fot_meng2004_feup
TRANSCRIPT
Fibre Optic TechnologyMestrado Eng. Electrotécnica e de Computadores
(2003/2005)
António Lobo Prof. Associado da UFP Prof. Convidado da FEUP
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
Course Topics
1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics 2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical
Effects 3. Types of Optical Fibre 4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices 5. Active Fibre Optic Devices 6. Other Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices 7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
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Reading Material
Optical Fiber Communications G. Keiser, Optical Fiber Communications, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill (2000). J. M. Senior, Optical Fiber communications, Prentice Hall (1985). G. P. Agrawal, Non-Linear Fiber Optics, 2nd Ed., Academic Press (1995). H. Kolimbiris, Fiber Optics Communications, Pearson Prentice Hall (2004). Optical Fiber Technology K.T.V. Grattan and B.T. Meggitt, Optical Fiber Sensor Technology, Vol. 1 and 2, Chapman & Hall
(1995). B. Culshaw and J. Dakin, Optical Fiber Sensors: Principles and Components, vol.II, Artech House
(1988). B. Culshaw and J. Dakin, Optical Fiber Sensors: Components and Subsystems, vol.III, Artech House
(1997). R. Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press (1999). C. Hentschel, Fiber Optic Handbook, HP Electronics Instruments Dept, ISBN:3-9801677-0-4. D. Derickson, Fiber Optic Test and Measurement, Hewlett-Packard Co., Prentice-Hall Publs. (1998). Jeff Hecht, Understanding Fiber Optics, 4th Ed., Pearson Prentice Hall (2002). General Optics E. Hecht, Optics, 4th Ed., Addison Wesley (2002) M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th Ed. Cambridge Univ. Press (1999). Other material Class notes and handouts with each of the class topics provided in this syllabus. Optical Fiber Sensors (OFS) Conference Proceedings. Optical Fiber Communications (OFC) Conference Proceedings.
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Assessment to Final Grade
The grade is based on the following:
Final examination (50%) Home Assignments (20%) Term Paper Project (30%)
Examination is based on class lectures, reading assignments, homework problems and class handouts.
A Term Paper is required.
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Term Paper ProjectLISTING OF POTENTIAL SUBJECTS FOR TERM PAPER
(Paper is due May 29, 2004)
1. Optical fibre propagation in fibres 2. Non-linear optical fibre effect 3. High strength fibres 4. Fibre optic sensors (many choices here) 5. Environmental effects in fibres 6. Fibre optic cable designs 7. Wavelength division multiplexing devices 8. Fibre optic filters. 9. Fibre Bragg gratings 10. Microstructured Fiber Devices 11. Fibre optic modulators 12. Dispersion compensation devices 13. Plastic optical fibre for communications 14. Aging effects in fibre optics 15. Photonic crystal fibres 16. Active fibre optic devices in communications 17. Optical power propagation in fibres 18. Fibre Lasers 19. Long wavelength fibre applications 20. All-Fibre optic signal processing 21. Optical fibre technology for automotive applications 22. Optical fibre technology for biomedical applications 23. Optical fibre technology for environmental applications
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Acknowledgements
Prof. David Jackson – Head of Applied Optics Group, School Physical Sciences, Univ. Kent (UK).
Prof. Philip Russell – Head of Optoelectronics Group, Univ. Bath & CTO of Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
Prof. Govind Agrawal – Optical Communications Group, Univ. Rochester (USA).
Prof. Xiaoyi Bao – Fiber Optics Group, Univ. Ottawa (Canada).
Prof. Jose L. Santos – Head of UOSE, INESC Porto & FCUP, Univ. Porto (Portugal).
Dr. Adrian Podoleanu - Applied Optics Group, School Physical Sciences, Univ. Kent (UK).
Dr. David Webb – Photonics Research Group, Aston Univ. (UK).
Dr. Hector Guerrero – Lab. Optoelectronica, Dept. Ciencias Espacio, INTA (Spain).
Dr. Ralf Pechstedt, Bookham Technology Plc. (UK).
Prof. Y. J. Rao – Dept. optoelectronics Eng., Chongquing Univ. & General Manager of Chongqing Bao Tong Optical Fiber Technology Ltd. (China)
Dr. Christian Hentschel – Boeblingen Instruments Div., Hewlett-Packard GmbH (Germany).
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics
Roman Times (Italy) Glass is drawn into fibers ?? (Venice) Decorative flowers made of glass fibers 1626 Snell (Holland) Snell’s Law 1713 Reaumur (France) Makes spun glass fibers 1841 Colladon (Swiss) Light guiding in jet of water of Geneva 1854 Tyndall (UK) Light guiding in a thin water jet 1880 Wheeler (USA) System of light pipes to illuminate homes 1888 Roth & Reuss (Austria) Bent glass to illuminate body cavities 1897 Rayleigh (UK) Analysis of waveguide 1926 Hansell (USA) Principles of fiber optic imaging bundle 1930 Lamm (Germany) Assembles first bundle of transparent fibers 1953-54 Heel (Holland) Simple bundles of clad fiber 1954 Hopkins, Kapany (UK) Image transmission w. unclad fiber bundles 1956 Curtiss (USA) Makes the first glass-clad fiber 1957 Hirschowitz & Curtiss (USA) First test fiber-optic endoscope in a patient 1960 Goubau & Christian (USA) Hollow optical guides w. periodic lenses
1.1 Historical Introduction
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics
1960 (May) Maiman et.al. (USA) First laser (ruby laser) 1960 (Dec.) Javan et.al. (USA) Operation of He-Ne laser 1961 Kapany and Snitzer (UK) Mode analysis of optical fiber – SingleMode Fiber 1962 Hall’s et. Al. (USA) Operation of semiconductor laser 1964 Goubau and Christian (USA) Light guide with periodic lenses 1966 Kao and Hockham (UK) Suggest that fiber loss could be <20 dB/km 1967 Kawakami (Japan) Proposes graded-index optical fiber 1970 Maurer, Keck, Schultz (USA) Fiber transmission loss 17dB/km @ 633 nm 1070-71 Dyot & Kapron (USA) Find pulse spreading lower at 1.2 to 1.3 µm 1972 Gambling et.al. (UK) Gigahertz bandwidth over 1km 1974 Kaiser & Astle (USA) Air-silica microstructured optical fiber 1975 Payne and Gambling (UK) Calculate zero material dispersion at 1.3 µm 1976 Horiguchi & Osanai (Japan) First fiber w. 0.47dB/km @ 1.2 µm & Open 3rd
Window @ 1.55 µm.
1.1 Historical Introduction
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics
1978 NTT (Japan) Makes SMF w. 0.2dB/km @ 1.55 µm 1981 British Telecom (UK) Transmits 140Mb/s in 49 km of SMF @ 1.3 µm 1987 Payne et.al.(UK) Develops EDFA @ 1.55 µm 1988 Mollenauer (USA) Soliton transmission on 4000 km of SMF 1991 Russell (UK) Proposes the Photonic Crystal optical fiber 1993 Nakazawa (Japan) Soliton signals over 180 million kms 1993 Mollenauer et.al.(USA) 10 Gbits through 11000 km of SMF using soliton system 1995-96 Russell et.al. (UK) Demonstrates the first Photonic Crystal optical fiber 1999 Cregan, Russell et.al. (UK) Demonstrates the Photonic Bandgap optical fiber
1.1 Historical Introduction
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.2 Fibre Optic Physical Structure
Core (8-12 µm)
Cladding (125 µm)
Buffer Coating (250 ou 900 µm)
R. Maurer, P. Schultz, D.Keck (Corning Corp., 1970)
Human Hair ~ 70 µm
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.2 Fibre Optic Physical Structure
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.3 Index of Refraction and Index Difference
r ro o
cn
vεµ
ε µε µ
= = =
c = speed of light in vacuum (≈ 3×108 m/s) v = speed of light in medium
1
o o
cε µ
=
Permeability in vacuum = 4π×10-7 N s2/C2
Permitivity in vacuum = 8.854 ×10-12 C2/N m2
For most materials in the optical region: 1 r rnµ ε≈ ⇒ ≈
Substance nFused silica 1.458
Diamond 2.419
@ λ = 589.29 nm (Sodium D light)
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.3 Index of Refraction and Index Difference
22
2 21 j
j j
An
λ
λ λ= +
−∑
Sellmeier’s Equation
Absorption Bands
Visible
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.3 Index of Refraction and Index Difference
22 2
21 with jj j
j j
An b
bλ
λλ
= + =−∑
A1=0.6961663 b1=0.004629148
A2=0.4079426 b2=0.01351206
A3=0.8974994 b3=97.934062
Refractive index variation of fused silica
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.3 Index of Refraction and Index Difference
1 2
1
for 1n nn−
Δ ≈ Δ≪
2 21 2
212
n nn−
Δ =
and 1 2n n>
Refractive Index Difference, also called Refractive Index Contrast
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.4 Total Internal Reflection
1 1 2 2sin sinn nφ φ⋅ = ⋅Snell’s Law
Increasing θ1 progressively until θ2 = π/2 :
2
1
sin cnn
φ =
Critical angle
“Critical angle is the minimum angle necessary to obtain total internal reflection”
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics1.5 Numerical Aperture and Acceptance Angle
2 21 2NA sino An n nθ= = −
Numerical Aperture (NA)
“Numerical Aperture express de ability of the fibre to collect light” or
“Numerical Aperture measures spreading of light from the end of the fibre”
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic CharacteristicsRelation between Numerical Aperture and Index Difference
1NA 2n≅ Δ
Fibre type NA ΔStep-Index SM 0.1 2×10-3
Graded-index MM 0.2 1×10-2
Step-index MM 0.3 2×10-2
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1. Optical Fibre: Basic Characteristics
1. Using the Snell’s relation, how can you estimate the amplitudes of the optical rays?
2. “An optical ray at any angle θ less than the critical angle (θc) propagate along the fiber.” Is this true?
3. Definition of NA described before for singlemode fibre is frequently wrong! Why?
4. Why the index of refraction is frequency dependent?
Questions to think:
Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 The Wave nature of light. 2.2 Rays and Modes representation. 2.3 Mode Theory for fibres. 2.4 The Cut-off wavelength and V-number. 2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation. 2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD) 2.7 Phase velocity and group velocity. 2.8 Absorption and Scattering losses 2.9 Dispersion: Group delay and Material dispersion. 2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD). 2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence. 2.12 Polarization Dependence Loss (PDL) 2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD). 2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects
Stimulated Raman Scattering Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Four-Wave Mixing Self-Phase and Cross-Phase Modulation
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 Wave Nature of the Light
Waves Electromagnetic radiation consisting of propagating electric and
magnetic fields (interference & diffraction)
Photons Quanta of energy (photoelectric effect)
The two views are related: the energy in a photon is proportional to the frequency of the wave.
DUAL NATURE
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 Wave Nature of the Light
Waves
[ ]( , ) cos ( v )Ar t k r tr
ψ " #= ⋅ ±% &' (
[ ]( , ) cos )x t A kx tψ ω= ⋅ ±
22
2
1v t
ψψ
∂∇ = ⋅
∂
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 Wave Nature of the Light
A Single Photon (“short” packet wave)
Photon Quanta of Energy: Photon (photoelectric effect)
E hν=
E → Energy of 1 photon in Joules (J) h → Planck’s constant: 6.626×10-34 J-s ν → frequency in Hz
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 Wave Nature of the Light
c → Speed of light = 2.9979 ×108 m/s; λ → Wavelength in meters; ν → Frequency in Hz n → Refractive index (vaccum=1.0000; standard air= 1.0003; silica fibre: 1.44 to 1.48)
c nλν=
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.1 Wave Nature of the Light
21o
o
S E B c E Bεµ
= × = ×! ! ! ! !y zE cB=
Poynting Vector
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
About Reflection (Fresnel Equations): E ⊥ Plane-of-Incidence
v
0
B k E
k E
= ×
=
!! !
! !i
cos( )
cos( )i oi r r
t ot t t
E E k r t
E E k r t
ω
ω
= −
= −
!! ! !i!! ! !i
ot oi orE E E= +! ! !
cos coscos cos
2 coscos cos
or i i t t
oi i i t t
ot i i
oi i i t t
E n nr
E n n
E nt
E n n
θ θ
θ θ
θ
θ θ
⊥
⊥
⊥
⊥
# $ −= =& '
+( )
# $= =& '
+( )
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
About Reflection (Fresnel Equations): E || Plane-of-Incidence
cos coscos cos
2 coscos cos
or t i i t
oi i t t i
ot i i
oi i t t i
E n nr
E n n
E nt
E n n
θ θ
θ θ
θ
θ θ
" # −= =% &
+' (
" #= =% &
+' (
!
!
!
!
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
Total Internal Reflection (case: ni > nt):θi ≥ θc sin t
ci
nn
θ =
Critical Angle:
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
cos sin
cos sin
cos sint
t
i i i i t
i i i i t
i i i i t
i i i i t
n i n nr
n i n n
n in n nr
n in n n
θ θ
θ θ
θ θ
θ θ
⊥
− −=
+ −
− −=
+ −!
* * 1 e 0
1 r i tr r r r
I I IR
⊥ ⊥ "= =⇒ = =$
= %
! !
sint t i ii k xn n tt otE E e e θ ωβγ % &−( )= ∓" "
Evanescent wave:
Goos-Hänchen depth
1
04 2
xnλ
< Δ <Δ
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
Total Internal Reflection (case: ni > nt):θi ≥ θc
*
2 2
1i i
r rr
r r e e− ΔΦ − ΔΦ
= =
= =
2 2 21
2 2 21
2
sintan
cos
sintan
cost
i i t
i i
i i i t
i
n nn
n n nn
θ
θ
θ
θ
−⊥
−
$ %−& 'ΔΦ =& '* +
$ %−& 'ΔΦ =& '* +
!
⊥ΔΦΔΦ!
