forms of burial in the territory of yu in the time of the roman empire

8/14/2019 Forms of burial in the territory of YU in the time of the Roman empire

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Aleksandar Jovanovic

FORMS OF BURIAL IN THE

TERRITORY OF YUGOSLAVIA INTHE TIME OF THE ROMAN

EMPIRE

Summary from the book: Aleksandar Jovanovic, "Rimske nekropole na teritoriji

Jugoslavije" Centar za arholoska istrazivanja Filozofskog fakulteta,

Beograd 1984 (Cyrillic script)

This work discusses the graves from the cemeteries in the Roman provinces in the

territory of modern Yugoslavia. The period surveyed is that from the beginning of the 1stcentury A.D. to the middle of the 3rd century A.D. The main classification is madeaccording to the origin of the grave-form. Thus the basic division is: Roman grave-forms;

alien grave-forms of non-Roman origin; and autochthonous grave-forms. Graves have

been classified into these groups on the basis of an analysis of the following elements:

manner of burial; grave-form; grave-goods; chronology; distribution; origin; and ethno-cultural traits.

The autochthonous grave-forms are discussed within the framework of geographic and

ethnic wholes. This approach has necessitated the introduction and definition of separatesepulchral units, called "horizons of burial".

Roman forms of burial

The Roman forms of burial represent an intrusion in the territory of Yugoslavia as a

result of Romanization. The attribute "Roman" is, in fact, provisional, for some grave-forms included here did not originate in Italy, but were modifications of Greek models

which reached the Yugoslav territory in this modified form as a result of the expansion of

the Roman military and political power.

The Roman forms of burial are: the dolium, stone urns, brick-built cists, metal urns andmausolea. The dominant Roman component in the hybrid combinations with

autochthonous forms of burial is represented by ash-chests, while pottery urns can beconsidered only provisionally as a part of the Roman sepulchral tradition, for the majorityof the graves of this type are of autochthonous origin.

Dolium


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The term dolium means burial in an amphora or a part of an amphora. Numerous variants

can be distinguished within this general form, and the differences among them are so

great that the question arises whether it is appropriate to apply the same name to all ofthem.

The ideological and funerary implications are not the same if a part of an amphora is usedas the receptacle for the remains of cremation, as a protective cover for the remains of

cremation and grave-goods, or if the upper part of an amphora is used as a tube forlibations and as a marker of the location of the grave. What all these forms have in

common is the fact that a part of an amphora is used in the structure of the grave. It is,

however, used in a secondary sense, as a material, not as a constant funerary factor.Consequently, the term dolium is conventional rather than precise, and it is used as such

here.

In addition to this general problem, which is partly a problem of methodology, too, there

is also the problem of the adequate interpretation of the provenance of this grave-form in

the territory of Yugoslavia. The origin of this form of burial in Pannonia, in some parts ofDalmatia and in Macedonia cannot be explained in the same way. The graves of the

dolium type are an intrusion and are associated with the Romanized population on amajority of sites in Pannonia (Emona, Poetovio, Stenjevac), in Dalmatia (Salona, Iader,

Apsporos, Krk, Hvar, etc) and Moesia Superior. Graves of this type which were

secondarily dug into the mound at Vrelo Cetine are also Roman forms adopted by thenative inhabitants. Who had changed radically their burial rite (from inhumation to

cremation) and, in the absence of satisfactory local forms in their own sepulchral

tradition, took over the Roman grave-form (dolium) without any modifications. The

graves of the dolium type in Macedonia (Stobi) should be considered as the continuationof the earlier Greek funerary tradition in this region, and not as a novel element

introduced as a result of Romanization.

The accompanying material in the graves of the dolium type is relatively scant and of a

rather poor quality. This is an important indicator of the social status of the personsburied in them. The majority of the graves of the dolium type belong to the poorest

classes of the (primarily urban) population. The grave-goods consist mostly of Roman

provincial products (lamps, pottery and glass vessels, coins); no material withautochthonous features has been found.

The graves of the dolium type found in the territory of Yugoslavia belong to the period

from the beginning of the 1st century to the middle of the 2nd century A.D. The lower

chronological limit is determined by the finds of Augustan and Tiberian coins in thegraves in Emona, and the latest horizon of the graves of this type is dated by the coins of

Hadrian and Antonius Pius.

