduced in the public administration research in the 1990s, and
progressively invaded different fields of research like organizational behaviour, economics, sociology.
The PSM research developed constantly in the first part of the 1990s, mainly focusing on the
definition and the validation of the construct. The great number of articles were produced in the last
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decade when, as shown in Figure 1, there has been an exponential increase in the number of
publications dedicated to PSM.
Figure 1 Number of publications on Public Service Motivation per year
Source Ritz, Brewer and Neumann (2016)
One of the reasons of the huge development of the PSM research is that the construct started to be
used to explain other organizational variables, expanding the research field. In fact, PSM has been
modeled in different ways and used as a "side concept" to explain other variables (Ritz et al., 2016),
such as job satisfaction, performance, and leadership. Despite some systematic research overviews
over the years (Pandey & Stazyk, 2008; Perry & Hondeghem, 2008; Perry et al., 2010; Wright &
Grant, 2010; Perry & Vandenabeele 2015, Van der Wal, 2015; Ritz et al., 2016) is still missing a
review that takes into account this new utilization of PSM and its “side role”. Moreover, in the last two
decades, the PSM research became much more international and it reached Europe and Asia,
moving from the US to other countries and enhancing its validity. Those characteristics of the PSM
research have been taken into account in the choice of the type of classification criteria.
Following the methodological approach used by Ritz, Brewer and Neumann (2016), we selected and
collected the literature from the journals that dealt the most with PSM. Specifically we focused on the
journals with more than 10 articles on PSM: Public Administration Review, Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory, Review of Public Personnel Administration, International Public
Management Journal, American Review of Public Administration, Public Administration, and Public
Personnel Management.
The literature will be organized using three criteria: 1) the relationship between PSM and other
variables; 2) the type of sample chosen by the authors, 3) the geographical location of the studies.
The objective of the first criterion is to classify the role of PSM as an explanatory variable that for
some of the most important topics in the organizational literature in order to understand which
direction should be taken in the future and if it could be a useful instrument for the organizational
studies.
The second criterion focuses mainly on the type of occupation and on the job sector of the individuals
composing the samples (public, private and non-profit) in order to understand where the research
lead in the last years, which job categories have been more analyzed and why. The objective is to
identify new suitable paths or sectors in which PSM could be used.
The geographical location of the PSM research is an important criterion to identify the approaches
that have been chosen in different administrative and research contests in order to individuate some
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best practices on the international scenario. Analyzing the literature using a geographical criterion
also allows to identify both the future backgrounds for the PSM research and the potential new
scenarios that could be taken into account. In fact, from different frameworks can emerge different
problems linked to the PSM construct and to the public sector in general.
Specifically the criteria listed below are going to be "crossed" in order to detect some best practices
in the PSM research. In the final part of the article, new lines of research will be drawn.
2. The PSM Research Evolution
2.1 Origins and Evolution of the Construct
The origins of Public Service Motivation date back to 1982. Hal G. Rainey studied the reward
preferences of middle managers from four organizations, both in the private and public sector. The
main objective of the study was to find out if there were any differences between private and public
servants and the results showed that the middle managers in the public sector were much more
interested in public service and in helping others than in monetary rewards. Even if the PSM
construct was not already formally defined, Rainey was the first author who proposed the idea of a
type of motivation almost totally imputable to the public sector. Basically, he put forward the idea that
the motivational levers in the public and the private sector might be different, mainly because of the
greater interest of public servants in guaranteeing others' wellness.
The starting point was that public service indicates much more than the type of job, it also indicates a
sort of intrinsic individual inclination. As Elmer Staas, Comptroller General of the United States
declared in 1966, the motivation within the public sector could not simply be defined as the motivation
of public servants. More precisely the public service could be defined as a “concept, an attitude, a
sense of duty” and even a sense of public morality. This idea and the changes that the public sector
was facing in the US brought to a new line of research very interested in the motivation of public
servants and in the differences between public and private employees’ motivation.
In 1990 Perry and Wise defined the Public Service Motivation as a new construct; specifically as “an
individual predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institution or
organizations". In this new approach, motives are seen as psychological needs that individuals feel
some compulsion to eliminate (Perry & Wise, 1990).
Perry and Wise main objective was to understand if it was possible to identify specific motives that
could primarily or exclusively be associated with public service. The original formulation of the
construct is based on three dimensions: affective, norm-based and rational. The first dimension is
linked to altruism and based on a strong interest in helping others and guarantee their wellness. The
norm-based dimension could be defined in-between the other two. It is basically a "desire to serve
the public interest" which is said to be linked to altruism even if is based on a personal opinion about
the public sphere. The last dimension is based on an egoistic attitude and is linked to the individual
necessity to participate in the definition of public policies. In fact “participation in the process of policy
formulation can be exciting, dramatic, and reinforcing of an individual's image of self importance”
(Perry & Wise, 1990). So the rational dimension is based on the need of participating in the public
policies formulation with the purpose of reinforcing an individual’s image of self importance.
Therefore the attachment to the public service could be due to a necessity of self satisfaction.
In the authors' initial formulation of the construct, PSM is based both on the altruistic and on the
egoistic dimension, so it is characterized by “mixed” motives (Ritz et al., 2016). Despite this double
nature, the PSM research progressively focused only on the altruistic dimension (Table 1)
overlooking the egoistic one and losing the "mixed" nature of the construct.
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Definition Author Year Journal
“an individual predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institution or organizations”.
Perry Wise 1990 Public Administration Review
“motivational force that induces individuals to perform meaningful public service (i.e. public, community, and social service)”
Brewer Selden 1998 Journal of Public Administration Research and
Theory
“general altruistic motivation to serve the interests of a community of people, a state, a nation or humankind”
Rainey Steinbauer 1999 Journal of Public Administration Research and
Theory
"the beliefs, values, and attitudes that go beyond self-interest and organizational interest, that concern the interest of a larger political entity and that motivate individuals to act accordingly whenever appropriate"
Vandenabeele 2007 Public Management Review
Table 1 The Evolution of PSM Definition
During the last decade, Public Service Motivation has been based not only on a sense of altruism
(Rainey & Steinbauer, 1999) but also on patriotism (Vandenabeele, 2007). In particular, it has been
defined as “strong motives to perform meaningful, public, community and social service” (Brewer &
Selden, 1998). In this case, the authors try to link PSM to prosocial behaviour, with the aim of
creating a solid base for the development of the construct. From their perspective, PSM has not been
uniformly developed because of the dual meaning of the term public service that could indicate both
“the act of doing something valuable or worthwhile for society, and it refers to the public-sector labour
force” (Brewer & Selden, 1998). The authors support their thesis proving that the civil servants who
denounce immoral behaviours in the public administration (whistleblowers), act according to the PSM
construct defending the common interest. Rainey and Steinbauer (1999) define PSM as “general
altruistic motivation to serve the interests of a community of people, a state, a nation or humankind”,
supporting again the altruistic dimension of the construct. A similar approach is used by
Vandenabeele (2007) who defines PSM as “the beliefs, values, and attitudes that go beyond self-
interest and organizational interest, that concern the interest of a larger political entity and that
motivate individuals to act accordingly whenever appropriate". In this case, his objective is to create a
definition that should “not only cover PSM in the narrow sense but also other types of value-laden
behavioral determinants such as ethics and roles" (Vandenabeele, 2007).