21
i
t
nn=
=
Polarization TE → ΔΦ⊥
Polarization TM → ΔΦ||
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
About Reflection (case: ni > nt): Phase-shiftstan t
pi
nn
θ =
Brewster Angle:
The component of electric field normal to plane-of-incidence undergoes a phase shift of π radians upon reflection when the incident medium has a lower index than the transmitting medium.
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
11 2
2sin tan 1 ; is an integersin 2
kn a m mπφ
φ− $ %Δ
− − =' () *
Propagation Condition:
The optical field distribution that satisfies this phase matching condition is called MODE
Goos-Hänchen shift (ΔΦ⊥)
n1
n2
n2
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
Formation of modes
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
At angles for which the condition of self-consistently (i.e., as a wave reflects twice it duplicates itself) is satisfied, the two waves interfere and create a pattern that does not change with z direction.
z
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.2 Rays and Modes representation.
V
ξ
1 2V kn a= Δ
sin2φ
ξ =Δ
Single-mode condition
1.5712cV v π
< = =
Normalized frequency:
Propagation constant:
Dispersion Equation
1cos2
mV
πξ
ξ
− +=
(Slab Waveguide)
© A.Lobo (2004) 17
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Coordinate SystemNotação
2
grad
div
rot
lap
f f
A A
A Af f
=∇
=∇
=∇×
=∇
! !i
! !
Cylindrical Coordinates (r,φ,z)
© A.Lobo (2004) 18
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Maxwell´s Equations
0
BEtEB Et
E
B
µε µσ
ρ
ε
∂∇× = −
∂
∂∇× = +
∂
∇ =
∇ =
!!
!! !
!i!i
1
0
BE dl dStEB dl E dSt
E dS dV
B dS
µε µσ
ρε
∂⋅ = − ⋅
∂
' (∂⋅ = + ⋅) *
∂+ ,
⋅ = ⋅
⋅ =
∫ ∫∫
∫ ∫∫
∫∫ ∫∫∫
∫∫
!! !!
!! !! !
!!
!!
"
"
#
#
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Maxwell´s Equations (2)
0
BEtDH Jt
D
B
ρ
∂∇× = −
∂
∂∇× = +
∂
∇ =
∇ =
!!
!! !
!i!i
2 1
2 1
2 1
2 1
0
0
0
t t
t t
n n
n n
E E
H HD DB B
σ
− =
− =
− =
− =
! !
! !
Boundary Conditions
(for conductors)
o
o
D E E P
B H H M
J E
ε ε
µ µ
σ
= = +
= = +
=
! ! ! !
! ! ! !
! !
Constitutive Equations
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
22
2
22
2
0
0
EEtHHt
µε
µε
∂∇ − =
∂
∂∇ − =
∂
!!
!!
In dielectric, non-conducting media, σ = 0
Wave Equations (1)
22
2
22
2
0
0
E EEt tH HHt t
µε µσ
µε µσ
∂ ∂∇ − − =
∂ ∂
∂ ∂∇ − − =
∂ ∂
! !!
! !!
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
2 2 2
2 2 2
( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( ) 0
E r n k E r
H r n k H r
∇ + =
∇ + =
! !! !! !! !
Wave Equations (2)
Helmholtz Equations
22 2 2
2n kcω
µεω= =
Waves in photonics are often monochromatic, with a frequency that stays the same across the material boundaries, that is: ( , ) ( ) j tE r t E r e ω=
! !! !
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Coordinate SystemNotação
2
grad
div
rot
lap
f f
A A
A Af f
=∇
=∇
=∇×
=∇
! !i
! !
Cylindrical Coordinates (r,φ,z)
© A.Lobo (2004) 23
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
( )
( )
( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , )
j t z
j t z
E r t E r e
H r t H r e
ω β
ω β
φ
φ
−
−
=
=
! !!! !!
2 2 2
2 2 2
( ) ( ) 0
( ) ( ) 0
E r n k E r
H r n k H r
∇ + =
∇ + =
! !! !! !! !
2 2 22 2
2 2 2 2
2 2 22 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 ( , ) 0
1 1 ( , ) 0
z z z zz
z z z zz
E E E E n r k Er r r r zH H H H n r k Hr r r r z
φφ
φφ
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂+ ⋅ + ⋅ + + =
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂+ ⋅ + ⋅ + + =
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
The longitudinal component of the electric field does not change though either propagation or reflection at the cylindrical surface
© A.Lobo (2004) 24
Since the equations for Er and Eθ are coupled, we first solve for Ez (Hz is a solution of the same Helmholtz equation and its solutions have the same form ). We find all other field components form Ez and Hz using Mawell’s equations.
We look for solution of the form:
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
( , , ) ( ) ( ) ( )zE r z R r Z zφ φ= ⋅Φ ⋅
2 2 22 2 2
2 2 2 ( ) 0R R Zr r r knrr r zφ
∂ ∂ ∂ Φ ∂+ + + + =
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
In the core we find: ( )( )( ) ( ) ( )
j z j z
j j
Z z ae bece de
R r gJ r hN r
β β
νφ νφ
ν ν
φ
κ κ
−
−
= +
Φ = +
= + 2 2 2( ) and 0,1, 2,...onkκ β ν= − =
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
We can simplify these solutions noting that:
• Often we have only forward going waves, thus a =0. • The Neumann function Nν(κr) goes to minus infinity at r =0, so it is unphysical (h =0). Therefore Jν(κr) is the proper solution in the core.
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2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
2
2( ) j z ZZ z bez
β β− ∂= ⇒ = −
∂
2 22 2 2
2 2 0R Rr r r Rr r r
νκ# $∂ ∂
+ + − =' (∂ ∂ ) *
• Due to predominant propagation of the field along the z axis an oscillatory characteristic is assumed for the z dependence
• We need both the clockwise and counter-clockwise circulating exponentials that describe the φ dependence of the eigenmodes
22
2( ) j jce deνφ νφφ ν φφ
− ∂ ΦΦ = + ⇒ = −
∂
Bessel Equation
2 2 2( ) and 0,1, 2,...onkκ β ν= − =
© A.Lobo (2004) 27
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
22
2 0rν
κ# $
− >& '( )
CASE 1: CORE
CASE 2: CLADDING
Modified Bessel functions
Bessel functions
22
2 0rν
κ# $
− <& '( )
( )
( )
j zz
j zz
E AJ r e
H BJ r e
νφ βν
νφ βν
κ
κ
−
−
=
=
( )
( )
j zz
j zz
E CK r e
H DK r e
νφ βν
νφ βν
γ
γ
−
−
=
=
A,B,C and D are constants determined by the boundary conditions
2 2γ κ= −
© A.Lobo (2004) 28
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
After some maths…. We get this “small” CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION for an optical fibre
( ) ( )
2' ' ' '2
1
2
2 21
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )1 1 1 1( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
o
J a K a J a K ana J a a K a a J a n a K a
n k a a
ν ν ν ν
ν ν ν ν
κ γ κ γ
κ κ γ γ κ κ γ γ
βν
κ γ
% &% & % &' (⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ =' ( ' (' (* +* + * +
, -% &. /= ⋅ +' (
' (. /* +0 12 2 2
12 2 2
2
( )
( )o
o
n k
n k
κ β
γ β
= −
= −
( ) ( )2 22V a aκ γ= + 2 21 2where oV k a n n= −
The characteristic equation is used with:
to find values for κ, γ, β and neff
© A.Lobo (2004) 29
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
About the Effective Index (neff)
A plane wave propagates with a phase term ejnkz, where k=2π/λo is the free-space wave-vector.
We can define an effective index for a guided wave that has a phase factor ejβz with:
2 eff
o
nπβ
λ≡
Then;
2 12 2
o o
n nπ πβ
λ λ< < 2 1effn n n< <
The effective index is an “average” index seen by the guided mode.
© A.Lobo (2004) 30
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Meridional Modes (ν = 0)For modes that correspond to bouncing meridional rays, there is no φ dependence. The characteristic equation simplifies greatly. Modes are of two types – TE0µ (Ez=0) and TM0µ (Hz=0) with µ=1,2, …. The values κ, γ can be found graphically
Curves of the characteristic equation of the TE0µ and TM0µ modes
© A.Lobo (2004) 31
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Skew Modes (ν ≠ 0)
Modes have both Ez≠0 and Hz≠0 and thus are called “hybrid” modes. The hybrid modes are labeled EHνµ and HEνµ depending on whether Ez or Hz is dominant. The values κ, γ can be found graphically
Curves of the characteristic equation of the HE1µ modes
© A.Lobo (2004) 32
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Field Distributions in Optical Fibers (1)
1 0
1 0
0( )( )
0
r
r
EE J r
H J r
H
φ µ
µ
φ
κ
κ−
∼
∼
∼
∼
1 0
1 0
( )00( )
r
r
E J r
E
HH J r
µ
φ
φ µ
κ
κ
−∼
∼
∼
∼
TE Modes TM Modes
This Bessel function (J1) has a zero at the origin and one maximum in the core
© A.Lobo (2004) 33
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Field Distributions in Optical Fibers (2)
1 21 1 21
1 21 1 21
( ) cos(2 ) ( )sin(2 )( )sin(2 ) ( ) cos(2 )
r rE J r H J rE J r H J rφ φ
κ φ κ φ
κ φ κ φ
−
− −
∼ ∼
∼ ∼HE21 Mode
This Bessel function (J1) has a zero at the origin and one maximum in the core
© A.Lobo (2004) 34
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Linearly Polarized (LP) Modes
When the refractive index of the core n1 ≈ n2 , the characteristic equation (CE) can be simplified. This is called the “weakly guiding approximation”. The CE can be written in the unified form as:
1 1
( ) ( )( ) ( )
m m
m m
J a K aJ a K a
κ γ
κ κ γ γ− −
=
1 for TM and TE modes1 for EH modes 1 for HE modes
m ν
ν
→#$
= + →%$ − →'
LP modes can be constructed from sums of EH and HE modes that have the same propagation constant.
© A.Lobo (2004) 35
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.3 Mode Theory for fibres.
Linearly Polarized (LP) Modes
© A.Lobo (2004) 36
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.4 The Cut-off wavelength and V-number.
( ) ( )2 22V a aκ γ= +
2 2 21 2 1 2o oV k a n n k an= − = Δ
2 2 21
2 2 22
o
o
u a a k n
w a a k n
κ β
γ β
= = −
= = −
This is a dimensionless number that determines how many modes a fibre can support
2 222
2 2 21 2
( / )ok nwbV n n
β −= =
−
Normalized Propagation Constant*
2 21 2
2cutoff
an n
Vπ
λ = −
Cut-off Wavelength
* D. Gloge, “Weakly guiding fibers”, Applied Optics 10, 2252-2258 (1971)
© A.Lobo (2004) 37
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.4 The Cut-off wavelength and V-number.
min
1
2.405
3.7cutoff
V V
anλ λ
< =
> = Δ
Singlemode Condition
( )( ) 10log
( )straight
loop
PR
Pλ
λλ
" #= $ %$ %
& '
See recommendation ITU-T G.650
© A.Lobo (2004) 38
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
2.405V ≤
Single-mode Condition
Sing
le-m
ode
Reg
ion
LP
Step-index singlemode fibre
© A.Lobo (2004) 39
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
2
2VM =
2 21 2NA n n= − 2 2 2 2
1 2sin n nπ θ πθ πΩ = ≈ = −
Numerical Aperture Solid Angle
Total number of Modes in the fibre (Step-index Fibre)
© A.Lobo (2004) 40
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
In the weakly guiding approximation, the big steps in this figure become perfectly vertival (eg. TE01, TM01 and HE21 have the same V at cutoff. Groups of modes with the same cutoff also have the same propagation constant.
Singlemode Condition
© A.Lobo (2004) 41
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
© A.Lobo (2004) 42
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
HE11 mode
Solid lines – E field Dashed lines – H field
With permission of C.D. Cantrell and D.M. Hollenbeck, “Fiberoptic Mode Functions: A Tutorial”, Erick Jonsson School of Eng. and Computer Science, Univ. Texas at Dallas, Course EE6314.
© A.Lobo (2004) 43
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
Solid lines – E field Dashed lines – H field
HE21 mode
With permission of C.D. Cantrell and D.M. Hollenbeck, “Fiberoptic Mode Functions: A Tutorial”, Erick Jonsson School of Eng. and Computer Science, Univ. Texas at Dallas, Course EE6314.
© A.Lobo (2004) 44
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
Solid lines – E field Dashed lines – H field
TM01 mode TE01 mode
With permission of C.D. Cantrell and D.M. Hollenbeck, “Fiberoptic Mode Functions: A Tutorial”, Erick Jonsson School of Eng. and Computer Science, Univ. Texas at Dallas, Course EE6314.
© A.Lobo (2004) 45
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
Optical Power in the Mode ( ) ( )* * *1 12 2z z r rS E H u E H E Hθ θ= × ⋅ = −! ! !
( )2 2
* *
0 0 0 0
12
a a
core z r rP S r dr d r E H E H dr dπ π
θ θφ φ= ⋅ ⋅ = − ⋅ ⋅∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
( )2 2
* *
0 0
12cladding z r r
a a
P S r dr d r E H E H dr dπ π
θ θφ φ∞ ∞
= ⋅ ⋅ = − ⋅ ⋅∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
22
2 2 21 1
( )( )1 1( ) ( )
1
core m
total m m
cladding core
total total
P K aaP V K a K a
P PP P
γκ
γ γ− +
$ %= − −& '
( )
= −
© A.Lobo (2004) 46
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.5 Singlemode and multimode fibre propagation.