Graves of this type appear in the cemeteries of large towns (Emona, Poetovio, Salona,

Iader, Vegium, Senia, Apsoros, etc.), in suburban settlements (Sv. Jakov, Sv. Juraj,Murter, etc.), settlements along the main communication lines (Skarucna, Velika Gorica,

Stenjevac) and along the Limes (Boljetin) (cf. map. 30).


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The fact that the graves of the dolium type are located in the zones of primary and

intensive Romanization shows that they belong to the Roman tradition. The Roman

character of these graves is also indicated by the type of the grave-goods placed in them,by some elements of the burial rite (e.g. the separation of the remains of the cremated

body from the remains of the pyre), and by the fact that this grave-form is without

precedent in the autochthonous funerary tradition in the territory of Yugoslavia.

Graves - cists - built of bricks and containing cremation

burials

This group of graves consists of brick-built cists containing cremation burials. Remains

of cremation were usually laid directly into the cist, which served as the receptacle.Graves of this type which contain a glass or earthenware urn are less common. The cists

are of a standardized form: four bricks set on edge form the sides of the cist, and two

horizontal ones serve as the bottom-and the lid. The absence of the covering brick in

some cases is probably due to damage or devastation of the grave.

The published material from the northern cemetery of Emona has provided the necessary

elements for a detailed study of this grave-form and for its full typological, chronological

and cultural analysis. The brick-built graves make,; up about 40 % of the total number ofthe grave containing cremation burials in the northern cemetery of Emona.The

cemeteries of Poetovio present a similar picture. This fact is important; for it shows that

these graves are more common in the cemeteries of urban centres. In addition to the sitesin Pannonia Superior (Emona, Poetovio, Neviodunum, etc.), graves of this type are

known from the large urban centres in Dalmatia (Argyruntum, Salona, Iader, Senia, etc.).

Apart from the urban agglomerations, graves made of bricks appear in settlements in the

neighborhood of towns (Brstje, Komanda, Medvode, Rudnik, etc.), along importantcommunications (Obrez, Stenjevac, Gameljne) and along the northern part of the eastern

Adriatic shore (Bakar, Novi Vinodolski, Sv. Jakov) (cf. map. 31). Their distribution

corresponds to the regions in which Romanization changed radically the autochthonoustradition.

The type and character of the grave-goods found in brick-built cists also corroborate the

theory of the Roman provenance of this grave-form. Graves made of bricks haveproduced coins, lamps, glass vessels, terra sigillata, pottery with "thin walls". Jewelry is

rare, while weapons do not occur at all. The grave-goods consist of the material common

in the early imperial tombs throughout the Empire, and finds of an autochthonous

character have not been discovered.

The burial rite associated with this form of the grave is not fully documented. It has been

established that the deceased were cremated on the ustrinum and that the remains of

cremation were placed into the cist. But it is not clear whether the remains of the

cremated body were carefully separated from the pyre (and, perhaps, ritually washed)before being placed into the grave, or whether the remains of the pyre were also buried


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with the cremated body. We suppose that the remains of the cremated body ere separated,

although this is merely an assumption based on the Roman character of this grave-form.

The chronology of brick-built cremation graves can be determined on the basis of thecemeteries in Emona and Poetovio. The earliest graves date from the beginning of the 1st

century A.D. and the upper chronological limit is marked by the graves in which coins ofMarcus Aurelius have been found. After this period there are no reliable finds of graves

of this type, so that the time of the Marcomannis wars represents the terminus ante

quem for this grave-form, at least in Pannonia Superior.

Graves with a box-like structure made of bricks are not known in the prehistoric funerary

tradition in the territory of Yugoslavia. Their similarity to the graves in the form of a box

made of stone slabs is merely formal and does not justify their typological and geneticassociation. Graves built of bricks are in intrusion in the territory of Yugoslavia, which

should be directly associated with Italy, where it may be considered as a continuation,

with local modifications, of some Hellenistic traditions.