The PSM definition has been re-arranged over the years, probably because of its double nature. In
addition, there is another factor that created difficulties in its definition and it is already put forward in
Perry and Wise work. In fact, they defined PSM as an individual predisposition that grounded
primarily or uniquely but not only in the public sector. So, basically they underlined that PSM is not
only linked to the public sector, is not simply the motivation of public servants, but is an “intrinsic type
of motivation based on the need of guarantee the wellness of society generally speaking that makes
PSM a type of motivation that is grounded in all job sectors”. In fact, even if it has been studied
mainly in the public sector, it rapidly invaded the private sector and the non-profit (Crewson, 1997;
Houston, 2000, 2006; Wright & Christensen, 2010).
At the beginning of the research, the authors mainly focused on validating the PSM construct and to
understand if the new construction could contribute to the studies about motivational leverage in the
public sector. Actually, at the first stage, the construct was defined "more empty than full" (Gabris &
Simo, 1995), stating that, even if it surely exists a motivation in the public service, it was difficult to
isolate.
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The multifaceted nature of PSM made it difficult to reach a unique definition and to locate it into some
specific limits. In the last decade, PSM has been mainly linked to an altruistic approach to life in
general, a specific feeling and need of help others and a tendency to see the public sector as a sort
of instrument to satisfy the common good. This approach is odd reductive. Public Service Motivation
is much more than an interest in others’ wellbeing; it is linked to the propensity for an overall political
and social interest generally grounded in government jobs.
Briefly, the PSM literature in the last years overlooked two important aspects of the construct: it does
not concern exclusively the public sector and it is not exclusively linked to altruism.
Public Service Motivation can be defined as an individual inclination and need to give something
back to other people in general so it can concern different professions. Moreover, since it is defined
as a need, it is not only focused on others’ wellness but also on “self-wellness”. Those two
dimensions have not been really taken into account in the last decade, especially because scholars
started to focus on the relationship between PSM and other variables instead of further exploring its
definition. In our opinion in the PSM research, there is still the need to refine and improve the PSM
construct in order to embrace its “dual” nature.
2.2 The Evolution in the Analysis of PSM
Besides the differences in the PSM definitions, in the literature, there have been used different
instruments to test and validate the construct. The large amount of articles produced in the last years
use different types of analysis, even if there is a focus on some specific statistical techniques.
Obviously, the choice of the type of analysis is strongly linked to the objective of the research and
obviously it has to be taken into account the chronological production of the articles.
PSM measurement and analysis in the first ten years of the research has been mainly based on
Perry’s questionnaire elaborated in 1996. He associated six dimensions with the construct and
developed a Likert-issue for each of them. Specifically, he distinguished: attraction to policy- making,
commitment to public interest, social justice, civic duty, compassion, and self-sacrifice. Using
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) he tried to fill the gap between theoretical and empirical research
through survey data from 376 respondents. The empirical pre-tests and tests on students in a Master
of Public Administration in the US suggested to drop the two dimensions of social justice and civic
duty, mainly because the respondents did not really distinguish between those two dimensions and
the commitment to the public interest (Bellè & Cantarelli, 2010). Basically, four dimensions were
confirmed as indicators of PSM: attraction to public policy making, commitment to the public interest,
compassion, and self-sacrifice.
Since then other scholars tried to improve Perry’s scale, changing and adding some items also
depending on the contest of the analysis. For example, Coursey and Pandey (2007) modified the
scale eliminating the self-sacrifice dimension and 10 items selected from Perry’s measurement scale.
In 2008 Perry, Brudney, Coursey, and Littlepage tested again a short version of Perry's scale, using 4
dimensions and 24 items. Specifically, they investigated the PSM antecedents, stating that PSM
derives "from exposure to a variety of experiences, some associated with childhood, some
associated with religion, and some associated with professional life" (Perry, 1997). The survey was
developed in several stages using measures for religiosity, voluntarism, motivations for volunteering,
and family influences. The sample was made by "morally committed individuals who do important
service for others but who, for the most part, were not professional public administrators” (Perry et al.,
2008).
Looking at the evolution of the analysis used for measuring PSM it can noticed that since 2000 the
scholars started to use secondary data instead of surveys and different types of analysis such as
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (Houston, 2000, Vandenabeele, 2008, Kim, 2009), and Structural
Equation Models (Perry et al., 2008) reinforcing the PSM construct validity. In the meantime, PSM
started to be used as an antecedent and an explanatory variable for some organizational themes,
such as job satisfaction and job performance (Bright, 2007; Andersen et al., 2014; Vandenabeele,
2009).
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Even if PSM entered the research as a type of motivation mainly attached to the public sector
characteristics it soon became a new instrument to interpret and understand other issues. In this
case, the type of analysis differentiated a little bit from the previous ones (Table 2), even if there are
similar trends.
Regressions Confirmatory Factor
Analysis (CFA) Structural Equation
Models (SEM) Other
PSM as a single
variable
Crewson/1997; Perry/1996;
Houston/2000; Houston/2006; DeHart- Davis,
Marlowe, Pandey/2006;
Moynihan, Pandey/2007; Wright,
Christensen/2010; Houston/2011; Bright,
2016
Crewson/1997; Coursey, Pandey/2007;
Vandenabeele/2008; Kim/2009(2); Giauque,
Ritz, Varone, Waldner/2011; Kim,
Vandenabeele, Wright, Andersen, Cerase,
Christensen, Desmarais, Koumenta, Leisink, Liu, Palidauskaite,Pedersen,
Perry,Ritz, Taylor, De Vivo,/2011; Word, Carpenter/2013;
Ward/2014; Battaglio, French/2016
Perry, Brudney, Coursey, Littlepage/2008;
Anderfuhren-Biget, Varone, Giauque,
Ritz/2010; Bright/2011; Word, Carpenter/2013
Gabris, Simo/1995;
Brewer, Selden, Facer/2000;
Georgellis, Iossa, Tabvuma/2011; Pedersen/2015
PSM and
other variables
Alonso, Lewis/ 2001; Vandenabeele/2009;
Naff, Crum/1999; Fazzi, Zamaro/2016;
Taylor, 2008
Andersen, Heinesen, Pedersen/2014;
Bellè/2013; Wright, Moynihan, Pandey /2012;
Ritz/2009
Camilleri, Van der Heijden/2007;
Bright/2007; Wright, Moynihan, Pandey, /2012
Bellè/2012
Table 2 PSM Type of Analysis
In the PSM research the scholars mainly used three types of analysis: regression,
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Models (SEM). The regression
and the CFA have been used especially for the analysis of the construct as a single variable,
so they can be seen as instruments that simply try to explain the concept. The SEM has
been most used to test the relationship between PSM and other organizational variables
probably because is particularly suitable for the study of latent variables (Palma & Sepe,
2017).
3. Reorganizing the Literature
As already mentioned, the Public Service Motivation construct in the last decade interested
an increasing amount of authors, from different fields of research and different countries.
Looking at the research, in the last years, there has been an increasing interest in PSM in
two directions. First of all the scholars focused much more on the use of PSM as an
instrument to explain other variables and second the research moved from the US public and
private sectors to the international scenario, not only Europe but also Asia, mainly in China
and South Korea.
Even if there are several literature reviews about PSM (Brewer, 2008; Pandey & Stazyk,
2008; Perry & Hondeghem, 2008; Perry et.al, 2010; Wright & Grant, 2010; Bellé & Cantarelli,
2012; Perry 2012, 2014; Perry & Vandenabeele, 2015; Ritz et al., 2016), there is not yet a
specific focus on those two latest changes in the PSM research.