Optical Power in the Mode LPml
© A.Lobo (2004) 47
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Gaussian Beam (1)
2
( )rw
oE r E e! "−$ %& '=
2
2
( ) o
rw
oI r I e! "
− $ %& '=
© A.Lobo (2004) 48
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Gaussian Beam (2)
1/ 22
2
( ) 1
( ) 1
oR
R
zw z w
z
zR z z
z
! "# $% &= + ' (% &) *+ ,
! "# $= +% &' () *% &+ ,
2o
Rw
zπ
λ=
2
owλ
πΘ =Divergence Angle:
Rayleigh Range:
for large ( )o
zz w z
wλ
π⇒ ≈
H. Kolgelnik and T. Li, “Laser beams and resonators”, Applied Optics 5, 1550-1566 (1966)
© A.Lobo (2004) 49
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Petermann I Integral (Near-Field):
M. Artiglia et al, “Mode Field Diameter Measurements in Single-Mode Optical Fibers”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 7, No. 8. (1989)
1/ 2
2 3
0
2
0
( )2 2
( )I
E r r drMFD
E r r dr
∞
∞
" #⋅% &
% &= ⋅% &
⋅% &% &' (
∫
∫
Petermann II Integral* (Far-Field):
1/ 2
3
2 ( )sin cos
( )sin cosII
I dMFD
I d
θ
θθ
θ
θ θ θ θλ
πθ θ θ θ
−
−
% &⋅( )
( )= ⋅( )
⋅( )( )* +
∫
∫*TIA/EIA FOTP-191, ITU-T G.650E
© A.Lobo (2004) 50
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Near-Field Profiles
100X
40X
J. L. Guttman, “Mode-Field Diameter and “Spot Size” Measurements of Lensed and Tapered Specialty Fibers”, NIST Symposium on Optical Fiber Measurements, September 24-26, 2002
© A.Lobo (2004) 51
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Far-Field Profiles
J. L. Guttman, “Mode-Field Diameter and “Spot Size” Measurements of Lensed and Tapered Specialty Fibers”, NIST Symposium on Optical Fiber Measurements, September 24-26, 2002
a.) Fiber #1 b.) Fiber #2
© A.Lobo (2004) 52
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
Petermann II Integral* (Far-Field):
1/ 2
3
2 ( )sin cos
( )sin cosII
I dMFD
I d
θ
θθ
θ
θ θ θ θλ
πθ θ θ θ
−
−
% &⋅( )
( )= ⋅( )
⋅( )( )* +
∫
∫(*TIA/EIA FOTP-191, ITU-T G.650E)
• Errors [1,2] • Obliquity Factor and Aperture Field
•Elliptical Fiber [3] • Radial Symmetry for Hankel Transform
• Field Within Fiber vs Field at Focus
[1] M. Young, “Mode-field Diameter of single-mode optical fiber by far-field scanning”, Applied Optics, Vol. 37, No. 24, August 1998 [2] R. C. Wittmann and M. Young, “Are the Formulas for Mode-Field Diameter Correct?”, NIST SOFM 1998 [3] M. Artiglia et al, “Mode Field Diameter Measurements in Single-Mode Optical Fibers”, Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 7, No. 8. August 1989
© A.Lobo (2004) 53
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
1.5 6
1.619 2.8790.65w aV V
! "= + +# $% &D. Marcuse, Bell Systems Tech. Journal 56, 703-718 (1977)
Marcuse Model:
© A.Lobo (2004) 54
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
1.5 6
1.619 2.8790.65w aV V
! "= + +# $% &
For the best fit between a Gaussian function and the Bessel function in the core we can use the Marcuse Model:
Satisfying this condition gives about 96% overlap between the Gaussian and the Bessel function mode profiles. At the cut-off condition (V ≈ 2.405) we obtain:
1.1w a≈
© A.Lobo (2004) 55
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.6 Mode Field Diameter (MFD).
1.5 6
1.237 1.4290.761w aV V
! "= + +# $% &
Other MFD models
1.5 6
1.289 1.0410.759w aV V
! "= + +# $% &
1.5 6
1.66 0.9870.616w aV V
! "= + +# $% &
( )1.5
1 for V>1
lnw a
V=Snyder and Sammut Model
Myslinski Model
Desurvire Model
Whitley Model
Several models have been developed to obtain better agreement with experimentally observed data (particularly gain factors → Erbium doped fibres)
© A.Lobo (2004) 56
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.
38 2
4
83R T B Fn p k Tπ
γ βλ
=
SCATTERINGNON-LINEAR
LINEAR • Rayleigh (diameter physical anomalies < λ/10) • Mie (diameter physical anomalies > λ/10)
• Brillouin (acoustic phonon → SBS)
• Raman (optical phonon → SRS)
n – refractive index of the material, βT – isothermal compressibility, p – photoelastic coefficient, TF – Solidification temperature, kB – Boltzman constant, L - the fibre length.
Rayleigh Scattering Coefficient
RLRayleighF e γ−=
Transmission Loss factor
© A.Lobo (2004) 57
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.
ABSORPTION
INTRINSIC
INDUCED Curvature (micro and macrobending)
EXTRINSIC
Interaction of free electrons and the λ within the fibre material.
Impurities atoms in glass material (metal ions)
4.5823 [ ][ / ] 1.108 10
UVm
UV dB km Ce eλ
λ µλα −= = ×
48.4811 [ ][ / ] 4 10 m
IR dB km eλ µα −= ×
Urbach’s rule (empirical relationship) Macrobending (critical radius)21
2 21 2
34 ( )MMF
nRn nλ
π=
−
3
2 21 2
20 0.9962.748SMFcutoff
Rn n
λ λ
λ
−# $
= −% &% &− ' (
© A.Lobo (2004) 58
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.ATTENUATION
zdz
P P+dP
1 (0)( ) (0) ln [1/km or 1/m]
( )LdP PL P L P e
dz L P Lαα α− # $
= − ⇒ = ⇒ = & '( )
(0) (0)10log 10log 10 log 4.343
( ) ( )L LP Pe e L e
P L P Lα α α α
" #" #= ⇔ = = =% & ' (
' (
10 (0)[ / ] log
( )
[ / ] 4.343 [1/ ]
PdB kmL P L
dB km km
α
α α
" #= $ %
& '=
scattering absorption bendingα α α α= + +
© A.Lobo (2004) 59
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.
© A.Lobo (2004) 60
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.
Theoretically expected minimum attenuation
Governed by: 1. Rayleigh scattering at short λ 2. Multi-phonon absorption at long λ
© A.Lobo (2004) 61
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.7 Absorption and Scattering losses.
Fibre λ (nm) α (dB/km) MMF-GI 850 2.5
SMF 1300 0.5SMF 1550 ≤0.25
F-POF (Fluorinated) 800 to 1340 60
ZBLAN 1550 0.02SMFF
(Fluoride glass)2300 0.005
Typical minimum attenuation values for several fibres
© A.Lobo (2004) 62
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.8 Phase velocity and group velocity.
phvω
β=g
dvdω
β=
11
gcvdnnd
λλ
=" #−% &' (
Group Velocity Phase Velocity
Guide Group Index (ng)
1ph
cvn
=
© A.Lobo (2004) 63
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.9 Dispersion: Group delay and Material dispersion.
1g
L d L dL Lv d c dk
β βτ β
ω= = = ⋅ =
Group Delay
1
o
dD
L dτ
λ= ⋅
Dispersion Parameter
Origin of the Dispersion: Frequency dependence of the mode index n(ω)
20 1 0 2 0
1( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ...2
ncω
β ω ω β β ω ω β ω ω= = + − + − +
1
2 2 3 2
2 2 2 2 2
1 1
1 22
g
g
ndnnc d c v
dn d n d n d nc d d c d c d
β ωω
ω λβ ω
ω ω ω π λ
% &= + = =' () *
% &= + ⋅ ⋅' (
) *! !
© A.Lobo (2004) 64
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.9 Dispersion: Group delay and Material dispersion.
21
22 2
2d c d nDd c dβ π λ
βλ λ λ
= = − − ⋅!Dispersion Parameter:
Group Velocity Dispersion (GVD): 12 2
1 1 g
g g
dvd dd d v v dβ
βω ω ω
# $= = = − ⋅' (' (
) *(Contains the information about the variation of the group velocity with wavelength)
2g g
d L d Lt L LDd v d v
δ δω β δω δλ δλω λ
% & % &= = ⋅ = = ⋅( ) ( )( ) ( )
* + * +
If a pulse with spectral width (Δδ) input to a fibre with length L, the output pulse broadening is:
Limitation on the bit rate:2
1 or 1t B t BL BLD
Bδ δ β δω δλ< = ⋅ ⋅ <
© A.Lobo (2004) 65
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.9 Dispersion: Group delay and Material dispersion.
212
1 gmat
dn d nDc d c d
λ
λ λ= ⋅ = − ⋅
Material Dispersion
0gdndλ
=
Zero-dispersion wavelength = 1276 nm
Negative DmatPositive Dmat
© A.Lobo (2004) 66
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
2 22
2 21 2
( / )ok nb
n nβ −
=−
Normalized propagation constant*:2
1 2
( / )ok nb
n nβ −
≅−
for small Δ
2 (1 )o o effk n b k nβ = + Δ =
* See D. Gloge, “Weakly guiding fibers”, Applied Optics 10, 2252-2258 (1971)
D. Gloge, “Dispersion in weakly guiding fibers”, Applied Optics 10, 2442-2445 (1971).
212
1 gmat
dn d nDc d c d
λ
λ λ= ⋅ = − ⋅
22
2
( )wg
n d VbD Vc dVλ
Δ= −
mat wgD D D= +
© A.Lobo (2004) 67
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
22
2
( )wg
n d VbD Vc dVλ
Δ= −
Waveguide Dispersion
© A.Lobo (2004) 68
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
Anomalous dispersionNormal dispersion
λD ≈ 1320 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 69
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
Anomalous Dispersion (D > 0)
Normal Dispersion (D < 0)
© A.Lobo (2004) 70
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
P.K. Bachman et.al., “Dispersion-flattened single-mode fibres prepared with PCVD: Performance, limitations, design and optimization”, J. Lightwave Technology 4, 858-863 (1986)
© A.Lobo (2004) 71
0( ) ( )oD Sλ λ λ= −
40( ) 1
4oSD
λ λλ
λ
" #$ %= −' () *+ ,' (- .
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
Typical values for S0 are 0.092 ps/(km·nm2) for SMF, and between 0.06 and 0.08 ps/(km·nm2) for DSF
1( ) gdDL d
τλ
λ= ⋅
Slope (ps/km·nm2)
(See recommendation ITU-T G.652)
© A.Lobo (2004) 72
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.10 Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
© A.Lobo (2004) 73
kh
v
kh
v
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
0 cos( )x x x xE e E t zω β φ= − +! !
0 cos( )y y y yE e E t zω β φ= − +! !
TOTAL x yE E E= +! ! !
nknλ
π==β2
x
y
POLARIZATION
© A.Lobo (2004) 74
timeh
v
timeh
v
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
-4 -2 2 4h,(V/m)
-3
-2
-1
1
2
3
v,(V/m)
0 0cos( ) cos( )TOTAL x x y yE e E t z e E t zω β ω β π= − + − +! ! !
LINEAR POLARIZATION
© A.Lobo (2004) 75
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
timeh
v
timeh
v-1 -0.5 0.5 1
h,(V/m)
-1
-0.5
0.5
1
v,(V/m)
0 sin( ) cos( )TOTAL x x yE E e t z e t zω β ω β# $= − + −& '! ! !
CIRCULAR POLARIZATION
© A.Lobo (2004) 76
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
timeh
v
timeh
v-2 -1 1 2
h,(V/m)
-4
-2
2
4
v,(V/m)ELLIPTICAL POLARIZATION
0 1 0 2sin( ) cos( )TOTAL x x y yE e E t z e E t zω β φ ω β φ= − + + − +! ! !
© A.Lobo (2004) 77
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Birefringence effect of polarized light in the fibre
Birefringence
Beat Length
( )
or equivalently,2
( )
x y
x y
B n n
n nπ
βλ
= −
Δ = − 2BL B
π λ
β= =Δ
π/2 2π0 π/4 3π/4 π 5π/4 3π/2 7π/4
© A.Lobo (2004) 78
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Jones Calculus* - applicable only to polarized waves (*) E. Hecht, “Optics”, 4Ed. Addison Wesley, Chapter 8, 2002.
A10
0
x
y
ix
in iy
E eE
E e
ϕ
ϕ
" #= $ %$ %& '
! xoutout
yout
EE
E! "
= # $% &
!
11 12
21 22
xout xin
yout yin
E Ea aE Ea a! " ! "! "
=# $ # $# $% &% & % &
00
0
11
x
x
x
iix
in xix
E eE E e
E e
ϕϕ
ϕ
" # " #= =$ % $ %
& '& '
!45º
1112
E ! "= # $
% &
!02 xixE e ϕ
Dividing both terms by:
© A.Lobo (2004) 79
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Jones Matrixfrom E. Hecht, “Optics”, 4Ed. Addison Wesley, Chapter 8, 2002.
© A.Lobo (2004) 80
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
[from D.Derickson, “Fiber Optic Test and Measurement” Prentice Hall, Ch. 6 (1998)]
Measurement of the Jones Matrix of an optical element
© A.Lobo (2004) 81
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Stokes Parameters – applicable to both totally or partially polarized light. The elements describe the optical power in particular reference polarization states.
0
1
2 45º 45º
3
total
LH LV
L L
RC LC
S IS I IS I IS I I
+ −
" # " #$ % $ %−$ % $ %=$ % $ %−$ % $ %
−$ % $ %& ' & '
2 2 21 2 3
0
S S SDOP
S+ +
=
© A.Lobo (2004) 82
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Normalized Stokes Parameters
0
1
20
3
11 123
SSsSs SSs
! "! "# $# $# $# $ =# $# $# $# $# $% & % &
2 2 21 2 3DOP s s s= + +
© A.Lobo (2004) 83
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Poincaré Sphere – graphical tool in real, 3D space that allows convenient description of polarized signals and of polarization transformations caused by propagation through devices.
© A.Lobo (2004) 84
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Measurement of retardance θ of a near λ/4-wave retarder [from D.Derickson, “Fiber Optic Test and Measurement” Prentice Hall, Ch. 6 (1998)]
© A.Lobo (2004) 85
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Twisting of a singlemode fibre [from Agilent HP8509C Application Note]
© A.Lobo (2004) 86
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Muller Matrix – applicable to any degree of polarization.