The distribution of brick-built graves, their character and accompanying material, as well

as the manner of burial associated with them show that this grave-form was used by the

Romanized immigrants or by the Romanized members of the native population. This

seems to be true of the entire territory of Yugoslavia except the province of Macedonia.The graves of this type from Stobi, Demir Kapija, Debriste may be considered as a

continuation of the earlier Greek funerary tradition , such as are evidenced at Trebeniste

and Beranci.

A variant close in form but different in origin may be also included into the group ofbrick-built graves in the form of a cist. This variant consists of graves constructed of

several courses of bricks laid horizontalla. They are box-like structures of considerablesize (about 1,5-2 x 0,7-1 m) containing remains of the pyre. Such graves have beenreported from Topusko, Demir Kapija and Brestovik and have been dated into the 2nd

century or the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. Elements of two sepulchral principles

are merged in the graves of this type: the form and the dimensions of the grave are thesame as in the case of graves containing inhumation burials (it seems that the

arrangement of the grave-goods and of the remains of cremation in the burial pit follows

that of skeleton graves), while the basic burial rite is cremation. This sepulchral hybrid,consisting of elements of the old and new funerary traditions, may be associated with the

Romanized population in urban and suburban settlements.

Stone UrnsStone urns have been found on a number of sites in the Provinces of Dalmatia and,sporadically, in Pannonia Superior. No finds of this type have been reported from the

Yugoslav parts of the provinces of Noricum, Pannonia Inferior and Moesia Superior. A

local modification of the Italic model was in use in Macedonia (cf.. map 32).


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The material which has been published makes it possible to obtain a reliable idea of this

form of burial, of its cultural traits and of its chronology. This form of graves also makes

it possible for us to trace the process of Romanization. It is remarkable that there existconsiderable differences within this group, although they display some common features

resulting from the common origin of all the graves of this type. In the case of the earlier

graves with stone urns, which belong to the 1st century A.D. and are for the most partlocated in the cemeteries of large towns or along the Adriatic, the remains of the

cremated body were carefully separated from the pyre and placed first into a glass or

earthenware receptacle (olla cineraria) and then into the stone urn. The graves of thistype found in the inland parts of Dalmatia and in Pannonia Superior are later - they

belong to the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. - and show no clear evidence of the separation

of the remains of the cremated body form the remains of the structure of the pyre. In a

majority of cases charred bones mixed with soot and ashes were placed directly into thestone urn, without a glass or earthenware receptacle. This difference is not merely formal,

not can it be ascribed to chronology only. It reflects different attitudes to burial. Urn

burials from the zone along the shore and from the cemeteries of large towns dating from

the 1st century A.D. have a more conspicuous Roman component, manifested in theprocedure of the separation of the remains of the cremated body from the pyre. The later

graves from the inland and peripheral regions belong to the Romanized population inwhich the degree of Romanization was not so great as to modify radically that

autochthonous sepulchral traditions. The Roman grave-form was adopted, but the

principle of the separation of the cremated body was not.

Stone urns were commonly laid into simple burial pits dug into the soil or rock. Usuallythe burials were individual. In a few cases (Vis, Split, Vid, Trogir) stone urns were placed

in family tombs (ossuaria). The ossuaries probably represent a continuation of the earlier

funerary tradition of burying a number of individuals in family tombs. This tradition is

clearly evidenced in Dalmatia - on Vis, for example.

Stone urns can be divided according to their form into cylindrical and tetrahedral urns.

These forms are basically of related origin. The tetrahedral urns - especially their roof-

like lid - imitate the form of a house or a mausoleum. Such urns are common in thewestern provinces of the Empire, so that the examples found in the territory of

Yugoslavia are probably associated with immigrants from these regions. The cylindrical

stone urns seem to imitate the form of a tumulus in which the cylindrical part is elongated

so that it can house the glass olla. This part is otherwise considerably shorter in typicaltumuli. The calotte-shaped lid of these urns resembles the calotte of a tumulus. If this

reconstruction is valid, stone urns of both types were based on the same model. In both

cases, the model is a building with sacral elements: a mausoleum (tetrahedral urns) or atumulus (cylindrical urns).