The aim of the article is to reorganize the literature using three criteria: 1) the relationship
with other variables, 2) the type of sample used and 3) the geographical location of the
studies.
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The first criterion is going to investigate the relationship of PSM with other variables in order
to understand which variables have been explained or generally linked to PSM and how. In
particular, we try is to classify the PSM role as a variable that explains some of the most
important issues in the organizational literature. The second criterion focuses mainly on the
type of occupation and on the job sector (public, private and no-profit) of individuals
composing the samples in order to understand which job categories have been more
explored and why.
The third criterion aims to reorder the PSM research internationally and to individuate the
countries that have been more interesting for scholars. This criterion allows to identify some
differences between countries and explores some future lines of research for the PSM in an
international scenario.
3.1 PSM and Other Variables
The PSM literature is divided in two lines of research. The first one is based on the analysis
of the Public Service Motivation as a single variable while the second one relates it to other
variables such as job satisfaction or performance (Camilleri & Van der Heijden, 2007; Taylor,
2008; Ritz, 2009; Crewson, 1997; Wright & Pandey, 2008; Andersen & Kjeldsen, 2013; Naff
& Crum, 1999), job performance (Alonso & Lewis, 2001; Bright, 2007; Vandenabeele, 2009;
Bellè, 2013; Andersen et al., 2014) and leadership (Fazzi & Zamaro, 2016; Wright et al.,
2012). A small part of the research also focused on professionalism (Andersen, 2009;
Andersen & Pedersen, 2012) and red tape (Scott & Pandey, 2005).
As shown in Table 3, PSM has been related to different organizational variables, mostly as
an antecedent. There are two main trends:
1. a strong focus on job satisfaction and organizational commitment
2. a widespread use of the Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) as a type of analysis
Job Satisfaction/Commitment Job performance Leadership Others
Camilleri, Van der Heijden/2007; Taylor/2008; Ritz/2009; Crewson/1997; Wright,
Pandey/2008; Andersen, Kjeldsen/2013; Naff,
Crum/1999; Li, Wang/2016; Pupion
Pyun, Yun, Dorbaire, Huron, Park, Guo /2017
Alonso, Lewis/2001; Bright/2007;
Vandenabeele/2009; Bellè/2013; Andersen,
Heinesen, Pedersen/2014
Bellè/2013; Fazzi, Zamaro/2016;
Wright, Moynihan, Pandey /2012; Bottomley, Sayed Mostafa, Gould-Williams
Leon-Cazares/2016;
Scott, Pandey/2005; Andersen,
Pedersen/2012; Steijn/2008;
Brewer, Selden/1998; Andersen/2009
Table 3 The PSM and Other Variables
The focus on some specific organisational topics is probably due to two factors. First of all, job
satisfaction and organizational commitment are often juxtaposed in the organizational literature so we
decided to put the two variables in a single categorization. Secondly, those two concepts are often
linked to motivation, so authors used PSM to identify the causes of the two variables. Job satisfaction
has been defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's
job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976) while organizational commitment is defined as “an attachment
to the organisation, characterized by an intention to remain in it; an identification with the values and
goals of the organisation; and a willingness to exert extra effort on its behalf” (Porter et al. 1974).
Basically, the two concepts are almost sequential and strongly linked, so most of the studies
dedicated to the job satisfaction/PSM relationship normally also involved organizational commitment.
The use of SEMs is probably due to the specific nature of the variables. The Structural Equation
Modeling, in fact, is particularly suitable for the estimation of latent variables and the evaluation of the
12
Pu
bli
c
relationship among the latent variables that “establish the dimensions of the construct” (Palma &
Sepe, 2017). Most of the studies found a positive relation among PSM and the other variables like
job satisfaction, job performance (Camilleri & Van der Heijden, 2007; Naff & Crum, 1999) and
organizational commitment (Ritz, 2009).
3.2 PSM: Type of Sample
The second classification criterion has been chosen especially because in the literature there is a
general tendency to focus on the same job categories, so it is important to identify the sectors which
have been more explored in order to find new lines of research.
Actually, the literature focused on some specific professions that have been grouped in macro areas
referring to the type of job sector and tasks (Table 4)
Administration/policy making
Health and human services
Education Others
Vandenabeele/2008; Perry/1996*; Kim/2009; Giauque, Ritz, Varone, Waldner/2011; Brewer,
Selden/1998; Camilleri, Van der Heijden/2007; Alonso,
Lewis/ 2001; Bright/2007***; Naff, Crum/1999;
Anderfuhren- Biget, Varone, Giauque, Ritz/2010;
Battaglio, French/2016; Brewer, Selden,
Facer/2000*; Bright/2011*; Houston/2011; Kim,
Vandenabeele et. al./ 2013; Wright, Pandey, Moynihan/2012;
Vandenabeele/2009; Dahmani/2016;
Coursey, Pandey/2007;
Moynihan, Pandey/2007; Bright/2007;
Bright/2011*; Bellè, Cantarelli /2012;
Bellè/2013; Georgellis, Iossa, Tabvuma
/2011*; Scott, Pandey/2005; DeHart-
Davis, Marlowe, Pandey/2006;
Perry/1996*; Vandenabeele/2008
Pedersen/2015, Andersen, Heinesen,
Holm Pedersen/2014;Bre wer,
Selden, Facer/2000*; Bright, 2016; Georgellis, Iossa, Tabvuma/2011*;
Einolf/2016, Pupion, Pyun, Yun, Dorbaire,
Huron, Park, Guo /2017; Li, Wang/2016; Palma,
Sepe/2017;
No
pro
fIt
Word, Carpenter/2013;
Houston/2000; Andersen,
Pedersen/2012*; Andersen/2009;
Andersen, Pedersen/2012*;
Crewson/1997;
Pu
bli
c
Pri
va
te
Wright, Christensen/2010; Andersen, Pedersen/2012*
Pu
bli
c N
on
pro
fit
Fazzi, Zamaro/2016; Ward/2014;
Pu
bli
c
Pri
va
te
No
n p
rofi
t
Gabris, Simo/1995; Houston/2006;
Perry, Brudney, Coursey,
Littlepage/2008**;
Table 4 Type of Sample (PSM as a single variable + PSM and other variables)
Note *The study involves both the categories indicated.
** The sample consists of winners of the Daily Point of Light Award and the President's
Community Volunteer Award, so it is composed of individuals, families, and organizations an
probably involves all the sectors considered.
***The sample involved workers form a public health care agency, a city government, and a
county jurisdiction.
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Looking at Table 4 it can be noticed that the majority of PSM research production is dedicated to the
administrative area of the public sector.
In fact, the most investigated job categories are:
1. Administrative public servants of all levels
2. Workers in health and human services
3. Employees in the educational sector
The first categorization of the sample includes administrative and policy-making public servants of all
levels, without any specification about the function or the role of the individuals composing the
samples. In this case the large part of the studies is dedicated to the public sector, specifically to
federal ministries and agencies (Vandenabeele, 2008) but particularly to municipal and local
institutions (Anderfuhren-Biget et al., 2010; Bright, 2011; Kim & Vandenabeele, 2010; Battaglio &
French, 2016). This tendency is probably due to the greater ease of gathering data at the local level.
In fact, most of the essays dedicated to the federal level use secondary data, mainly from the
General Social Survey (Crewson, 1997; Houston, 2000; Houston, 2006), which is based on issues
relating to government and politics in the US. In this categorization, there is only a small part of
research dedicated to the comparison between public and private sector (Houston, 2000) and to the
nonprofit sector (Word & Carpenter, 2013). The interest in the nonprofit sector, especially compared
both with the public and the private sectors (Gabris & Simo,1995; Houston, 2006; Perry et al., 2008),
can be attributed to the necessity of defining and validating the PSM construct as a new type of
motivation instead that simply as a motivation in the public sector.