00 01 02 030 0
10 11 12 131 1
20 21 22 232 2
30 31 32 333 3
out in
out in
out in
out in
m m m mS Sm m m mS Sm m m mS Sm m m mS S
! " ! "! "# $ # $# $# $ # $# $= ⋅# $ # $# $# $ # $# $
# $# $ # $& '& ' & '
© A.Lobo (2004) 87
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.
Two polarization modes Ex , Ey of a singlemode fibre
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
© A.Lobo (2004) 88
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.From K.T.V.Grattan & B.T. Meggitt, “Optical Fiber Sensor Technology”, Chapman & Hall (1995)
© A.Lobo (2004) 89
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.11 Polarization effects and Birefringence.From K.T.V.Grattan & B.T. Meggitt, “Optical Fiber Sensor Technology”, Chapman & Hall (1995)
© A.Lobo (2004) 90
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.12 Polarization Dependence Loss (PDL) .
Device Under Test (DUT)
Constant Power 100% Polarized
Time
Pmáx
Pmin
max
min
10 logdBPPDLP
! "= # $
% &
PDL measures the peak-to-peak difference in transmission for light with various states of polarization.
© A.Lobo (2004) 91
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
PMD is a fundamental property of singlemode optical fibre and components in which signal energy at a given wavelength is resolved into two orthogonal polarization modes of slightly different propagation velocity. The resulting difference in propagation time between polarization modes is called the differential group delay (Δτ).
g
L dLv d
n d nLc c d
βτ
ω
ω
ω
ΔΔ = =
Δ
Δ Δ% &= + ⋅( )* +
dL Ld
φ βφ β τ
ω ω
Δ= Δ → = = Δ
Δ
Also, Frequency-domain manifestation
© A.Lobo (2004) 92
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
PMD is characterized by the PMD-vector, Ω(ω), in Stokes space, around which an output state of polarization (SOP), s , rotates when the carrier frequency is changed.
' dSS Sdω
= =Ω×
!! !!
τΔ = Ω!
And the differential group delay (DGD) is:
© A.Lobo (2004) 93
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
CASE 1 - Ideal fibre section (βx = βy)
,
,
( ) x inin
y in
EE
Eω
" #= $ %& '
! ( )out in
j Lin
E J E
e Eβ
ω
−
$ % $ %= & ' & '
=
! ! !i!
0( )
0
j L
j L
eJ
e
β
βω
−
−
$ %= & '( )
!
0τΔ =
© A.Lobo (2004) 94
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
CASE 2 - linearly birefringent fibre section (βx ≠ βy)
,
,
( ) x inin
y in
EE
Eω
" #= $ %& '
!
0( )
0
x
y
j L
j L
eJ
e
β
βω
−
−
$ %= & '& '( )
!
2dL ndLnc
πτ
ω λ% &Δ = ⋅ Δ) *+ ,
≅ Δ ⋅
,
,
( )x
y
j Lx in
out j Ly in
e EE
e E
β
βω−
−
$ %= & '& '( )
!
© A.Lobo (2004) 95
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
CASE 3 - Birefringence axes aligned: PM fibre
0( )
0
x
y
j L
total j L
eJ
e
β
βω
−
−
$ %= & '& '( )
!
outout
dSS
dω=Ω×
!!!
Ω!τΔ = Ω
!
© A.Lobo (2004) 96
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
CASE 4 - Random orientation of birefringence axes aligned: standard long-length fibre
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]2 2 1 1total n nJ R J R J R J= ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅!
( )outout
dSS
dω
ω=Ω ×
!!!
© A.Lobo (2004) 97
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
• Frequency domain scenario: PMD vector and principal states of polarization (PSP)
1,20 if outoutout
dSS PSP
dω= =
!!
• Time domain scenario: Pulse splitting
© A.Lobo (2004) 98
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
• Frequency domain scenario : frequency dependence of PSP
0( ) ( ) ....ωω ω ωΩ =Ω +Ω Δ +! ! !
0
ddω
ω ωω
=
ΩΩ =
!!
1st order approximation is valid within “PSP-bandwidth”:
1PSPω
τΔ ≅
Δ• Time domain scenario: multi-path pulse transmission
[See J.L. Santos, Ph.D. Thesis, Chap.7, Univ. Porto, (1992)]
© A.Lobo (2004) 99
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
2
22
23
2 eτ
ατ
π α
Δ−Δ
⋅
with 8τ α πΔ =
Probability of finding DGD at value Δτ is given by the Maxwellian density distribution
© A.Lobo (2004) 100
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.13 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD).
Consequences of PMD DGD (Δτ) causes:
Pulse broadening Reduction of eye openings / increase in BER Additional power penalty Increase of outage probability
Instantaneous Δτ Is a random variable It varies due to environment (temnperature, strain) It can surpass its mean value by far
2PMD Lτ τΔ = Δ ∝
© A.Lobo (2004) 101
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
Self-Phase Modulation (SPM) – pulses distiort as they propagate.
Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM) – pulses interfere with one another
Modulation Instability (MI) – CW beams break into pulses
Solitons – a nonlinear way of transmitting pulses
Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) Optical Kerr Effect – electric field imposed induces linear birefringence Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) – inelastic scattering from
acoustic phonons Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) – inelastic scattering from
molecular resonances Supercontinuum Generation (SG) – “white light” generation
Parametric Process
(light induced modulation)
Non-Parametric Process
Observed effect
© A.Lobo (2004) 102
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
Nonlinear optics is a result of anharmonic excitation of the medium. The induced polarization is given by:
( )0 1 2 3 ...P E EE EEEε χ χ χ= ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ +! ! ! ! ! ! !
where χ1, χ2, χ3 are 1st, 2nd, 3rd order susceptibilities. χ2 vanishes in centro-symmetric materials like glass, so the lowest-oder nonlinear term is χ3.
One manifestation of this is the nonlinear refractive index:
where n2K is the nonlinear Kerr coefficient and is directly related to χ3. In most glasses, n2 is positive, so the refractive index of the material increases at higher intensities. The value of n2K for SiO2 is ~3.2×10-20 m2W-1.
20 2Kn n n E= +
© A.Lobo (2004) 103
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
Nonlinear Coefficient (γ) – measure of the strength of the nonlinar response of a particular fibre at frequency ω0 with effective area Aeff and n2k known.
2 0K
eff
ncAω
γ =
Effective Length (Leff) – effective nonlinear length of a fibre with physical length L and loss given by α.
1 L
effeL
α
α
−−=
Nonlinear Length (LNL) – the fibre length required for nonlinear effects to become important, for a given peak pump power. Explicity, the length for development of a phase shift of unity. 0
1NLL Pγ=
Dispersion Length (Ld) – length over which the pulse length τ0 is significantly dispersed in a fibre with β2.
20
2dL
τ
β=
DEFINITIONS
© A.Lobo (2004) 104
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
λo
Rayleigh radiation (λo) Brillouin radiation (λo±0.08 nm)
Raman radiation (λo
±80 nm )
Scattering spectra of an optical fibre
Wavelength
Energy
Incident radiation (λo=1550 nm)
2 sB
o
nVn l=Anti-Stokes Stokes
Electrostriction Raman shift ≈ -13 THz @ 1.55 µm Brillouin shift ≈ -11 GHz @ 1.55 µm
© A.Lobo (2004) 105
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.1 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
(Spontaneous) Raman Scattering: a very small amount of light in any molecular is inelastic scattered. A lower-frequency photon is produced, and the extra energy goes into exciting a molecular vibrationsl or rotational mode.
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS): the lower-frequency radiation beats with the pump beam to provide a field beating at the Raman frequency. This drives the Raman oscillations directly, so that the shifted radiation experiences gain at the expense of the pump beam.
0PzS
SRS S S SdI g I I e Idz
α α−= −
The growth of the Stokes wave along the fibre in both spontaneous and stimulated emission may be expressed in the form:
Raman gain
© A.Lobo (2004) 106
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.1 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
16 effSRSth
SRS eff
kAP
g L≅
17 W km @ 1.55 µm
SRSth effP L⋅ ≈ ⋅
Relative polarization factor (1 ≤ k ≤ 2)
© A.Lobo (2004) 107
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.2 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
SBS Characteristics: Low power threshold Backward propagating Stokes wave Small Stokes shift (low phonon energy) Acoustic phonon lifetime is long (10ns), so gain bandwidth is narrow. Need narrow linewidth pump source for efficient excitation.
21 1 pump effSBSth
B SBS eff
AP
g Lν
ν
Δ# $≅ +& 'Δ( )
0.03 W km @ 1.55 µm
SBSth effP L⋅ ≈ ⋅
Electrostriction
© A.Lobo (2004) 108
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.3 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
26
34 2 2
31024( ) eff Lij FWM i j
eff
LP L PP e
n c Aαχπ
ηλ
−' (' (
= ⋅* +* + * +, - , -see A.R. Chraplyvy, Journal Lightwave Technology 8, 1548-1557 (1990).
© A.Lobo (2004) 109
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.4 Self-Phase (SPM) and Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
Kerr nonlinearityLinear regime
2
effSPMth
K eff
AP
n Lλ
π≅
1.5 W km @ 1.55 µm
SPMth effP L⋅ ≈ ⋅
( )22SPM Kdn Edt
νΔ ∝
© A.Lobo (2004) 110
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
2.14.4 Self-Phase (SPM) and Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
( )20 22
0 2
22
K
K
nL L n n En n n E
πφ π
φλλ
$= %⇒ = +'
%= + (
( )
0 0
20 2
' '
2' K
ddt
L dn Edt
φω ω ω ω ω
πω ω
λ
= + ⇔ = + ⇒
⇒ = +
( )
( )
20
20
0 ' ( )
0 ' ( )
K
K
d E tdtd E tdt
ω ω ω
ω ω ω
> ⇒ = −
< ⇒ = +
Pulse is CHIRPED
© A.Lobo (2004) 111
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
Limitations over WDM Limitations on the channel power imposed by four nonlinear effects (assumed λ=1.55 µm and fibre loss of 0.2 dB/km)
see A.R. Chraplyvy, Journal Lightwave Technology 8, 1548-1557 (1990).
© A.Lobo (2004) 112
2. Light Propagation in Fibres and Related Optical Effects
2.14 Non-linear Optical Effects.
Soliton Propagation2
0 2
3.11
FWHM
PT
β
γ!
Fundamental soliton peak power
Types of Optical Fibre
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.1 Optical Fibre Fabrication. 3.2 Standard Singlemode Fibre. 3.3 Step-Index and Graded-Index Multimode Fibre. 3.4 Dispersion Shifted Fibre. 3.5 Dispersion Flattened Fibre. 3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre. 3.7 Dispersion Compensating Fibre. 3.8 E-Band Fibre. 3.9 Polarization Maintaining Fibres: PANDA, Bow-Tie, Elliptical and Side-Hole types. 3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres: Erbium, Ytterbium, Neodymium, Praseodymium. 3.11 Long Wavelength Fibres (Fluoride and Chalcogenide). 3.12 Plastic Fibre. 3.13 Hollow Fibre. 3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre.
© A.Lobo (2004) 3
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.1 Optical Fibre Fabrication Fibre Drawing (Double-Crucible Method)
Cabelte S.A.
© A.Lobo (2004) 4
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.1 Optical Fibre Fabrication
Modified Chemical Vapour Deposition (MCVD)
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 5
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.2 Standard Singlemode Fibre (SMF)
Generally standard singlemode fibre, have a step-index refractive profile. Main disadvantages: coupling difficulties with incoherent optical sources (like LEDs), small NA One of the most advanced commercial singlemode fibres: SMF-28 (by Corning)
Main Characteristic (Measurement methods comply with ITU-T G.650 and IEC 793-1) Attenuation coefficient: ≤0.40 dB/km @ 1310 nm , ≤0.3 dB/km @ 1550 nm NA = 0.13 Cut-off wavelength: < 1260 nm Core diameter: 8.3 µm MFD: 9.30±0.50 µm @ 1310 nm, 10.50 ±1.00 µm @ 1550 nm Zero dispersion wavelength: 1301.5 nm ≤ λ0D ≤ 1321.5 nm Zero dispersion slope (So): 0.092 ps/nm2#km PMD (máx): ≤ 0.2 ps/√km Refractive index difference (Δ): 0.36% Effective group index refraction (Ng): 1.4675 @ 1310 nm, 1.4681 @ 1550 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 6
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.2 Standard Singlemode Fibre (SMF)
SMF-28
From Plasma Optical Fiber B.V. (Eindhoven)
© A.Lobo (2004) 7
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.2 Standard Singlemode Fibre (SMF)
Depressed cladding 1300 nm Optimized SMF
© A.Lobo (2004) 8
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.3 Step-Index (SI-MMF) and Graded-Index Multimode Fibre (GI-MMF)
SI-MMF are very similar to step-index SMF, but differ in their core diameter. SI-MMF have fibre core diameters around 50 to 62.5 µm, and cladding with 125 µm. GI-MMF are defined by a progressive decrease of refractive index from the centre of the core with
radius a toward the cladding, while still maintaining the fundamental relationship: n1 > n2. Different modes can interfere with each other generating modal noise. Refractive index profiles difficult to realize in practice → expensive and some flutctuations from
ideal profile are inevitable.