The grave-goods found in stone urns consist mainly of lamps, glass and earthenware

vessels, coins and jewelry. Weapons and pottery bearing autochthonous traits have not

been found. This corroborates the idea suggested earlier that this grave-form is Romanand that it was grafted on to the native tradition as a result of Romanization. The grave-

goods, and particularly the coins, make it possible to establish a comparatively precise


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chronology of the graves with stone urns. The earliest graves are dated by Julio-Claudian

coins. These graves have been discovered in the cemeteries of large towns (Iader, Salona,

Argyruntum, Emona, etc.), on the islands and along the eastern shore of the Adriatic.Epigraphic monuments on which the family names of Julius and Claudius appear are also

common in this region. The stone urns found in the inland parts of the province of

Dalmatia contained coins from the end of the 1st century to the end of the 3rd centuryA.D. (from Domitianus to Aurelianus). This chronological difference is a clear indicator

of the way in which Romanization spread from the Adriatic coast towards the inland

regions.

Stone urns of other forms also appear sporadically in the territory of Yugoslavia. An urnin the form of the base of a pillar has been discovered at Karlobag (Vegium) and urns in

the form of large beakers have been found in Ljubljana (Emona) and Nis (Naissus). Urns

in the form of a pillar base have been found in the western provinces of the Empire, sothat a certain influence from these regions may be assumed. Urns in the form of beakers

found in the territory of Yugoslavia are extremely simplified versions of the fine Italian

models of alabaster or marble, which are themselves modifications of the products of the"neo-Attic" industry from the end of the republican period in Italy. A special variety isrepresented by a cylindrical urn with a lid in the form of a pine cone decorated with

wreaths and bucrania, which was found at Resava near Kavadarci. This urn is very

similar in form, tectonics and decoration to Italic models. However, this urn cannot beconsidered an importation; it is rather a local product with a decorative pattern taken over

from ash-chests and grave stelai found in the region of Sandanski (southern Bulgaria).

Metal Urns

Metal urns are very rare in the territory of Yugoslavia. Isolated finds have been reported

from Karlobag (Vegium), Stari Grad (Argyruntum), Kostolac (Viminacium) and Skopje(Scupu). The examples from Viminacium are made of lead; they are cylindrical in form

and have a lid with a circular opening in the centre for the tube down which libationswere poured. Cylindrical urns made of lead have been reported from several sites in the

western provinces of the Empire. They date from the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The urn

from Vegium is made of bronze plaques; one of them bears in inscription dated, on thebasis of epigraphic evidence, into the 1st century AD.

The silver "urn" from Taskovic near Nis, which is well known in archaeological

literature, has not been taken into account here because it probably served a different

purpose and was used as a jewelry box.

Graves with Earthenware Urns

A methodological difficulty precludes the application of the "principle of form" in

making a classification of the graves with urns from the Roman imperial period and in

interpreting their ethnical and cultural traits. Many graves with earthenware urns have thesame formal features and could be therefore considered as belonging to the same funerary


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horizon and as manifestations of the same evolutionary process. The actual situation is,

however, quite different and manifestations of very varied processes may often assume

the same form. The ethnical and cultural features of the graves with earthenware urnsfrom the horizons of burial of the Iapodes and Oseriates, for example, are different from

those found in the graves of the same type from the Stenjevac horizon, or from the

Dacian horizon of burial in Moesia Superior, or again from the graves with urns fromPannonia Superior. Several smaller groups with approximately the same origin can be

distinguished within these horizons of burial. The graves with earthenware urns from

northern Bosnia (the horizons of burial of the Iapodes, the Oseriates and the Meseies)represent a continuation of the earlier, autochthonous tradition which had an unbroken

line of development in this area since the establishment of the "urnfield" culture. The

graves with urns from the Stenjevac horizon, which are not numerous, represent a

continuation of the La Tene tradition in Pannonia and show that the beginnings of theRoman domination did not cause a major break in funerary practice. Graves with urns,

comparable to those in Dacia, have been reported from several cities in Moesia Superior

(Paracin, Viminacium, Velesnica). These graves belonged to the Dacian population

which was transferred from its old homeland to Moesia Superior in the 1st century AD.