The second categorization proposed includes health and human services employees.
Also in this case, there is a predominance of studies dedicated to the public sector so there is a low
level of comparison with the private and nonprofit sectors. The majority of the studies in this category
are dedicated to workers of health and human services agencies (Coursey & Pandey, 2007;
Moynihan & Pandey, 2007; DeHart-Davis et al., 2006) with a single author who dedicated the
research to nurses (Bellè, 2012-,2013).
The third category is dedicated to the educational sector and again there is a predominance of the
public sector. Most of the works are dedicated to two specific categories: students and teachers or
professors. The utilization of students as a sample is based on the idea of understanding if the
individual level of PSM influences the choice of working in the public sector. In this case, most of the
scholars focus on students of Public Administration (Brewer et al., 2000; Bright, 2016; Einolf, 2016).
A small portion of the studies is also dedicated to professors (Pupion et.al, 2017) and teachers (Li &
Wang, 2016; Palma & Sepe, 2017). If the choice of the students is based on the necessity of
understanding if PSM can influence the choice of a specific type of job sector, the utilization of
teachers as a sample is linked to the idea that teaching is a profession that helps to express easily
the intrinsic interest of individuals in contributing to society. Moreover “intensive contact between
teachers and students, coupled with many possibilities for employees to contribute to society, often
results in them going ‘above and beyond’ the call of duty” (Palma & Sepe, 2017).
The remaining part of the selected literature is dedicated to other job categories, even if not
exclusively. Some scholars focused on engineers (Crewson, 1997) or lawyers (Wright & Christensen,
2010), but, as already said, the most of the PSM research focused on the three categories listed
previously. In the categorization there is also a small part of articles that cross two or more job
categories, generally with the objective of creating a comparison (Perry, 1996; Brewer, Selden &
Facer, 2000; Andersen & Pedersen, 2012; Bright, 2011).
The focus of the PSM research on some job categories, such as teachers, can be due to the easy
access to their contacts in order to administer a questionnaire. Obviously, the categories of students
and teachers are also useful to "test" the PSM construct, especially because of the specific
connection they have.
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3.3 Geographical Criterion: PSM in the World
As already mentioned above, the PSM research spread internationally since the 1990s, even if it
focused on Europe from 2000 on. Most of the scholars initially focused on the US public sector,
analyzing PSM as a single concept. This approach is due to the necessity of validating the construct
and understand if it could create a new line of research in the public administration field.
The third criterion used to classify the PSM literature is the geographical one. The choice to use this
criterion is based on two factors: first, there is a strong geographical division in the research, second
this approach has been overlooked until now in the literature reviews.
The PSM research focuses on two main areas: USA and Europe, even if there is a growing literature
about Asia, mainly Korea and China. One of the first things to notice is that there is a strong
difference in the handling of the research in Europe and USA.
Looking at Table 5 it can be noticed that the research in the US mainly focuses on PSM as a single
variable, while European data are used to explain other organizational variables.
PSM PSM+ other variables
USA Perry, Wise/1990; Brewer, Selden/1998; Rainey,
Steinbauer/1999; Vandenabeele/2007; Gabris, Simo/1995; Crewson/1997;
Perry/1996; Houston/2000; Brewer, Selden, Facer/2000; Houston/2006;
DeHart-Davis, Marlowe, Pandey/2006; Coursey,
Pandey/2007; Moynihan, Pandey/2007; Wright,
Christensen/2010; Bright/2011; Houston/2011;**
Kim et al./2013*; Word, Carpenter/2013; Ward/2014;
Bright/2016; Battaglio, French/2016; Einolf/2016; Perry,
Brudney, Coursey, Littlepage/2008
Alonso, Lewis/2001; Bright/2007; Naff, Crum/1999; Wright, Pandey,
Moynihan/2012; Wright, Pandey/2008; Scott, Pandey/2005;
Brewer, Selden/1998
Europe Vandenabeele/2008; Anderfuhren- Biget, Varone, Giauque, Ritz/2010;
Giauque, Ritz, Varone, Waldner/2011; Houston/2011;**
Georgellis, Iossa, Tabvuma/2011; Kim et al./2013*; Pedersen/2015;
Breitshol, Ruhle/2016
Camilleri, Van der Heijden/2007; Andersen, Heinesen,
Pedersen/2014; Vandenabeele/2009; Bellè/2012; Bellè/2013; Fazzi, Zamaro/2016;
Ritz/2009; Andersen, Kjeldsen/2013; Pupion, Pyun, Yun,
Dorbaire, Huron, Park, Guo /2017;;*** Andersen,
Pedersen/2012; Steijn/2008; Andersen/2009
Other countries Kim/2009; Houston/2011;** Kim et al./2013*; Dahmani/2016
Li, Wang/2016; Bottomley, Sayed Mostafa, Gould-Williams Leon-
Cazares/2016; Taylor/2008; Pupion et.al /2017***
Table 5 Geographical distribution of the PSM research
Note * This specific research has been carried out in Australia, Belgium, China, Denmark, France,
Italy, Korea, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, United States.
** This research has been carried out in North American and Western Europe.
*** This research has been carried out in France, South Korea, China.
The PSM research in the US mainly focuses on the study of the construct as a single variable. This tendency
can depend on different factors. It surely influenced the research the fact that PSM was born within the US
public service so it naturally developed faster in that country. Another factor that should be taken into account is
that in the US there is a stronger interest in public administration research with respect to Europe. Moreover,
we have to consider the chronological factor. In fact, most of the literature in the US dates back in the 1990s, so
probably when it spread in Europe the research dedicated to the construct validation was almost saturated.
15
This probably influenced the choice of European researchers that tried to create a new utilization of the
concept.
European research can be divided into two lines: a small part dedicated to test the generalizability of PSM
outside the US (Vandenabeele, 2008; Anderfuhren-Biget et al., 2010; Giauque et al., 2011; Houston, 2011) and
a bigger part dedicated to explore the relationship between PSM and other variables (Camilleri & Van der
Heijden, 2007; Andersen et al., 2014; Vandenabeele, 2009; Bellè, 2012; Fazzi & Zamaro, 2016; Ritz, 2009).
Looking at Table 6 is easy to notice that the large part of the research in Europe focuses on PSM as an
“explanatory” variable for different issues. The most explored concepts are job satisfaction, job performance,
organizational commitment, and leadership. As already mentioned above, the European research probably
filled the blank spaces of the US PSM research and it progressively developed a growing interest in those
topics.
The geographical distribution of the research in Europe is quite heterogeneous as far as the main focus is
concerned. The research focused on the generalizability of PSM has been carried out only in Belgium
(Vandenabeele, 2008), Switzerland Anderfuhren-Biget et al., 2010), Denmark (Pedersen, 2015) and Germany
(Breitshol & Ruhle, 2016). Whereas the research dedicated to explore the relationship between PSM and other
variables mainly focuses on Italy (Bellè, 2012, 2013), Denmark (Andersen, 2009; Andersen & Pedersen, 2012;
Andersen et al., 2014; Andersen & Kjeldsen, 2013), Malta (Camilleri & Van der Heijden, 2007) and Switzerland
(Ritz, 2009).