1( ) 1 2yrn r n
a! "= − Δ% &' (
Where y is the core characteristic refractive index profile: y = ∞ for step-index profile y = 1 for triangular profile y = 2 for parabolic profile
From Plasma Optical Fiber B.V. (Eindhoven)
© A.Lobo (2004) 9
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.4 Dispersion Shifted Fibre (DSF)
DSF is a singlemode fibre with very low dispersion at 1550 nm operating wavelength. Main Characteristics (Measurement methods comply with ITU-T G.650 and IEC 793-1) Attenuation coefficient: ≤0.25 dB/km @ 1550 nm Cut-off wavelength: ≤ 1260 nm NA = 0.17 Core diameter: 8.3 µm MFD: 8.10 ±0.65 µm @ 1550 nm Zero dispersion wavelength: 1535 nm ≤ λ0D ≤ 1565 nm Zero dispersion slope (So): 0.085 ps/(nm2·km) Total dispersion coefficient: ≤ 2.7 ps/(nm·km) PMD (máx): ≤ 0.5 ps/√km
© A.Lobo (2004) 10
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.5 Dispersion Flattened Fibre (DF-SMF)
DF-SMFF is a singlemode fibre with very low dispersion simultaneously at 1330 nm and 1550 nm operating wavelengths.
Main Characteristics Attenuation coefficient: ≤0.5 dB/km @ 1310 nm , ≤0.3 dB/km @ 1550 nm Dispersion coefficient: ≤3.5 ps/(nm·km) @ 1310 nm , ≤ 3.5 ps/(nm·km) @ 1550 nm
From Plasma Optical Fiber B.V. (Eindhoven)
© A.Lobo (2004) 11
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre (NZ-DSF)
NZ-DSF is a singlemode fibre specially designed for Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology. Non-linear effects such as Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) are minimized, by moving the zero-dispersion wavelength outside the band used by EDFAs..
Main Characteristics Dispersion coefficient: -3.5 to -0.1 ps/(nm·km) over the range 1530 to 1560 nm PMD: ≤ 0.5 ps/√km Attenuation coefficient: ≤0.25 dB/km @ 1550 nm
From Corning Corp.
© A.Lobo (2004) 12
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre (NZ-DSF)
© A.Lobo (2004) 13
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre (NZ-DSF)
Large Area NZ-DSF Fibre nonlinearities are inversely proportional to the core effective area, and so, increasing the effective area will ultimately reduce nonlinearities through the reduction of light density propagating along the core. The large effective area NZ-DSF is based on a triangular core and raised index ring. Corning Corp. developed the LEAF NZ-DSF with a effective area of 72 µm2 as compared with to 55 µm2 standard NZ-DSF.
Shifts the zero dispersion wavelength to the 1550 nm range
Enhances the cross-sectional effective area while simultaneously achieving a relative low bending loss
Refractive Index Profile
© A.Lobo (2004) 14
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre (NZ-DSF)
Large Area NZ-DSF
2K input
eff
n LPNonlinearity
A→
From Corning Corp.
© A.Lobo (2004) 15
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.6 Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre (NZ-DSF)
Increasing the optical power on a SMF (G.652)
10,6 10,7 10,8 10,9 11,0 11,1 11,2
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
νBrillouin
Opt
ical P
ower
(dBm
)
Frequency Shift (GHz)
VOA=6dB
9,0 9,5 10,0 10,5 11,0 11,5 12,0-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
VOA=5dB ν[email protected]ºC
νBrillouin
Opt
ical P
ower
(dBm
)
Frequency Shift (GHz)
With permission of M. Melo and M.O. Berendt, Multiwave Networks Lda.. (Portugal)
© A.Lobo (2004) 16
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.7 Dispersion Compensating Fibre (DCF)
DCF is a singlemode fibre with very high waveguide dispersion. The overall dispersion of this fibre is opposite in sign and much larger in magnitude than that of standard fibre, so they can be used to cancel out or compensate the dispersion in SMF.
Main Characteristics Dispersion coefficient (typ.): -80 to -150 ps/(nm·km) @ 1550 nm Dispersion slope: -0.40 ps/(nm2·km) @ 1550 nm PMD: 0.25~0.5 ps/√km Attenuation: ≤0.55 dB/km @ 1550 nm
ab
From Fujikura Technical Review, 2001
© A.Lobo (2004) 17
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.8 E-Band Fibre (E-SMF)
E-SMF is a singlemode fibre specially designed for the Extend-Band (or E-Band) transmission window, which is located at the wavelength range region from 1360 nm to 1460 nm, but with possibility to operate also in the other bands, such as, C-band.
Main Characteristics: Attenuation (máx): 0.35 dB/km @ 1310 nm , 0.31 dB/km @ 1385 nm, 0.22 dB/km @ 1550 nm Zero dispersion wavelength: 1300 nm ≤ λ0D ≤ 1322 nm Zero dispersion slope (So): 0.092 ps/nm2#km PMD (typ.): ≤ 0.08 ps/√km
Commercial Examples: Corning SMF-28e® fibre → Corning Corp. AllWave® fibre → Lucent Technologies Inc. LightScope ZWP™ fibre → CommScope Inc. TeraSPEED ™ fibre → Avaya Inc. BBG ® -SMF-WF fibre → Hitachi Cable Ltd.
DEFINITION OF SIGNAL WAVELENGTH BAND (ITU-T)
Band Name Wavelength (nm)
O-band (Original) 1260 - 1360
E-band (Extended) 1360 - 1460
S-band (Short Wavelength) 1460 - 1530
C-band (Conventinal) 1530 - 1565
L-band (Long Wavelength) 1565 - 1625
U-band (Ultralong Wavelength) 1625 - 1675
© A.Lobo (2004) 18
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.8 E-Band Fibre (E-SMF)
SMF
E-SMF (5th window)
“water peak” around 1385 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 19
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.9 Polarization Maintaining Fibre (PMF)
PMF is a singlemode fibre specially designed to maintain the state of polarization (SOP) of guided polarized light. In the most common optical fiber telecommunications applications, PM fiber is used to guide light in a linearly polarized state from one place to another.
Commercial Types: PANDA fibre BowTie fibre Elliptical shape (core or cladding ) fibre D-shaped fibre Side-Hole fibre Side-Pit fibre Spun fibre
2 ( )F SL n nπφ
λΔ = Δ −
Birefringence (typ.): 2×10-4 to 7 ×10-4
© A.Lobo (2004) 20
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.9 Polarization Maintaining Fibres (PMF) Fast axis
Slow axis
Bow Tie PANDA Side-Hole
Elliptical Stressed Cladding D-shaped
Elliptical CoreElliptical Core
© A.Lobo (2004) 21
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
For more details see: www.webelements.com
Erbium (Er) Ytterbium (Yb) Neodymium (Nd) Praseodymium (Pr) Thulium (Tm) Holmium (Ho)
Lanthanides are best characterized by observation that they possess incomplete inner 4f levels and, to a large extent, they form ions that exist solely in the 3+ state. This state is formed by the removal of two outer 6s electrons and one inner 4f electron.
What are Rare Earth Ions?
© A.Lobo (2004) 22
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Optical properties of the Rare Earth Ions
Fluorescence Up-Conversion
© A.Lobo (2004) 23
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Erbium Doped Fibre (ErDF)ABSORPTION BANDS: 520 nm 650 nm 800 nm 980 nm (free from excited-state absorption ESA) 1480 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 24
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Neodymium Doped Fibre (NdDF)ABSORPTION BANDS: 520 nm 590 nm 820 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 25
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Thulium Doped Fibre (TmDF)ABSORPTION BANDS: 520 nm 590 nm 820 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 26
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Holmium Doped Fibre (HoDF)
Pumped at 640 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 27
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Praseodymium Doped Fibre (PrDF)
© A.Lobo (2004) 28
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.10 Rare-Earth Doped Fibres.
Ytterbium Doped Fibre (YbDF)ABSORPTION BANDS: 520 nm 590 nm 840 nm
This transition is significantly broadened
© A.Lobo (2004) 29
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.11 Long Wavelength Fibres (Fluoride and Chalcogenide).
Fluorozirconate fibers transmit light between 0.4 and 5 µm. Silver Halide compounds fiber (AgBrCl) transmit light between 3 and 16 µm. Synthetic crystalline sapphire (Al2O3) can transmit light between 0.5 and 3.1 µm
© A.Lobo (2004) 30
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.12 Plastic Fibre (POF).
Fluorinated POF characteristics: Attenuation: <150 dB/km @ 650 nm 1.5 mm diameter NA: 0.4 Index profile: Step-index and also GI-index
PMMA – Polymethyl Metacrylate
© A.Lobo (2004) 31
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.13 Hollow Fibre (HOF).
Hollow optical fiber with an inner core ring
Hollow silica tube filled with HCBD (hexachlorobutadiene) D. N. Payne and W. A. Gambling, Electronics Letters, vol. 8, p374, 1972
K. Oh, FOR Lab., Dept. of Information and Communications Kwangju Institute of Science and Technology (K-JIST)
© A.Lobo (2004) 32
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.13 Hollow Fibre (HOF).
K. Oh, FOR Lab., Dept. of Information and Communications Kwangju Institute of Science and Technology (K-JIST)
S. Choi, K. Oh, W. Shin, U. C. Ryu, Electron. Lett., vol. 37, no.13 , pp.823-825, Jun. 2001.
New type of Mode Coupler based on tapered HOF
© A.Lobo (2004) 33
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Stack-and-Draw Fabrication Process
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 34
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
How can one make this….?
Differential Pressure !
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 35
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Extrusion (Soft glass)
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 36
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 37
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Prof. J. Knight, Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
© A.Lobo (2004) 38
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Prof. P.St Russell, Head of Optoelectronics Group, Dept. Physics, University of Bath (UK) & CSO of Blaze Photonics Ltd. (UK)
Endlessly SMF PM fibre
Multicore PCF
Highly Nonlinearity PCF
Hollow Core PCF Hollow Core Visible PCF
© A.Lobo (2004) 39
3. Types of Optical Fibre
3.14 Photonic Crystal Fibre (PCF).
Random Hole Fibre (RHOF)
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University , USA
High NA PCF
Crystal Fiber A/S (Denmark)
High NA Yb-Doped PCF
Crystal Fiber A/S (Denmark)
© A.Lobo (2004) 40
3. Types of Optical Fibre
Passive Fibre Optic Devices
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners. 4.2 WDM Couplers. 4.3 Tap Couplers 4.4 Biconical Fibre Filter. 4.5 Fibre Bragg Gratings. 4.6 Long Period Fibre Gratings. 4.7 Gain Equalizing Filters. 4.8 Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Filters (Interleavers). 4.9 Fibre Ring Filters. 4.10 Fibre Fabry-Perot Filters. 4.11 Fibre Polarizer. 4.12 Fibre Depolarizer. 4.13 Fibre Polarization Controller. 4.14 Fibre Optic Attenuator.
© A.Lobo (2004) 3
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Coupler. Theory of Coupled Modes
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
Between the waveguides 1 and 2 optical power is coupled continuously back and forth (in both directions, 1→2 and 2→1). This results in a periodic spatial variation of the powers Pi(z) in the waveguides (i=1,2) with a periodicity Lc (coupling length)
© A.Lobo (2004) 4
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Theory of Coupled Modes: The coupled pendulums
© A.Lobo (2004) 5
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Coupler: Coupled Mode Theory (*)
Coupled Wave Equations:
and
2 1
2 1
( )112 2
( )221 1
j z
j z
dA j A edzdA j Aedz
β β
β β
κ
κ
− −
+ −
= −
= − 12 21κ κ κ= =
(*) for more detailed analysis see K. Okamoto, Fundamentals of Optical Waveguides, Academic Press (2001) – Chap.4
mode coupling coeff. (coupler with geometric symmetry)
Solutions assumed in the form: (for codirectional couplers: β1>0, β2>0)
1 1 1
2 2 2
( )
( )
jqz jqz j z
jqz jqz j z
A z a e a e e
A z a e a e e
δ
δ
+ − − −
+ − −
⎡ ⎤= +⎣ ⎦⎡ ⎤= +⎣ ⎦
With initial conditions:
1 1 1
2 2 2
(0)
(0)
a a Aa a A
+ −
+ −
+ =
+ =2 1( )2
β βδ −=and
2 2q κ δ= +
© A.Lobo (2004) 6
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Coupler: Coupled Mode Theory(*)
Substituting the assumed solutions into the coupled wave equations and applying the initial conditions, we obtain:
(*) for more detailed analysis see K. Okamoto, Fundamentals of Optical Waveguides, Academic Press (2001) – Chap.4
1 1 2
2 1 2
( ) cos( ) sin( ) (0) sin( ) (0)
( ) sin( ) (0) cos( ) sin( ) (0)
j z
j z
A z qz j qz A j qz A eq q
A z j qz A qz j qz A eq q
δ
δ
δ κ
κ δ
−⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞= + −⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞
= − + −⎢ ⎥⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦
© A.Lobo (2004) 7
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Coupler: Coupled Mode Theory
For the most practical case, in which light is coupled into waveguide 1 only at z=0, we have the conditions of A1(0)=Ao and A2(0)=0. Then the optical power flow along the z-direction is given by:
21 2
1 2
22 2
2 2
( )( ) 1 sin ( )
( )( ) sin ( )
o
o
A zP z F qz
A
A zP z F qz
A
= = −
= =
2 1( )2
β βδ −=
2 2q κ δ= +
( )2
21
1F
qκ
δκ
⎛ ⎞= =⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠ +
Power-coupling efficiency
© A.Lobo (2004) 8
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Coupler
0 1 2 3 4 5 60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
10 1Fδ = ⇒ = 0.5Fδ κ= ⇒ =
P1 P1
P2 P2
Normalized distance (qz) Normalized distance (qz)
For 50% coupling it is a necessary condition that δ ≤ κ
2 22 2cL q
π πκ δ
= =+
Coupling Length:
Lc
Lc/2
Nor
mal
ized
Pow
ers
© A.Lobo (2004) 9
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Directional Fibre Coupler
Side-Polished coupler (adjustable CR)
Fused coupler (fixed CR, possibly λ-dependent)
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
© A.Lobo (2004) 10
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
© C. Hentschel,, HP GmbH
© A.Lobo (2004) 11
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
Combiner
Splitter
© A.Lobo (2004) 12
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.1 Directional Couplers: Splitters and Combiners
1
3
(dB) 10logPCRP
⎛ ⎞= ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Coupling Ratio (CR)
By varying the parameters δ and κ it is possible to adjust CR in a very wide range.