As opposed to these graves in which the autochthonous and non-Roman component

predominates, there are graves with urns which should be viewed in the context of

Roman grave-forms. These are mainly the graves in the Dalmatian littoral, in the north-western part of Pannonia Superior, in Moesia Superior and in Macedonia. In the province

of Dalmatia graves with earthenware urns represent the main form in northern Dalmatia,

central Dalmatia and in the horizons of burial of the Docleates and the Pirustes. Here,graves with urns should be viewed as a direct manifestation of the process of

Romanization. In the period before the Roman occupation the basic form of burial in this

area was the skeleton grave, flat or under a tumulus. Alter the coming of the Romans, the

burial practice changed and cremation became the dominant rite. In the absence of anadequate grave-form in its own local tradition (cremation had not been practised here to

any considerable extent in the proto-historic period), the native population of the

Dalmatian littoral adopted Roman forms (earthenware urns and, more rarely, the doliumor boxes built of bricks). The urns themselves were often fashioned in the traditional

autochthonous style, but the basic sepulchral meaning of the grave-form was not

autochthonous.

Graves with earthenware urns also appear in large town and suburban settlements ofPannonia Superior. These graves are a Roman interpolation in this area, for there had

been no urn burial in the earlier funerary practice. The graves with urns from Emona,

Poetovio, Praetorium Laobicorum represent Roman forms associated with immigrants orwith the Romanized local population. This also applies to the graves with earthenware

urns from Moesia Superior (not those from the Dacian funerary tradition) and

Macedonia. Some graves with urns from Moesia Superior (for example, those atAdrovac) reflect a revival of earlier sepulchral tradition (perhaps Karaburma or Donja

Toponica); however, this cannot be established, for we know very little of the funerary

practices in this area.


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Stone Ash-Chests

Stone ash-chests are in fact a Roman grave-form. However, the basic Roman model was

modified in so many ways in the teritory of Yugoslavia that it is not always easy torecognize the common sepulchral basis under the multiplicity of local forms. The bane

model was combined with elements of the earlier sepulchral traditions and, consequently,there are considerable differences between the stone ash-chests from Dalmatia andMoesia Superior, the cinerary boxes of the "Poetovio" type, the "Iapodes urns", and the

stone the stone boxes with small legs from Macedonia.

A number of ash-chests from Dalmatia may be considered a combination of the stone urn

and the gravestone. Both these elements are alien to the autochthonous tradition.However, Illyrian names with the Illyrian anthroponymic formula appear on the majority

of ash-chests, especially those from the inland parts of the province of Dalmatia. The

preference given to this grave-form by the native population cannot be explained byRomanization only. Part of the explanation may be that some formal elements of this type

of the grave were not completely unknown to the native population. It has been suggestedthat there is a link between the stone ash-chests from the Roman epoch and the cists made

of stone slabs used in this territory in the prehistoric period. The formal similarity ofthese two types of graves may have been the reason why the native population adopted

the Roman form (the ash-chest).

The hypothesis that an earlier grave-form was revived, in a modified form, as a result of

Romanization, is supported by the chronology of the graves of this type. The earliest ash-chests are from the big towns on the Adriatic coast (Salona, Narona, Aenona -1st century

A.D.), while the examples from the inland parts of the province are later (end of the 1st

century - 3rd century A.D.) and date from the time when influences from the Romanized

littoral reached the continental parts of Dalmatia.

Stone ash-chests of the "Poetovio" type represent a secondary Roman form. According to

E. Diez, they derive from the funerary arae from the territory of Noricum and Pannonia,

while the opinion of the present author is that they represent reduced variants of thesepulchral monuments of the "Sempeter" type. In any case, the form is derived from a

Roman model. These ash-chests date from the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.

The non-decorated stone ash-chests from Pannonia, Noricum Moesia Superior are ofRoman origin. This is shown by their distribution the type and character of the grave-

goods and the funerary rite.

The "Iapodes urns", which represent the most thorough modification of the Roman

model, also belong to the group of stone ash-chests. The lower chronology of theseobjects, proposed by D. Sergejevski, I. Cremosnik and D. Srejovic, has been adopted

here.