This distribution is totally due to the origin and interests of the authors who carried out the research. In fact, all
the articles dedicated to specific countries are written by the same authors and probably the construct is still
considered as a "niche" issue.
Another important factor that emerged from the categorization is a growing production of the PSM literature
outside both Europe and US. Specifically, there is a new line of research that compares PSM in different
countries both as a single variable and as exploratory one (Houston, 2011; Kim et al., 2013; Vandenabeele &
Wright et al. 2012; Pupion et.al., , 2017). At the same time, new countries entered the research, like Korea
(Kim, 2009), China (Li & Wang, 2016), Mexico (Bottomley et al., 2016), Australia (Taylor, 2008). In this case,
the research focuses on the relationship between PSM and other variables.
The growing production in the PSM literature and its spread in so many countries indicates the strong interest
of the authors in this new construct. PSM has a high potential in enhancing the functioning of public and private
personnel policies and in individuating and develop new Human Resources Management instruments and
practices.
4. Conclusions
4.1 PSM: Teachings from the Research and Suggestions for the Future
The PSM construct was introduced in the public administration research in the 1990s. Until then it has followed
an increasing trend both with respect to the quantity of articles published and the extent of the research. At the
beginning, the research mainly focused on the validation and measurement of the construct (Perry, 1996;
Gabris & Simo, 1995), in order to understand if it could have a future development. Nowadays we can say that
PSM has its own room in the public administration research and it is also spreading beyond the borders.
In the last decade the PSM research presented some specific characteristics:
• It shifted from North America to Europe and to other countries;
• It focuses the most on the public administration field;
• It has been mainly based on the public sector employees.
Those characteristics of the research can lead to changes in future studies, mainly helping scholars to
individuate the weaknesses of the construct.
Moreover, the strong link between motivation and job satisfaction or job performance made PSM a perfect
instrument to contribute to the Human Resources Management practices. Actually, most of the study
recommend integrating the PSM construct in the selection processes in order to hire workers with a high level
of PSM for a job that contributes to the wellness of society (Andersen & Kjeldsen, 2013). There is also a small
part of the research that suggests to create new practices to increase the employees' PSM level, for example
including them in important decisions (Giauque et al., 2013). But did the researchers manage to make it
practical? What are the results nowadays? Using the categorization proposed above some gaps in PSM are
underlined:
1- Low systematization of the research about the relationship between PSM and other variables;
16
2- Low differentiation in the types of sample and the job categories explored; 3- Low geographical
concentration of the research in Europe;
4- Lack of translation of the research into practice;
With respect to the first categorization, the relationship between PSM and other variables, the literature still
needs some sort of systematization. The large amount of articles produced especially from 2008 (Ritz et al.,
2016) did not manage yet to create a specific path of research for PSM as an antecedent of other
organizational variables. Also, the researchers should try to provide a more shared evidence of a cause-and-
effect relationship between PSM and other variables (Ritz et al., 2016). In this case, it could be useful to extend
the research about the antecedents of PSM and especially the influence of society on the construct (Rainey et
al., 2016). The general feeling is a random utilization of PSM without a shared objective in the literature. Also,
there is a strong utilization of a similar types of analysis, but it can probably be attributed to the specific nature
of the concept. The strong focus of the scholars on some specific issues like job satisfaction and job
performance should be funnelled to draw some specific conclusion for the research, especially in order to
identify some practical utilization of PSM. Furthermore, there is still an extreme focus with respect to the type of
job categories analyzed. This tendency probably depends on the fact that some categories are easier to reach,
so it is easier to gather data. Though it could be necessary to explore new job categories in order to identify the
limit of the PSM construct in terms of validation, it is necessary to understand if there is a type of job or a
specific sector in which PSM could really influence the performance of the individuals. Some scholars focused
on the category of teachers stating that the connection created between them and students is really closed to
the interest in others’ wellbeing of the PSM construct (Palma & Sepe, 2017). Could the opposite situation be
also possible? Is there any job category that could represent more than others the rational dimension theorized
by Perry and Wise in 1990? Does PSM have a "dark side" that could be taken into account? (Ritz et al., 2016).
In the great part of the research PSM has been presented as an altruistic construct, but, since its formulation,
its self-interest dimension was brought out (Perry & Wise, 1990) even if lately has almost totally been
neglected. Further research should focus more on this "dark side", going back to the original construction of the
concept. The strong connection between PSM and a moral sense of duty could not be able to catch all the
shades of the individuals' motivation. A strong moral identity can also lead to act immorally in a turbulent work
environment (Sachdeva et al., 2009) so the relationship between PSM and immoral outcomes should be better
investigated (Ritz et al., 2016). According to Perry and Wise (1990), PSM also has a rational dimension which
is mainly based on self-interest. So focusing only on the altruistic side of the construct is reductive. Someone
who is performing a public-service-motivated act can be also satisfying a personal need of participating in the
creation of wellness for society, which suggests mixed motives (Ritz et al., 2016). So is about time that the
research focuses also on the egoistic dimension of PSM, adapting and adjusting the PSM definition and
bringing it back to its origins.
The geographical distribution of the research needs to be deepen. Even if in the last decade Europe seems to
have replaced the US, there is still too much dispersion in the studies. In some countries, there is a large
amount of research about PSM while some others have been totally overlooked. The individual level of PSM
depends on the work environment and on the organization of the public sector in different countries, so there is
a strong need to deepen the analysis of the European scenario. Moreover, until now, there has been a low level
of comparison between different countries (Houston, 2011; Kim et al., 2013). The international dimension of
PSM should be more explored, focusing more on comparative studies. A more dislocated research could help
to understand if there is a specific type of work environment in which individual level of PSM is higher.
Moreover, when studying the impact of the construct on other variables, there is the need of deepening the
characteristics of the sector taken into account in the specific country. Obviously, the US public sector is not the
same as the French one, so a more detailed description of the reference scenario could really be useful.
Finally, the research should try to improve the outputs. The malleability of the PSM concept can make it a good
instrument for Human Resource Management, especially in the public sector.
One of the first practical application of PSM has been to use it in the selection processes. The idea is that hiring
people that already have a high level of PSM can consequentially be positive for the organization. But,
according to Perry (2017), even if there are lots of articles dedicated to the insertion of PSM in the selection
processes, only 26 of those studies discuss it in detail.
The recruitment process in the public service should be more based on PSM, mainly because selecting people
who already believe in the ethical o public service would not also have more benefits for the organization, but
could also solve some problems like principal-agent relation (Anderfuhren-Biget et al., 2014). Actually, most of
the public sector recruitment processes are based, especially in Europe, on a notional approach, without taking
into account the intrinsic characteristics and skills of the individuals. Even if it could be difficult, a suitable
17
instrument to "test" PSM before hiring can lead to a new era for the public sector. Generally speaking, at this
point, PSM has created a specific path of research and, even if it stays in the public administration field, it is
starting to enter also other fields like psychology (Li & Wang, 2016) so it is necessary to keep the research
updated.
In conclusion, the research should:
1- Reorder the relationship between PSM and other variables;
Looking at the huge growth of PSM research in the last decade, it could be useful to monitor further
developments especially with regard to the use of the construct as an explanatory variable. In our work, we
tried to reorganize the literature taking into account this aspect, but further research could develop a more
structured methodology.
2- Increase the comparative approach;
Given the huge amount of studies about PSM it is fundamental to have a comparative approach in the
research. We tried to take into account the differences between countries in the development of PSM using
the geographical criteria.