© A.Lobo (2004) 13
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.2 WDM Couplers.
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
Normal -3dB coupler at 1550 nm has interaction coupling length is typically 0.9 mm, whereas for a WDM coupler that length can be from 100 to 500 mm.
Lc is depends on the optical wavelength λ
© A.Lobo (2004) 14
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.3 Tap Couplers.
Tap Coupler Pin (95 to 99%) Pin
(5 to 1%) Pin Used for monitor
© A.Lobo (2004) 15
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.4 Biconical Fibre Filter.
n1
n2
n3
Refraction Index Profile
Core
Int. Cladding
Ext. Cladding
Biconical Filter
1487 1507 1527 1547 1567 1587
-68
-66
-64
-62
-60
Tra
nsm
itted
Pow
er (d
Bm
)
Wavelength (nm)
Depressed-cladding fibre
1 21 sin (2 fT m π λ λ⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞≈ + −⎜ ⎟⎢ ⎥Λ⎝ ⎠⎣ ⎦
A.B. Lobo Ribeiro, Ph.D. thesis, FCUP (1996)
• A.C. Boucouvalas, J. Lightwave Technol. 3, 1151-1158 (1985). • A.C. Boucouvalas and G Georgiou, IEE Proc. 134, Pt.J, 191-195 (1987)
© A.Lobo (2004) 16
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.5 Fibre Bragg Grating.
2B effnλ = Λ
Periodic refraction index change
Bragg Condition
© A.Lobo (2004) 17
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.5 Fibre Bragg Grating.
4
2 effnλΛ =
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4 λ1 λ2 λ3
λ4
2( ) coseff zn z n n zπδ ⎛ ⎞= + ⎜ ⎟Λ⎝ ⎠
4 2 effnλ = Λ
2tanh zpeak
B
L nR π δλ
⎛ ⎞⋅= ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
222
2B z
Beff B
L nn Lλ π δλ π
λ⎛ ⎞
Δ = + ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
L Peak Reflectivity
Stop-Band Width (FWHM)
Rpeak
ΔλB
© A.Lobo (2004) 18
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.5 Fibre Bragg Grating.
Fibre Bragg Grating: Coupled Mode Theory(*)
(*) for more detailed analysis see R. Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press (1999) – Chap.4
2 22
2 2 2
sinh ( )( )
cosh ( )
LR
Lα
λ ρα β
Ω= =
Ω −Δ
2 2
2
2
z
eff
eff
nn
n
π δ
α β
π πβλ
⋅Ω =Λ
= Ω −Δ
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞Δ = −⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟Λ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
2 (arg )( )2
dc d
λ ρτ λπ λ
= −
L = 20 mm
sinh( )sinh( ) cosh( )
LL i L
αρβ α α α
−Ω=Δ −
Group delay:
Reflectivity:
ΩL = 4
© A.Lobo (2004) 19
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.5 Fibre Bragg Grating.
Chirped Fibre Bragg Grating (CFBG)
(*) for more detailed analysis see R. Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press (1999) – Chap.4
2chirp eff chirpnλΔ = ΔΛ 0( ) 2( ) G
chirp g
Lv
λ λτ λλ−≈ ⋅
Δ
λ1 λ2 λ3
Pulse compression after CFBG
λ1
λ2
λ3
In most fibre at 1550 nm, short wavelength light tends to travel faster
Λ
L
© A.Lobo (2004) 20
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.5 Fibre Bragg Grating.
Chirped Fibre Bragg Grating (CFBG)
(*) for more detailed analysis see R. Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press (1999) – Chap.4
Uniform Grating
Chirped Grating
Chirped Grating with Apodization
( )( ) cos ( )eff zn z n n z zδ κ= + ⋅δnz
z
© A.Lobo (2004) 21
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.6 Long-Period Fibre Grating.
LPG promotes coupling between the propagating core mode and co-propagating cladding modes
ΛLPG
, ,( )LPG i eff clad i LPGn nλ = − Λ
The long-period grating (LPG) has a period typically in the range 100 µm to 1 mm
L = 10mm, ΛLPG = 450 µm (SMF-28 fibre)
© A.Lobo (2004) 22
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.6 Long-Period Fibre Grating.
2FBG effnλ = Λ , ,( )LPG i eff clad i LPGn nλ = − Λ
© A.Lobo (2004) 23
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.6 Long-Period Fibre Grating.
Concatenated LPGs
© A.Lobo (2004) 24
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.7 Gain Equalizing Filter.
© Teraxion Inc.
Gain Flattening Filter (GFF) with Concatenated Chirped-FBG (*)
(*) M. Rochette, M. Guy, S. LaRochelle, J. Lauzon and F. Trépanier, Photonics Technology Letters 11, 536-538 (1999).
© A.Lobo (2004) 25
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.7 Gain Equalizing Filter.
K. Mizuno et.al., Furukawa Review no.19, 53-58 (2000).
© A.Lobo (2004) 26
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.7 Gain Equalizing Filter.
Comparison of GFF technologies
Source: Teraxion Inc.
© A.Lobo (2004) 27
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.8 Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Filters (Interleavers).
0 1 2 3 4
0
1
0 4π3π2ππ
λ/2
Pontos dequadratura
Iout/Iin
φ (radianos)
high sensitivity
points
Mach-Zehnder Michelson
1 21 2
1 2
2( ) 1 ( ) cos
( )out
I II I I
I Iγ τ φ
⎡ ⎤= + ⋅ ± ⋅⎢ ⎥
+⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦
2 n Lπφλ
= Δ
1 2L L LΔ = − 1 22( )L L LΔ = −
© A.Lobo (2004) 28
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.8 Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Filters (Interleavers).
Optical interleavers
• Channel spacing management via optical interferometry (e.g., Michelson, Mach-Zehnder) e.g. from 25 GHz to 50 GHz, or vice versa. • Interleavers are needed in density populated WDM systems with 2.5 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s and even 40 Gbit/s transmitter/receivers
© A.Lobo (2004) 29
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.8 Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Filters (Interleavers).
Cascaded Mach-Zehnders: 16-Channel Frequency Selector
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
MZ1
ΔL 2ΔL 4ΔL 8ΔL
MZ2 MZ3
MZ4
© A.Lobo (2004) 30
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.8 Mach-Zehnder and Michelson Filters (Interleavers).
Cascaded Mach-Zehnders: 1×4 Demultiplexer
0 1 2 3 4 5 60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 60
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
MZ1
ΔL
MZ2
MZ3
ΔL/2
ΔL/2
λ1, λ2, λ3, λ4 λ1
λ3
λ2
λ4
© A.Lobo (2004) 31
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.9 Fibre Ring Filter.
Ring (direct coupled)
0 180 360 540 720
0
1
4π3ππ 2π0
k = 0.5
k = 0.2
k = 0.1
Iout/Iin
φ (radianos)
2
2 2(1 ) 14(1 )sin ( / 2)out in
kI I
k kδ
φ⎡ ⎤
= − −⎢ ⎥− −⎣ ⎦2(1 ) Lk e αδ −= −
Ring: Direct coupled
Phase (!)
Nor
mal
ized
Tra
nsm
itted
Pow
er
k - power coupling coefficient of the coupler (1-δ) – power coupling loss of the coupler α – attenuation coeff. of the fibre ring L – ring length
Iin Iout
© A.Lobo (2004) 32 0 180 360 540 720
0
1
(a) Acoplamento Cruzado
k = 0.5
k = 0.8
k = 0.9
Iout
/Iin
φ (radianos)4π3π2ππ0
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.9 Fibre Ring Filter.
2
2 2
(1 )(1 ) 1(1 ) 4 sin ( / 2 / 4)out in
kI I
k kδ
φ π⎡ ⎤−= − −⎢ ⎥− − −⎣ ⎦
2(1 ) Lk e αδ −= −
Phase (!)
Nor
mal
ized
Tra
nsm
itted
Pow
er
Ring (cross-coupled)
Ring: Cross-coupled
• An advantage of this configuration is that the entire ring can be made of one fibre, i.e., without cutting and splicing the fibre
Iin
Iout
© A.Lobo (2004) 33
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.9 Fibre Ring Filter.
Fibre Ring Filter: Sagnac Interferometer (*)
(*) X. Fang, H.Ji, C.T. Allen, K. Demarest and L. Pelz, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 9, 458-460 (1997).
PMF
SMF
3 dB
0 10 20 30 40 50 600
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
2( ) sin2
out
in
II
φγ τ ⎛ ⎞= ⋅ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
Phase (!)
Nor
mal
ized
Tra
nsm
itted
Pow
er
Iin
Iout
© A.Lobo (2004) 34
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.10 Fibre Fabry-Perot Filter.
L
M M
0 180 360 540 720
0
1
4π3π2ππ0
R = 80%
R = 50%
R = 25%
R = 4%
Iout/Iin
φ (radianos)
Nor
mal
ized
Tra
nsm
itted
Pow
er
Phase (!)
2
2
2
11
21 sin1 2
ART
RR
φ
⎛ ⎞−⎜ ⎟−⎝ ⎠=⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟− ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
T
2
2
4 1 sinnLn
π θφλ
−=
For normal incidence: θ = 0º
1FSR RFinesseFWHM R
π= =−
A – Absorption loss of the mirror R – Reflectivity of the mirror
For more detailed analysis see E. Hecht, Optics, 4ed. Chap.9.
FSR
© A.Lobo (2004) 35
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.10 Fibre Fabry-Perot Filter.
www.micronoptics.com
© A.Lobo (2004) 36
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.11 Fibre Polarizer.
Surface Plasmon Polarizer A Surface plasmon is an electromagnetic wave that propagates along the interface of two materials, one of which has a negative dielectric constant. The plasmon is a transverse magnetic effect and exhibits the property of strongly attenuating one polarization component from an optical beam while the other polarization is unaffected. Thus only the TM polarization is coupled to the plasmon and the TE polarization is unaffected.
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
TMo Plasmonβ β=Phase-Matching Condition
© A.Lobo (2004) 37
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.11 Fibre Polarizer.
Surface Plasmon Polarizer
Thin-film metal layer
Fibre Core
Silica Block
Optical Fibre
Fibre Cladding
~50 nm
P. Perumalsamy, In-Line Fiber Polarizer, M.Sc. Thesis, Virginia Polythecnic Institute, Virgina, USA (1998).
© A.Lobo (2004) 38
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.12 Fibre Depolarizer.
#1 #2 #n
Depolarization occurs by averaging over many different polarization states of the recirculating beams. Advantages are: • All-fibre SMF device • Low cost structure • Insensitive to input polarization state • Infinitesimal DOP is possible with increasing numbers of cascaded fibre rings
(*) B. Paisheng and C. Lin, Electronics Letters 34, 1777-1778 (1998).
Passive Fibre Depolarizer
3 dB
© A.Lobo (2004) 39
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.13 Fibre Polarization Controller.
Fibre Coil Polarization Controller (*)
(*) H.C. Lefevre, Electronics Letters 16, 778-780 (1980). A.B. Lobo Ribeiro, M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Kent, UK (1992).
20.836( , ) r N mR m Nλ⋅ ⋅ ⋅=
R – radius of the coil r – nominal radius of the fibre (2r =125 µm, standard SMF) N – number of turns of fibre on the coil m –fractional-wave order (m=2, 4 or 8) to get a λ/m wave plate λ – wavelength of the light
Free-space optics approach
Fibre optic approach
© A.Lobo (2004) 40
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.13 Fibre Polarization Controller.
Fibre Squeezer Polarization Controller(*): The PolaRITE TM
(*) www.generalphotonics.com Babinet Compensator: see E. Hecht, Optics, 4ed. Chap.8.
Free-space optics approach (Babinet-Soleil compensator)
Fibre optic approach (PolaRITE TM)
1 22 ( ) o ed d n nπϕλ
Δ = − ⋅ −
© A.Lobo (2004) 41
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.13 Fibre Polarization Controller.
PM Fibre Twist Polarization Controller(*)
(*) www.fiberpro.com
PMF
SMF SMF
Free-space optics approach (with λ/4-wave plates)
• No Fiber Squeezing • No Damage on Fiber Jacket
TWIST
© A.Lobo (2004) 42
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.14 Fibre Optic Attenuator.
Pin Pout ( ) 10 log 10in
out
PIL dB ODP
⎛ ⎞= ⋅ = ×⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
OD : Optical Density
For example: An attenuator with optical density of 2, has a 20 dB ILoss
Standard SMF Standard SMF
Air Gap
λ = 1300 nm
Fresnel reflection 3.5% → return loss of 14.5 dB
( ) 10 log in
back
PRL dBP
⎛ ⎞= ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Pback
More accurate analysis based on electric fields: INTERFERENCE ANALYSIS
© A.Lobo (2004) 43
4. Passive Fibre Optic Devices
4.14 Fibre Optic Attenuator.
Standard SMF Standard SMF
Absorbing SMF (GeAl core+Rare Earth ions)
S. Chia, AMP Journal of Technology 5, 19-23 (1996) from AMP Inc.
Response of insertion loss to temperature cycling between -40ºC and 85ºC of five individual samples of a 5 dB OA measured at 1550 nm.
± 0.30 dB
5 dB attenuator.
Active Fibre Optic Devices
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator. 5.2 Twin-Core Fibre Switch. 5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter. 5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter. 5.5 Acousto-Optic Fibre Modulator. 5.6 Piezoelectric Fibre Modulator. 5.7 Electric Poling Fibre Modulator. 5.8 Fibre Amplifier.
© A.Lobo (2004) 3
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Temperature-induced optical phase shifts in fibres (*)
(*) N. Lagakos, J.A. Bucaro and J. Jarzynski, Applied Optics 20, 2305-2308 (1981).
1z
T
L n n nTL n n T nρ
φ εφΔ Δ Δ ∂ Δ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞= + = + ⋅Δ +⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟∂⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 nLπφλ
=
εz , εr – Axial (z) and radial (r) strains in the core. ρ – core density. n – effective refractive index p11 , p12 – are the Pockels coefficients of the core.