The stone ash-chests from Macedonia are of a somewhat different structure. They also

seem to be culturally and genetically different. This form of the grave is a combination of


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stone receptacle and a stela and originated in the region round Kavadarci. The primary

influences probably came from Stobi. The anthroponymic content of the inscriptions

shows that the graves held Greeks or Grecized natives. The form of these ash-chests,especially their short legs, suggests that the origin of these graves should be sought in the

Hellenistic East, where sarcophagi with legs are common.

Mausolea

Few mausolea from the territory of Yugoslavia belong to the Romanized population. Thetombs built above ground of the area maceria cincta type which have been reported

from Salona and Komini (Municipium S...) are close imitations of the models from the

Aquilean culture area. Somewhat reduced replicas of Aquilean funerary structures with asimilar spatial organization and a consistent application of the principle in fronte ... in

agro ... have been found in Iader, Argyruntum and Kolovrat. Some elements of Aquilean

origin are noticeable in the mausoleum in Emona, especially in the fence of the funeraryspace proper. However, the idea of a pillar surmounted by the statue of the deceased

probably originated under influences emanating from Rome.

The Liburnian cippi, in which the spatial arrangement of the mausoleum is greatly

reduced, but the tectonic structure is very similar, represent very radical simplifications ofthe Aquilean models.

The graves-mausolea from Sempeter (Celea) are a combination of the Aquilean structural

scheme and the Norican-Pannonian decorative conception and sculptural style.

The mausoleum at Donja Pecka, which has been only partly explored, is based on a

somewhat different conception. It probably belonged to the mausolea of the "naiskos"

type which are based on certain Hellenistic traditions. The mausoleum can bereconstructed on the basis of the representations of a mausoleum on the gables of the lids

of the ash-chests from Livanjsko Polje. The primary impulse probably came from theHellenized Adriatic coast, where grave stelai similar in decoration and function were

common.

The tomb-mausoleum of Pomponia Vera from Salona is similar in form to the models

from the earlier Italic sepulchral tradition

The ossuaries marked with specific cone-shaped cippi from Boka Kotorska and Budva

have, in the opinion of D. Rendic-Miocevic, direct genetic, ethnic and cultural links with

the monuments of similar structure from the neighborhood of Dyrrachium. The majorityof these monuments have been dated on the basis of epigraphic evidence into the 2ndcentury and the beginning of the 3rd century A.D.

Non-Roman alien forms of burial


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Some alien grave-forms which do not come from Italy but from other cultures, also

appear in the territory of Yugoslavia. This group includes the graves of the Latobici

horizon, graves in the form of wells, cylindrical alburial pits with several skeleton burials,Dacian forms of burial in Moesia Superior and Thracian graves under barrows in

Macedonia and Moesia Superior.

The graves from the Latobici horizon have been reported from a number of cities in

Dolenjsko (map 5). They have a specific spatial organization of the grave, with aninterior division into two unequal sections of different funerary functions and contents.

Their grave-goods are of a special kind, the most striking and important being the urns in

the form of a house. The origin of the individual elements of the Latobici funerarystructure should be sought in the Rhine valley (the spatial division of the grave, the form

of the grave) and in the sub-Alpine region (urns in the form of a house Hercynia silva).

The forms of the graves belonging to the Latobici horizon were also influenced by theforms of burial in the adjacent territories of Noricum and Pannonia. The graves of the

Latobici horizon are not an autochthonous development derived from the native

sepulchral tradition. They represent an intrusive form brought to Pannonia Superior bythe Celtic tribe of Latobici, who settled in this region at the end of the 1st century B.C. orearly in the 1st century A.D. The earliest graves from this horizon belong to the early 1st

century A.D. and the latest ones date from as late as the beginning of the 4th century. A

number of variants within this funerary horizon has been distinguished, but they are allbased on the same sepulchral principle.

Graves in the form of wells have been discovered in the cemeteries of large towns in

Pannonia and Moesia Superior (Sirmium, Singidunum, Viminacium, and, probably,

Siscia). It is a very specific form (cylindric alburial pits, sometimes more than 10 metresdeep) without precedent in the earlier sepulchral tradition in the territory of Yugoslavia.