3- Enhance the job categories taken into account;
The job sector and the type of occupation have always been treated as a central issue in the study of PSM,
so further research should develop this aspect especially, again, in a comparative perspective.
4- Reinforce the practical application of PSM;
Most of the studies dedicated to PSM until now have the objective of redefining the construct definition or
improve its measurement. Nevertheless, PSM could be an important practical instrument for Human
Resources Management (HRM) practices, for example in the selection process, both for the public and
private sector. In conclusion, even if PSM research is still increasing it should try to change its direction in
order to find new and practical applications for the construct.
18
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Paarlberg, L.E., Perry, J.L & Hondeghem, A. (2008). From Theory to Practice: Strategies for Applying Public Service Motivation, in J.L. Perry and A. Hondeghem (eds.), Motivation in Public Management: The Call of Public Service. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 268–93.
Paarlberg, L.E. & Lavigna, B. (2010). Transformational Leadership and Public Service Motivation: Driving Individual and Organizational Performance. Public Administration Review, 70(5), 710-1.
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Perry, J.L., Brudney, J.L., Coursey, D. & Littlepage, L. (2008). What Drives Morally Committed Citizens? A Study of the Antecedents of Public Service Motivation. Public Administration Review, 68 (3), 445-458.
Perry J.L. & Annie Hondeghem A. (2008). Building Theory and Empirical Evidence about Public Service Motivation. International Public Management Journal, 11(1), 3-12.
Perry, J.L., Hondeghem, A. & Wise, R.W. (2010). Revisiting the Motivational Bases of Public Service: Twenty Years of Research and an Agenda for the Future. Public Administration Review, 70 (5), 681-690.
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Perry, J.L. (2012). Does Making a Difference Make a Difference? Answers from Research on Public Service Motivation, in Tria, G & Valotti, G. (eds.), Reforming the Public Sector: How to Achieve Better Transparency, Service, and Leadership. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, pp. 51-67.
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CELPE’s Discussion Papers
2018, 157 Antonio ABATEMARCO, Alberto BENNARDO Communication Costs and Incentives to Acquire Soft and Hard Knowledge 2018, 156 Adalgiso ADAMENDOLA, Cristian BARRA, Marinella BOCCIA, Anna PAPACCIO Market Structure and Financial Stability: Theory and Evidence 2018, 155 Alberto BENNARDO, Marco PAGANO, Marco PAGNOZZI
Effetti della Diffusione dell'Informazione e Struttura Concorrenziale del Mercato 2017, 154 Cristian BARRA, Roberto ZOTTI
Financial Stability as a Public Policy Goal to Increase Local Economic Development: an Empirical Investigation from Italian Labour Market Areas
2017, 153 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Mario DI SERIO, Matteo FRAGETTA The Government Spending Multiplier at the Zero Lower Bound: Evidence from the Euro Area
2017, 152 Anna Maria FERRAGINA, Fernanda MAZZOTTA Firm Employment Resilience and FDI: Evidence from Italy
2017, 151 Fernanda MAZZOTTA, Lavinia PARISI What are the Role of Economic Factors in Determining Leaving and Returning to the Parental Home in Europe During the Crisis? Technical Details
2017, 150 Mario DI SERIO, Matteo FRAGETTA, Emanuel GASTEIGER The Government Spending Multiplier at the Zero Lower Bound: Evidence from the United States
2017, 149 Giorgia IOVINO Il Consumo di Suolo. Un Focus sull’Europa
2017, 148 Giorgia IOVINO Waterfront Urbani: Approcci Rigenerativi e Visioni di Città
2017, 147 Giorgia IOVINO The Mezzogiorno Problem to be. Territorial Implications of the Reform of Tertiary Education in Italy
2017, 146 Adriana BARONE, Annamaria NESE Investment in Education, Obesity and Health Behaviours
2017, 145 Annamaria NESE, Roberta TROISI Illegal Behavior in the Public Administration
2017, 144 Rosamaria D'AMORE, Roberto IORIO, Giuseppe LUBRANO LAVADERA Exploring the Relationship Between Human Capital and Innovation at the Firm Level: A study on a Sample of European Firms
2017, 143 Cristian BARRA, Roberto ZOTTI Bank Performance, Financial Stability and Market Competition: do Cooperative and Non-Cooperative Banks Behave Differently?
2016, 142 Adalgiso AMENDOLA Riforma del terzo settore e ruolo delle associazioni di servizio per lo sviluppo 2016, 141 Cristian BARRA, Giovanna BIMONTE, Luigi SENATORE Innovation Processes and Environmental Safety
2016, 140 Damiano FIORILLO, Luigi SENATORE Self Image and Environmental Attitude and Behavior 2016, 139 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO Oltre il conflitto tra efficienza ed equità: regole e misure di policy per l’uguaglianza di genere
2016, 138 Adalgiso AMENDOLA Economia ed etica: razionalità economica, mercato e impresa 2015, 137 Antonella BELLINO, Giuseppe CELI The Migration-Trade Nexus in the Presence of Vertical and Horizontal Product Differentiation
2015, 136 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Roberto DELL’ANNO, Lavinia PARISI Happiness, Inequality and Relative Concerns in European Countries 2015, 135 Giuseppina TESTA The Effect of the Euro Competition Over Innovation Decisions and Labor Productivity
2014, 134 Antonio CARDONE Capitale e Ricchezza 2014, 133 Giovanna BIMONTE, Luigi SENATORE An Overview on the Application of the Coalitional. Games in Cancer Diagnosis
2014, 132 Domenico MADDALONI The Warfare-Welfare Nexus. An Ecological-Evolutionary Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of the Rise and Decline of National Public Welfare Systems
2014, 131 Massimiliano BENCARDINO, Giorgia IOVINO Analysing and Managing Urban Sprawl and Land Take 2014, 130 Carmen AINA, Fernanda MAZZOTTA, Lavinia PARISI Bargaining or Efficiency within the Household? The Case of Italy 2014, 129 Adriana BARONE, Annamaria NESE Body Weight and Academic Performance: Gender and Peer Effects 2013, 128 Adriana BARONE, Annamaria NESE Family Structure, Children and Night Work: Italy vs. Sweden 2013, 127 Annamaria FERRAGINA
The Impact of FDI on Firm Survival and Employment: A Comparative Analysis for Turkey and Italy
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2013, 126 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Roberto DELL’ANNO Social Exclusion and Economic Growth: An Empirical Investigation in European Economies 2013, 125 Anna PAPACCIO Bilateralism and Multilateralism: a Network Approach 2013, 124 Claudio PINTO
Complexity of Treatment, and Changes in Efficiency and Productivity for Directly Managed Italian Hospitals 2012, 123 Giorgia IOVINO Il Mezzogiorno e la sfida delle energia rinnovabili 2012, 122 Roberto DELL’ANNO, Stefania VILLA Growth in Transition Countries: Big Bang versus Gradualism 2012, 121 Lavinia PARISI The Determinants of First and Second Marital Dissolution. Evidence from Britain 2010, 120 Salvatore FARACE, Fernanda MAZZOTTA
Bivariate Probit Models for Analysing how “Knowledge” Affects Innovation and Performance in Small and Medium Sized Firms
2010, 119 Marcello D’AMATO, Christian DI PIETRO The Evolution of Wealth Distribution in a Model of Educational Investment with Heterogenous Agents
2010, 118 Paolo COCCORESE Banks as 'fat cats': Branching and Price Decisions in a Two-Stage Model of Competition 2010, 117 Sergio DESTEFANIS, Giovanni PICA The Wage Curve an Italian Perspective
2010, 116 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Joshy EASAW, Antonio SAVOIA Inequality in Developing Economies: The Role of Institutional Development 2010 115 Gianluigi COPPOLA Health, Lifestyle and Growth