[ ]2
11 12 121 1 ( )
2z r zn n p p p
T n T Tρ
φ ε ε εφ
⎧ ⎫Δ ∂⎛ ⎞= + − + +⎨ ⎬⎜ ⎟Δ ∂ Δ⎝ ⎠ ⎩ ⎭
5 -10.7 10 CbareT
φφ
−Δ = ×Δ
o
5 -11.7 10 CjacketT
φφ
−Δ = ×Δ
o
© A.Lobo (2004) 4
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Optical phase sensitivity of the fibre due to a physical parameter
2X
n L nSL X L X Xφ π
λΔ ∂ ∂⎡ ⎤= = ⋅ +⎢ ⎥Δ ∂ ∂⎣ ⎦
Physical Parameter (X) Sensitivity (SX)
Axial Deformation (ε) 107 rad m-1 strain-1
Temperature (T) 100 rad m-1 °C-1
Hydrostatic Pressure (P) 5*10-5 rad m-1 Pa-1
(For a wavelength of 850 nm)
© A.Lobo (2004) 5
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Temperature-induced optical phase shifts in metal coated fibres (*)
(*) C.T. Shyu and L. Wang, J. Lightwave Technology 12, 2040-2048 (1994).
Standard SMF Standard SMF Metallic film
2( )o nT T I R hAt t V cρ
∂ − − Θ∂Θ= =∂ ∂ ( )
2/( ) 1 tnI Rt e
hAτ−Θ = −
( )2
/( ) 1 tnI Rt ehA
τβφ −Δ = −R – Electrical resistance of the metallic film. ρ , c – density and specific heat of the fibre (respectively). V , A – volume and surface area of the metallic film. k – thermal conductivity of the film h – heat transfer coefficient
In
cVhAρτ =
Tφβ Δ=
Δ→ Fibre glass material
© A.Lobo (2004) 6
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Temperature-induced optical phase shifts in metal coated fibres (*)
(*) C.T. Shyu and L. Wang, J. Lightwave Technology 12, 2040-2048 (1994).
gold coating
In
Coating length: 3 cm Resistance: 60.6 Ω
© A.Lobo (2004) 7
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Thermally fibre modulator (*)
(*) - C.T. Shyu and L. Wang, J. Lightwave Technology 12, 2040-2048 (1994). - B.J. White et. al., J. Lightwave Technology 5, 1169-1174 (1987).
Metallic film
In cos (ωt)
Test current
Detected optical signal
Predicted signal
100 Hz
© A.Lobo (2004) 8
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Thermally tunable fibre Bragg grating filter (*)
1 1BX
B
nSX X X n X
λλΔ ∂Δ ∂= = ⋅ + ⋅Δ ∂ ∂
Physical Parameter (X) Sensitivity (SX)
Axial Deformation (ε) 0.78×10-6 µs t r a i n
-1
Temperature (T) 8×10-6 °C-1
Hydrostatic Pressure (P) 2.7×10-6 MPa-1
2B nλ = Λ
B
X
© A.Lobo (2004) 9
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3150
200
250
300
350
400
Time (min.)
I s (mA
)
Vaplicado
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
(a)
Vout /V
ref
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Thermally tunable fibre Bragg grating filter (*)
(*) P.M. Cavaleiro, F.M. Araújo and A.B.Lobo Ribeiro, Electronics Letters 34, 1133-1135 (1998)
silver film
In
SMF fibre with FBG
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0835.2
835.4
835.6
835.8
836.0
836.2
836.4
836.6
Bra
gg W
avel
engt
h (n
m)
Electrical current - squared (A2)
Coating length: 2 cm Resistance: 1.2 Ω
© A.Lobo (2004) 10
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Thermally tunable fibre Bragg grating filter (*)
(*) L.Lin et. al., IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 15, 545-547 (2003)
Ti-Pt-Ni metal alloyed coating (2 µm)
In
SMF fibre with FBG
Coating length: 4 cm Resistance: 7.5 Ω
© A.Lobo (2004) 11
11.2 nm
Wavelength (nm)
Opt
ical
Pow
er (d
Bm
)
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.1 Thermally Tunable Fibre Filter and Modulator.
Thermally tunable fibre Bragg grating (*): Laser Application
(*) J.J. Pan et.al., Lightwaves 2020 Inc., US Pat.6018534
0.009 nm/ºCB
TλΔΔ
;
0.16 nm/ºCB
DFBTλΔΔ
;
© A.Lobo (2004) 12
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.2 Twin Core Fibre Switch.
Twin Core Fibre (*)
(*) - P.J. Severin, in Proc. SPIE vol.1314 – Fiber Optics 90, 348-364 (1990). - R. Romaniuk, J. Dorosz, in Proc. SPIE vol.4887 (2001)
2 21
2 22
( ) 1 sin
( ) sin
o
o
P z kzF
P F
P z kzF
P F
⎛ ⎞= − ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠⎛ ⎞= ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
22 1
1
12
F
kβ β
=−⎛ ⎞+ ⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
Power-coupling efficiency:
Cladding (125 µm)
4 µm
Cores (10 µm)
© A.Lobo (2004) 13
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.2 Twin Core Fibre Switch.
Twin Core WDM coupler/filter (*)
1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 15600
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Wavelength [nm]
Nor
mal
ized
Pow
ers
P1
P2
(*) twin core fibre sample provided by Prof. P.J. Severin (Philips Eindhoven)
L = 20 cm
P2
P1 Po
Cores: 9 µm Cores separation: 2 to 5 µm Cladding: 100 µm
© A.Lobo (2004) 14
1530 1535 1540 1545 1550 1555 15600
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.2 Twin Core Fibre Switch.
(*) twin core fibre sample provided by Prof. P.J. Severin (Philips Eindhoven)
P1 Po
Piezoelectric Transducer
V
Wavelength [nm]
Nor
mal
ized
Pow
er (P
1 /P o
)
Length variation of 100 µm on 20 cm
© A.Lobo (2004) 15
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.2 Twin Core Fibre Switch.
R. Vallée and D. Drolet, Applied Optics 33, 5602-5610 (1994)
P1 Po
TWIST
© A.Lobo (2004) 16
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter.
FREQUENCY SHIFTER
Optical Frequency ωo
Optical Frequency ωo ± ωac
Acoustic Frequency ωac
( Acoustic frequency (ωa) can be generated electrically or optically)
sin2 4
o o acB B
ac acVλ λ ω
πΘ = ⇒Θ ≅
Λ
Diffracted beam angle at:
For more information see: www.brimrose.com
© A.Lobo (2004) 17
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter.
(*) W. P. Risk, R. Youngquist, R.C. Kino, H.J. Shaw, Optics Letters 9, 309 (1984)
Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) device (*)
(Used to produce surface acoustic waves)
cos SAW a
a B B
Vf L L
ΛΘ = =Phase-matching condition:
Velocity of the SAW
Fibre beat length
SAW wavelength
© A.Lobo (2004) 18
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter.
Flexure-wave fibre device (*)
(*) B.Y. Kim, J.N. Blake, H.E. Engan, H.J. Shaw, Optics Letters 11, 389-391 (1986).
York HB600 fibre (HiBi fibre), with beat length of 1.5 mm and an acoustic frequency of ~0.2 MHz, producing a frequency shift of ~790 kHz
© A.Lobo (2004) 19
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter.
Flexure-wave fibre device (*)
(*) T. E. Dimmick, G. Kakarantzas, T. A. Birks, and P. St. J.Russell, in Proc. OFC‘2000, FB4 pp.25-27, 2000.
11 21
2ac
HE HE
πβ β
Λ =−Resonance condition:
© A.Lobo (2004) 20
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.3 Acousto-Optic Tunable Fibre Filter.
Flexure-wave fibre device (*)
(*) T. E. Dimmick, G. Kakarantzas, T. A. Birks, and P. St. J.Russell, in Proc. OFC‘2000, FB4 pp.25-27, 2000.
Filter bandwidth 0.8 ac
Lλλ
ΛΔ =
2.9 nm bandwidth
(4 cm)
< 10 cm
© A.Lobo (2004) 21
1.53 1.54 1.55 1.56 1.57
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter.
L
M M
PZT Optical fibre
A = 0 R = 95 % L = 20 µm ΔL = +1 µm 2
2
2
11
21 sin1 2
ART
RR
φ
⎛ ⎞−⎜ ⎟−⎝ ⎠=⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟− ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠
FSR ≈ 60 nm FWHM ≈ 2 nm Finesse ≈ 30
Wavelength (µm)
Tran
smitt
ance
Tunable Fibre FP Filter
© A.Lobo (2004) 22
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter.
www.micronoptics.com
© A.Lobo (2004) 23
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter.
Strain-induced optical phase shifts in fibres (*)
(*) A. Bertholds, R. Dändliker, J. Lightwave Technology 5, 895-900 (1987).
( )2T const
n L nLπφλ=
Δ = Δ +Δ2 nLπφλ
=
εz , εr – Axial (z) and radial (r) strains in the core (εr= ν εz) ν – Poisson ratio (=0.17 for silica). n – effective refractive index (= 1.456 at λ=1550 nm) p11 , p12 –Pockels coefficients of the core (p11=0.121 , p12=0.27 for silica)
[ ]2
11 12 122 ( )
2z r znnL p p pπφ ε ε ε
λ⎧ ⎫
Δ − + +⎨ ⎬⎩ ⎭
;
6 -1 -14 10 rad m strainLφε
Δ ≈ × ⋅ ⋅Δ
for λ = 1550 nm
© A.Lobo (2004) 24
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter.
PZT PZT FBG
(*) A. Iocco, H.G. Limberger, R.P. Salathé, Electronics Letters 33, 2147-2148 (1997).
Tunable FBG Filter (*)
© A.Lobo (2004) 25
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.4 Piezoelectric Tunable Fibre Filter.
(**) C. S. Goh et.al., IEEE Photonics Tech. Letters 14, 1306-1308 (2002).
Tunable FBG Filter (**)
© A.Lobo (2004) 26
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.5 Acousto-optic Fibre Modulator.
All-fibre AO Frequency Shifter (*)
(*) D.O. Culverhouse et.al., IEEE Photonics Tech. Letters 8, 1636-1637 (1996).
© A.Lobo (2004) 27
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.5 Acousto-optic Fibre Modulator.
ZnO-Coated Optical Fibre AO Phase Modulator(*)
(*) A. Roeksabutr and P.L. Chu, J. Lightwave Technology 16, 1203-1211 (1998).
311 12( ) rn l p pπφ ε
λΔ ≈ +
Optical phase shift:
Max. phase shift (exp):~700 mrads @ 670 MHz
© A.Lobo (2004) 28
r R
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.6 Piezoelectric Fibre Modulator.
3211 12
12
(1 ) ( )42 2
effeff
n p p rNC n pV R
νφ πλ
⎧ ⎫+ +Δ ⎪ ⎪⎡ ⎤= + −⎨ ⎬⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎪ ⎪⎩ ⎭(rad/volt)
for more details see: G. Martini, Optical & Quantum Electronics 19, 179 (1987).
N – number of fibre turns wrapped on the PZT ν – Poisson ratio of silica (0.17) p11 , p12 –Pockels coefficients of the fibre core C – radial displacement of PZT per unit of voltage (p.ex. C≈0.61 nm/V for a PZT-5H)
© A.Lobo (2004) 29
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.6 Piezoelectric Fibre Modulator.
© A.Lobo (2004) 30
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.6 Piezoelectric Fibre Modulator.
(*) M.N. Zervas and I.P. Giles, Optics Letters 13, 404-406 (1988).
Fibre-Loop Phase Modulator(*)
2phase
resonanceloop
Vf
L=
Resonance Frequency of the loop
As the advantage to remove the phase shift dependence on the PZT characteristics
© A.Lobo (2004) 31
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.7 Electric Poling Fibre Modulator.
The fibre is 127 mm diameter with two holes of 45 mm diameter. The optical fibres are thermally poled at around 250°C with an electric field in the order of 4kV. The electrodes are inserted to lengths in excess of 20 cm.
(150 VAC at 4.5 kHz) EO coefficient can be calculated. EO coefficients of ~0.2 pm/V have been measured in 1.55 µm silica single mode fibres (for a LiNbO3: 7~30 pm/V)
See: Applied optics Group, Univ. Kent, Canterbury (U.K.) - www.kent.ac.uk/physical-sciences/aog
4.5 kHz
22
2NL Kn L Eπφ
λΔ =
n2K ≈ 3.2×10-20 m2/W
22eff o Kn n n E= + 2 11
2 for 10 V/mK on E n E≈ ≈
© A.Lobo (2004) 32
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.8 Fibre Amplifier.
Gain (EDFA)
Power Supply (PUMP)
IN
OUT
FEEDBACK (Resonant Cavity)
FIBER LASER
© A.Lobo (2004) 33
5. Active Fibre Optic Devices
5.8 Fibre Amplifier.
S-Ring Fibre Laser (*)
(*) O.G. Okhotnikov, A.B.Lobo Ribeiro, J.A.R. Salcedo, Applied Physics Letters 63, 2726-2728 (1993).
Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander. 6.2 Thin-Film Fibre Filters and Couplers. 6.3 Faraday Rotator Mirror. 6.4 Fibre Isolator. 6.5 Fibre Circulator. 6.6 Fibre Interleavers (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers). 6.7 Wavelength Locker. 6.8 Add/Drop Multiplexer. 6.9 Dispersion Compensator. 6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG). 6.11 MEMS based Devices.
© A.Lobo (2004) 3
GRIN Lens Conventional Aspherical Lens
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander.
• The index of refraction within the lens material varies gradually • Dramatically reduced need for tightly-controlled surface curvatures • Simple and compact lens geometry.
GRaded-INdex Lens (GRIN lens) (*)
(*) www.nsgamerica.com www.grintech.de
© A.Lobo (2004) 4
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander.