2010 114 Teresa AMODIO Methods of Analysis of Local Tourist Systems 2009 113 Fernanda MAZZOTTA The Effect of Parental Background on Youth Duration of Unemployment
2009 112 Matteo FRAGETTA Identification in Structural Vector Autoregressions Through Graphical Modelling and Monetary Policy: A Cross-Country Analysis
2009 111 Bruna BRUNO, Damiano FIORILLO Why without Pay? The Intrinsic Motivation between Investment and Consumption in Unpaid Labour Supply
2009 110 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Annamaria NESE Social Preferences and the Third Sector: Looking for a Microeconomic Foundation of the Local Development Path
2008 109 Giorgia IOVINO Gis, ricerca geografica e pianificazione urbanistica: un’applicazione sul centro storico di Benevento
2008 108 Bruna BRUNO La donna flessibile e il lavoro opportuno 2008 107 Damiano FIORILLO Offerta di Attività Gratuita in Italia: una analisi micro-econometrica 2007, 106 Shane Niall O'HIGGINS, Marcello D'AMATO, Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Adriana BARONE Gone for Good? Determinants of School Dropout in Southern Italy 2007, 105 Ugo COLOMBINO, Annamaria NESE Preference Heterogeneity in Relation to Museum Services 2007, 104 Giuseppe CELI, Mario SPORTELLI Harrod’s Dynamics and the Kaldor-Thirlwall Export-led Growth 2007, 103 Francesca BETTIO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA, Giovanni SOLINAS Costs and prospects for home based Long Term Care in Northern Italy: the Galca survey 2007, 102 Lisa CROSATO, Sergio DESTEFANIS, Piero GANUGI Technology and Firm Size Distribution: Evidence from Italian Manufacturing 2007, 101 Guglielmo Maria CAPORALE, Alexandros KONTONIKAS The Euro and Inflation Uncertainty in the european Monetary Union 2006, 100 Francesco Paolo VOLPE Principio democratico e giustizia nell'amministrazione 2006, 99 Niall O’HIGGINS
Still With Us After All of These Years: Trends in Youth Labour Market Entry, Home-Leaving And Human Capital Accumulation in Italy 1993-2003
2005, 98 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Gianluigi COPPOLA The Impact of the Institutions on Regional Unemployment Disparities
2005, 97 Carlo ALTAVILLA, Antonio GAROFALO, Concetto Paolo VINCI Is the Discouraged Worker Effect Time-Varying? 2005, 96 F. BUSATO, B. CHIARINI, P. DE ANGELIS, E. MARZANO Capital Subsidies and Underground Production
2005, 95 Lucio Valerio SPAGNOLO, Mario CERRATO No euro please, We’re British!
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2005, 94 Roberto BASILE, Mauro COSTANTINI, Sergio DESTEFANIS Unit root and cointegration tests for cross-sectionally correlated panels. Estimating regional production functions
2005, 93 Sergio DESTEFANIS, Raquel FONSECA Matching Efficiency and Labour Market Reform in Italy. A Macroeconometric Assessment
2005, 92 Cesare IMBRIANI, Antonio LOPES Banking System Efficiency and the Dualistic Development of the Italian Economy in the Nineties
2005, 91 Carlo ALTAVILLA, Antonio GAROFALO, Concetto Paolo VINCI Designing the Optimal Lenght of Working Time
2005, 90 Marco MANACORDA, Barbara PETRONGOLO Regional Mismatch and Unemployment: Theory and Evidence from Italy, 1977-1998 2004, 89 Roberta TROISI Teoria dell’impresa e responsabilità parapenale: le implicazioni organizzativo-gestionali
2004, 88 Roberta TROISI Enti non profit: tipologie ed opzioni organizzative
2004, 87 Lavinia PARISI La povertà: una rassegna sul confronto tra due approcci. Capability vs. Unidimensionalità
2004, 86 Giuseppe CELI Quality Differentiation, Vertical Disintegration and the Labour Market Effetcs of Intra-Industry Trade
2004, 85 Niall O’HIGGINS Recent Trends in Youth Labour Martkets and Employment Policy in Europe and Central Asia
2004, 84 Carlo ALTAVILLA, Floro Ernesto CAROLEO Evaluating Asimmetries in Active Labour Policies: The Case of Italy 2004, 83 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Francesco PASTORE
La disoccupazione giovanile in Italia. La riforma dei sistemi d'istruzione e di formazione professionale come alternativa alla flessibilità numerica per accrescere l'occupabilità
2004, 82 Francesco PASTORE, Izabela MARCINKOWSKA The Gender Wage Gap among Young People in Italy 2004, 81 Elisabetta MARZANO Dual Labour Market Theories And Irregular Jobs: IsThere a Dualism Even in The Irregular Sector? 2004, 80 Corrado ANDINI
Unemployment and Welfare Partecipation in a Structural VAR: Rethinking the 1990s in the United States 2004, 79 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO Fondamenti teorici della rigidità salariale nell'ambito dei "Non Market clearing Models" 2004, 78 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Gianluigi COPPOLA Regional Disparities in Europe 2003, 77 Fernanda MAZZOTTA Flessibilità, povertà e istruzione: un approccio Sen – istituzionale
2003, 76 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Annamaria NESE Mobilità intergenerale nel livello d'istruzione nella società femminile italiana ed endogenità del titolo di studio in un modello di partecipazione alla Forza Lavoro.
2003, 74 Antonio LOPES Innovazione nel Sistema Creditizio del Mezzogiorno negli Anni Novanta 2003, 73 Sergio DESTEFANIS, Vania SENA Public Capital and Total Factor Productivity New Evidence from the Italian Regions 2003, 72 Giuseppina AUTIERO, Bruna BRUNO Social Preferences in Wage Bargaining: a Neocorporatist Approach 2003, 71 Gianluigi COPPOLA, Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA Industrial Localisation and Economic Development. A Case Study 2002, 70 Francesco GIORDANO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA
Salario di Riserva, Probabilità di Occupazione ed Efficacia dell’Istruzione Universitaria: un’Analisi sugli Studenti dell’Università di Salerno
2002, 69 Giuseppe RUSSO Istituzioni del Mercato del Lavoro e Occupazione: dai Costi di Aggiustamento all’Appropriabilità
2002, 68 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Francesco PASTORE Training Policy for Youth Unemployed in a Sample of European Countries 2002, 67 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Maria Rosaria SUPINO
Il Disegno Normativo del Welfare Municipale in Italia come Strumento per lo Sviluppo Economico e l’Allargamento delle Opportunità Occupazionali. Una Lettura Neoistituzionale della L. 328/00
2002, 65 Pietro SENESI Cyclical dynamics under continuous time equilibrium 2001, 64 Marcello D'AMATO, Vincenzo GALASSO E' la Riforma Dini Politicamente Sostenibile? 2001, 63 Sergio DESTEFANIS, Ornella Wanda MAIETTA
Assessing the Productive Efficiency of Non-Profit Organisations: a Comparative Analysis 2001, 62 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Francesco PASTORE How fine targeted is ALMP to the youth long term unemployed in Italy? 2001, 61 Paolo COCCORESE Strategic Advertising for Entry Deterrence Purposes
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2001, 60 Alessandra AMENDOLA Modelling Asymmetries in Unemployment Rate 2001, 59 Sergio DESTEFANIS Differenziali Territoriali di Produttività ed Efficienza negli Anni '90: i Livelli e l'Andamento 2001, 58 Giuseppina AUTIERO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA Job Search Methods: the Choice between the Public and the Private Sector 2001, 57 Giuseppina AUTIERO, Bruna BRUNO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA A Correspondence Analysis of Labour Market Institutions 2000, 56 Giuseppina AUTIERO
Governmental Organized Learning and Coordination Problems: The case of Japan in1950s 2000, 55 Giuseppina AUTIERO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA The Choice of Search Methods: Some Empirical Evidence from Italy 2000, 54 Giuseppe CELI
The Impact of International Trade on Labour Markets. The Case of Outward Processing. Traffic between the European Union and Central Eastern European Countries.
2000, 53 Giuseppe RUSSO, David VEREDAS Institutional Rigidities and Employment on the Italian Labour Market: the Dynamic of the Employment in the Large Industrial Firms
2000, 52 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO Le Politiche per l'Occupazione in Europa: una Tassonomia Istituzionale 2000, 51 Andrew NEWELL, Francesco PASTORE Regional Unemployment and Industrial Restructuring in Poland 1999, 50 Giuseppe CELI, Alasdair SMITH Quality Differentiation and the Labour Market Effects of International Trade. 1999, 49 Giuseppe CELI Vertical and Horizontal Intra-Industry Trade: What is the Empirical Evidence for the UK? 1999, 48 Cesare IMBRIANI, Filippo REGANATI
Productivity spillovers and regional differences: some evidence on the italian manufacturing sector 1999, 47 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Annamaria NESE L’impatto del background familiare sul livello d’istruzione dei figli. 1998, 46 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Annamaria NESE Mobilità intergenerazionale nella società femminile italiana. 1998, 45 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Fernanda MAZZOTTA Youth Unemployment and youth employment policies in Italy 1997, 44 Annamaria NESE Mobilità intergenerazionale in Italia 1997, 43 Adriana BARONE, Concetto Paolo VINCI Fairness: un concetto relativo nell’analisi del mercato del lavoro
1997, 42 Adriana BARONE, Concetto Paolo VINCI Wage differentials and factor intensity reversals 1997, 41 Rosa CAPOLUPO L’ipotesi di convergenza nel recente dibattito sulle teorie della crescita
1997, 40 Rosa CAPOLUPO Endogenous Vs exogenous models of growth: the convergenze debate 1997, 39 Fernanda MAZZOTTA, Annamaria NESE Transizioni "In and Out" il mercato del lavoro in Italia: un’analisi microeconometrica
1997, 38 Fernanda MAZZOTTA Disoccupazione e probabilità di occupazione in Italia: un’analisi su microdati 1997, 37 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Bruna BRUNO
Equivalenza istituzionale" dei modelli di contrattazione sul salario: oltre il dibattito tra centralizzazione e decentramento
1997, 36 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Floro Ernesto CAROLEO, Gianluigi COPPOLA Differenziali territoriali nel mercato del lavoro e sviluppo in Italia 1996, 35 Adalgiso AMENDOLA Istituzioni e mercato del lavoro. Deregolazione, occupazione e paradigma istituzionale 1996, 33 Annamaria NESE Modelli microeconometrici per l'analisi della domanda abitativa 1996, 32 Annamaria NESE Test semiparametrici per modelli parametrici 1996, 31 Giuseppe CELI Vertical intra-industry trade and skill intensity in Europe: a cross sector analysis 1996, 30 Sergio DESTEFANIS Nominal rigidities and real activity. A cross-industry analysis for Italy, 1951-93 1996, 29 Cesare IMBRIANI, Filippo REGANATI International technology transfer into the italian manufacturing sector 1996, 28 Stefania di SERAFINO, Alberto GANDOLFI
The choice of the Government optimal procurement mechanism: the first-price sealed bid auction with one and/or two winners.
1996, 27 Raul de LUZENBERGER Redistribution, and public debt with liquidity constraints
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1996, 26 Bruno CHIARINI Un modello VAR per la domanda di lavoro 1995, 25 Maria Rosaria CARILLO, Alberto ZAZZARO Innovazione tecnologica e distruzione di capitale umano in un modello neo- shumpeteriano di crescita 1995, 24 Raul de LUZENBERGER Macroeconomia e politiche redistributive: il caso di vincoli di liquidità 1995, 23 Annamaria NESE Tenure choice and demand for housing in Italy 1995, 22 Filippo REGANATI La struttura delle preferenze per prodotti orizzontalmente differenziati. 1995, 21 Sergio DESTEFANIS, Michele LA ROCCA, Cosimo VITALE Forecasting train ticket sales with linear model-based approaches and with edats 1995, 20 Stefania di SERAFINO Bounded rationality and incomplete contracts 1995, 19 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Floro E. CAROLEO, Maria Rosaria GAROFALO Istituzioni, mercato del lavoro e decentramento delle decisioni. 1995, 18 Niall O’HIGGINS
Why did the youth training scheme reduce the wages of young people? A story of human capital formation, reservation wages and job offers.
1994, 17 Antonio CARDONE Misure di efficienza: alcuni aspetti teorici
1994, 16 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Luisa ZANCHI Neo-corporativismo, centralizzazione e dispersione inter-settoriale dei salari. 1994, 15 Sergio DESTEFANIS
Allowing for frequency of negotiation in the aggregate wage equation. A study for Italian manufacturing, 1973/92.
1994, 14 Marcello D'AMATO Tariffs for a foreign industry with market power under incomplete information on demand 1994, 13 Raul DE LUZENBERGER, Cesare IMBRIANI, Giancarlo MARINI Sustainability Issues in the process of European Integration 1994, 12 Riccardo MARSELLI, Antonio CARDONE Interdipendenza tra regioni: un'analisi su dati di Panel 1993, 11 Adriana BARONE, Concetto Paolo VINCI Dilemma del prigioniero e persistenza della disoccupazione involontaria 1993, 10 Maria Rosaria CARILLO Mutamenti strutturali ed offerta di lavoro. 1993, 9 Niall O'HIGGINS
The effectiveness of YTS in Britain: an analysis of sample selection in the determination of employment and earnings
1993, 8 Giuseppe CELI Politiche valutarie ed integrazione commerciale: l'esperienza dello SME negli anni '80 1992, 7 Paolo COCCORESE Attività innovativa e configurazione industriale 1992, 6 Maria Rosaria GAROFALO, Gian Luigi CORINTO
La Razionalità dell'Allocazione del Tempo di Lavoro in Agricoltura. Con un'Applicazione Empirica ad un Sistema Locale attraverso la PL.
1992, 5 Adalgiso AMENDOLA, Maria SCATTAGLIA Disoccupazione e Tassi di Attività nel Mezzogiorno 1992, 4 Floro Ernesto CAROLEO La Disoccupazione Strutturale
1991, 3 Giovanni URGA Dynamic Models of Labour Demand in the Italian Industrial Sector: Theories and Evidence from Panel Data
1991, 2 Adalgiso AMENDOLA Teoria dei Contratti Impliciti. Rigidità del Salario e Disoccupazione
1991, 1 Guido CELLA Sulla Integrazione Produttiva Interregionale: il Caso del Mezzogiorno
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CELPE – Centro di Ricerca in Economia del Lavoro e di Politica Economica Università degli Studi di Salerno ISSN 1970-4259 Depositato ai sensi di Legge