GRIN lens
no – Refractive index at the optical axis A – squared gradient constant r – radial position of the lens
2( ) 12oA
n r n r⎛ ⎞= −⎜ ⎟⎝ ⎠
2z APπ
=
Lens Length (z) and Pitch (P)
© A.Lobo (2004) 5
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander.
21
2
cos( ) sin( )1sin( ) cos( )
o
o o
l n A z A z Al
n A l n A z A z A+= ⋅−
In the case of collimating from a laser diode, LED, or fiber, there is only a variable distance (l), which is the distance from the source to the GRIN lens.
1 1tan( )o
ln A z A
= ⋅
2l →∞
© A.Lobo (2004) 6
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander.
GRIN lens
© A.Lobo (2004) 7
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.1 Fibre Beam Collimator/Expander.
Thermally-diffused Expanded Core (TEC) fibres
americas.kyocera.com www.totoku.com www.kadencephotonics.biz
© A.Lobo (2004) 8
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.2 Thin-Film Fibre Filters and Couplers.
• Principle of thin film filter is based on multiple reflection from two surfaces => Fabry-Perot filters • Assume two partially reflective parallel surfaces
• Light is partially reflected back and forth within the cavity • The output is the result of superposing many reflected beam • Light that the cavity-length is an integer number their wavelengths add constructively at the output => resonant wavelengths • Multiple wavelength can satisfy the constructive interference => their frequency distance defines as free spectral range
© A.Lobo (2004) 9
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.2 Thin-Film Fibre Filters and Couplers.
(glass) - (High index) - (Low index) – (air)
• For H-layers: Zirconium dioxide (n = 2.1) or Titanium dioxide (n = 2.40) or zinc sulfide (n = 2.32).
• For L-layers: Magnesium fluoride (n = 1.38) or Cerium fluoride (n = 1.63).
For more information see: E. Hecht, Optics, 4.ed, Chap.9
© A.Lobo (2004) 10
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.2 Thin-Film Fibre Filters and Couplers.
© A.Lobo (2004) 11
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.2 Thin-Film Fibre Filters and Couplers.
© A.Lobo (2004) 12
When the direction of propagation of light is altered by a medium, a new orthonormal coordinate bases for the polarisation must be defined, where ez is the new direction of propagation.
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.3 Faraday Rotator Mirror (FRM).
Jones Matrix on backward propagation direction
( ) ( ), , , ,x y z x y ze e e u u u= −
For a reciprocal system the Jones matrix is the transpose of the matrix for the forward direction.
[ ] 1 4
3 2forward
m mM
m m⎡ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦
[ ] [ ] 1 3
4 2
T
backward forward
m mM M
m m⎡ ⎤
= = ⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦
[ ] [ ]Tx xM M=
[ ] [ ]Tx xM M≠Nonreciprocal element
Reciprocal element (for example: mirror, half-wave plate)
(for example: Faraday rotator mirror)
© A.Lobo (2004) 13
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.3 Faraday Rotator Mirror (FRM).
Jones Matrices of some reflectors (*)
[ ] 1 00 1mirror
M⎡ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦
[ ] 1 00 1loop
M⎡ ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥−⎣ ⎦
[ ] 0 11 0FRM
M ⎡ ⎤= ⎢ ⎥−⎣ ⎦
180º phase shift
rotation by 90º
(a)
(b)
(c)
(*) M.O. van Deventer, Fundamentals of Bidirectional Transmission over a Single Optical Fibre, Kluwer Academic Press (1996).
© A.Lobo (2004) 14
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.3 Faraday Rotator Mirror (FRM).
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]cos45º sin 45º 1 0 cos45º sin 45º 0 1sin 45º cos45º 0 1 sin 45º cos45º 1 0
FRM FR mirror FRM M M M= =
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤= =⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥− − −⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
g g
g g
( )L
V B dlθ λ= ⋅∫rr
Verdet constant For example, Faraday rotation @ λ=1310 nm: • Pure silica fibre is ~2.2 degree/m • Pure YIG crystal is ~22000 degree/m
(YIG crystal) θ = 45º
The Faraday Effect (*)
For more information see: E. Hecht, Optics, 4.ed, Chap.8
© A.Lobo (2004) 15
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.3 Faraday Rotator Mirror (FRM).
Polarizer
λ/2-wave Plate Faraday Rotator
Non-Reciprocal Device
Reciprocal Device
© A.Lobo (2004) 16
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.4 Fibre Isolator.
θ = 45º
Fibre isolator using Faraday effect (*)
(*) C Hentschel, Fiber Optics Handbook, Hewlett-Packard (1989).
© A.Lobo (2004) 17
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.4 Fibre Isolator.
Fibre isolator using λ/4-Wave plate (*)
(*) C Hentschel, Fiber Optics Handbook, Hewlett-Packard (1989).
© A.Lobo (2004) 18
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.5 Fibre Circulator. Polarisation Beam Splitter (PBS)
λ/2-wave rotator
Port 1
Port 2
(Port 3)
(Port 4)
FR λ/2 WP
© A.Lobo (2004) 19
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Optical interleavers
• Channel spacing management via optical interferometry (e.g., Michelson, Mach-Zehnder) e.g. from 25 GHz to 50 GHz, or vice versa. • Interleavers are needed in density populated WDM systems with 2.5 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s and even 40 Gbit/s transmitter/receivers
© A.Lobo (2004) 20
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Optical interleaver using Birefringence
Polarized Input Beam
Birefringent Crystal
PBS
21 ( ) cos ( )
2in
out x yI
I n n Lcπγ τ ν⎧ ⎫⎡ ⎤= ⋅ ± ⋅ −⎨ ⎬⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎩ ⎭
where =integer( )mx y
cm mn n L
ν =−
ν1 ν3 ν5 ν7 ν9 ν11 ν13
ν2 ν4 ν6 ν8 ν10 ν12
© A.Lobo (2004) 21
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Optical interleaver using Michelson interferometer
BS
1 22
1 ( ) cos ( )2in
outI
I n L Lcπγ τ ν⎧ ⎫⎡ ⎤= ⋅ + ⋅ −⎨ ⎬⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎩ ⎭
1 22 ( )cFSR
n L L=
−
ν1 ν3 ν5 ν7 ν9 ν11 ν13
mirror
mirror
L2
L1
© A.Lobo (2004) 22
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Optical interleaver using Gires-Tournois etalon
• Front mirror reflectivity R1<1
• Rear mirror reflectivity R2=1
• Etalon reflectivity R=1 for all λ
• Phase shift is a periodic function of frequency with:
• nd can be chosen so that FSR coincides with ITU grids
• ULE glass cab be used as spacer
2cFSRnd
=
© A.Lobo (2004) 23
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Gires-Tournois cavity (www.accumux.com)
R<1 Ro=1
d
( )12 tan tanσ φ−Φ = 02 21 ( 1)sinστ τ
σ φ=
+ −
11
RR
σ +=−
2 ndπφλ
=
τ0 is the roundtrip flight time inside the cavity
© A.Lobo (2004) 24
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Michelson interferometer with GTI-mirrors
BS
L2
L1
GTI-mirrors
1 2 1 22
1 ( ) cos ( )2in
outI
I L Lcπγ τ ν φ φ⎧ ⎫⎡ ⎤= ⋅ + ⋅ − + −⎨ ⎬⎢ ⎥⎣ ⎦⎩ ⎭
• Giles-Tournois etalons are employed as phase dispersive mirrors
• With proper choices of the front mirror reflectivities, flat-top passbands can be obtained
• The cavity spacing must match with the optical path difference (ΔL)
• Channel isolation of better than 35dB can be achieved
(*) for more information see: www.accumux.com
© A.Lobo (2004) 25
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.6 Fibre Interleaver (Fabry-Perot and Michelson Interferometers).
Flat-Top Optical Interleaver
© A.Lobo (2004) 26
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.7 Wavelength Locker.
DREF D1 Etalon
Locking wavelength
© A.Lobo (2004) 27
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.8 Add/Drop Multiplexer.
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4
λ3
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ4
• Thin Film Filters
• WDM Couplers
• Fibre Gratings
• Fixed OADM
• Reconfigurable OADM
© A.Lobo (2004) 28
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.8 Add/Drop Multiplexer.
Filter reflects i Add / Drop
Dielectric thin-film filter design
Common Passband
Circulator with FBG design
Add i Drop i
LW Technology (Passive Components) © Copyright 1999, Agilent Technologies
LW Technology (Passive Components) © Copyright 1999, Agilent Technologies
© A.Lobo (2004) 29
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.8 Add/Drop Multiplexer.
Planar Tunable Add/Drop MUX
COBNET Consortium –European Project AC069-ACTS program (http://ica1www.epfl.ch/COBNET/)
ADD λi
Drop λj
Input λ1+...+ λj +...+ λn
Output λ1+...+ λi +...+ λn
© A.Lobo (2004) 30
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.9 Dispersion Compensator.
Chirped Fibre Bragg Grating (CFBG)
(*) for more detailed analysis see R. Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press (1999) – Chap.4
λ1 λ2 λ3
λ1 λ2
λ3
In this case, the longest wavelength (λ3) arrive first
Grating spacing increases
λ1< λ2 < λ3 Delay is largest for λ3
© A.Lobo (2004) 31
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.9 Dispersion Compensator.
CFBG + Circulator
Fast Slow
LW Technology (Passive Components) © Copyright 1999, Agilent Technologies
© A.Lobo (2004) 32
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.9 Dispersion Compensator.
Thermally Tunable CFBG + Circulator
©B.J. Eggleton, Optical Fiber Research Dept., Bell Labs., Lucent Technologies
© A.Lobo (2004) 33
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.9 Dispersion Compensator.
Thermally Tunable CFBG + Circulator
Nielsen, Eggleton,Rogers et.al., Lucent Technologies (ECOC 1999) Rx
Tx 40 Gb/s 0-10 dBm
120 km Truewave
PMD<0.5 ps Ripple<1.0 dB @ 10-9 BER
© A.Lobo (2004) 34
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.9 Dispersion Compensator.
Gires-Tournois etalon
R<1 Ro=1
d
02 21 ( 1)sinστ τ
σ φ=
+ −
2 2
22 2
4 ( 1)sin(2 )
1 ( 1)sin
dDLc
τ π σ σ φλ λ σ φ∂ −⎛ ⎞= = ⋅⎜ ⎟∂ ⎝ ⎠ ⎡ ⎤+ −⎣ ⎦
see www.accumux.com
Frequency (THz)
Dis
pers
ion
(ps/
nm)
Group Delay
© A.Lobo (2004) 35
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
sin sin om o m
ngλϑ ϑ− =
Planar Grating
m = 0, ±1, ±2,….= diffraction order
© A.Lobo (2004) 36
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
© R. Ulrich, TU Hamburg-Harburg
Planar Geodesic Lens
© A.Lobo (2004) 37
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
Grating equation:
sinn L d mθ λ⋅Δ + =ΔL – path difference between
neighbouring guides d – distance between guides n – refractive index m – integer λ – wavelength θ – angle of diffraction
ΔL >> λ to achieve high order diffraction
© A.Lobo (2004) 38
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
Spectral Resolution:
mNλλΔ =
number of guides in the array
Δλ = 0.8 nm (~100 GHz) @ 1550 nm, mN must > 1940
© A.Lobo (2004) 39
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
© A.Lobo (2004) 40
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG). AWG INPUT SIDE
AWG OUTPUT SIDE (analogous to Youngs experiment)
© A.Lobo (2004) 41
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
© A.Lobo (2004) 42
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
1a 3a
2a 4a
1b 3b 2b 4b
1c 3c
2c 4c
1d 3d 2d 4d
1a
3c 2d 4b
1b 3d 2a
4c
1c 3a 2b 4d
1d
3b 2c 4a
Rows .. .. translate into .. .. columns
© A.Lobo (2004) 43
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.10 Array Waveguide Grating (AWG).
COBNET Consortium –European Project AC069-ACTS program (http://ica1www.epfl.ch/COBNET/)
Input λ1+ λ2 +...+ λn
Outputs
λ1 λ2
λn
Planar MUX
© A.Lobo (2004) 44
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.11 MEMS based Devices.
• NxN Switches (very large N) • Variable optical attenuators • Wavelength Add/Drop
MEMS : Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems
© A.Lobo (2004) 45
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.11 MEMS based Devices.
16x16 MEMS Switch with Add/Drop functionality
see www.omminc.com
© A.Lobo (2004) 46
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.11 MEMS based Devices.
Optical Cross-Connect (OXC) – Lucent WaveStar
• 1024 x 1024 prototype
• Thin film silicon MEMS design
© A.Lobo (2004) 47
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.11 MEMS based Devices.
ADI Mirror Device
© A.Lobo (2004) 48
6. Fibre Optic (Hybrid) Devices
6.11 MEMS based Devices.
see www.solustech.com
Tunable MEMS Fabry-Perot Filter
Fibre Device Fabrication techniques
FIBRE OPTIC TECHNOLOGY COURSE
António Lobo Prof. Associado (UFP)
© A.Lobo (2004) 2
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Bragg Gratings Fabrication. 7.2 Fibre Couplers Fabrication. 7.3 Special Fibre Devices.
© A.Lobo (2004) 3
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Bragg Grating Fabrication.
Fabricação do Sensor de BRAGG (“GRATING”)
Multiwave Networks Portugal, Lda.
Reflectivity 0 – 100% Spectral width: 50 – 500 pm Wavelength 1520 – 1570 nm
• D.A. Jackson, A.B. Lobo Ribeiro, L. Reekie and J.L. Archambault, Opt. Lett. 18, 1192-1194 (1993). • F.M. Araújo, J.M. Sousa and A.B. Lobo Ribeiro, 9ª Conf. Nac. Física, pp.182-183 (1994).
© A.Lobo (2004) 4
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 5
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 6
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 7
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 8
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 9
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.
© A.Lobo (2004) 10
7. Fibre Device Fabrication Techniques
7.1 Fibre Couplers Fabrication.