This form is an "importation", most likely from Gaul, where such graves are mostcommon. Their appearance in the territory of Yugoslavia should be probably associatedwith immigrants from that region, who lived in large towns. The examples from

Yugoslavia mark the easternmost boundary of the distribution of this type of graves. The

grave-goods suggest a partly Romanized population (lams, glass, coins, luxury pottery).Some graves from Sirmium and Viminacium, however, contained coarse native

earthenware and weapons. About ten human skulls were found in a grave of this type

from Viminacium, and a human skeleton irregularly buried, as if it had been sacrificed on

the grave, was found above another grave of this type. These elements are common inCeltic sepulchral practice. Traces of such conceptions are found among the Scordisci as

well. Graves in the form of wells found in the territory of Yugoslavia belong, to the 1st

and 2nd centuries A.D (the latest examples at Viminacium are dated by the coins ofMarcus Aurelius).

A "collective tomb" with skeleton burials from the beginning of the 1st century AD. was

discovered at Gomolava. Five (?) skeleton burials were laid into a shallow, cylindrical

pit. This does not seem to be a grave in the proper sense. It is probably a sacrificial pitinto which human victims were placed after they had been ritually sacrificed, Suchburial

pits with several sacrificed bodies from the late La Tne period are known from several


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sites in West and Central Europe, where they are directly associated with the Celtic

religious tradition, and from Dacia, where they are related to the Dacian religion (for

example, Orlea). The finds from Gomolava contain elements from the Celtic (theScordisci) and the Dacian ethnical and cultural spheres. It would be, therefore, unsafe to

attempt a closer definition of the culture traits of this interesting funerary structure.

Several grave-forms with a dominant Dacian component have been discovered in Moesia

Superior. These forms were either associated directly with the Dacian sepulchral tradition(graves with urns) or reached Moesia Superior after they had been modified ("Daciazed")

in the Dacian territories (graves in the form of a tub, "graves-stoves"). The graves with

urns, which are usually made in the prehistoric technique characteristic of the Dacian lateLa Tne, contain a small quantity of the remains from the pyre as an expression of the

idea ofpars pro toto, which is otherwise present in the Dacian sepulchral tradition. Such

graves have been found at Paracin, Viminacium, Velesnica and on numerous sites inRumania (cf. map 25). Graves in the form of a tub or a sack are a manifestation of the

same sepulchral idea, but they have no receptacle. This grave-form has no direct

precedents in the Dacian funerary tradition and probably originated as a modification ofCeltic models. In the territory of Yugoslavia such graves have been reported fromBoljetin and Hajducka Vodenica (cf. map 26) and are dated into the 1st century and the

beginning of the 2nd century A.D. "Graves-stoves" contain skeleton burials. In the

territory of Moesia Superior only on grave of this type has been found (at Manastir nearDobra).Such graves probably represent belated example of catacombs with inhumation

burials from the northern shore of the Black Sea. The occurrence of Dacia: grave-forms

in the territory of Moesia Superior can be explained historically, for a considerableportion of the Dacian population was transferred from the left to the right bank of the

Danube in the 1st century AD.

Several graves under mounds which are associated with the Thracian sepulchral traditionhave been discovered in the territory of Moesia Superior and Macedonia (cf mp. 21-24,29). These graves should not be considered as examples of an alien form, for there is

cultural continuity with the Thracian diaspora in this marginal territory.

Autochthonous grave- forms

Autochthonous grave-forms are those funerary forms which derive from the earliersepulchral traditions and whose basic funerary elements are in direct line of descent from

the earlier forms. Such sepulchral and cultural continuity implies the same ethnic

character of a specific area. Such conditions obtained only in regions where a very stable

sepulchral tradition existed in the pre-Roman period and where Romanization was not sointense as to transform radically the local culture.

Graves based on earlier, autochthonous traditions are very numerous in the territory of

Yugoslavia. In a majority of cases the continuity is immediately apparent, for the basicand frequently even formal funerary traits did not change much in the course of the slow

evolutionary process. In such circumstances, genetic connections can be established and

stages of the sepulchral process can be reconstructed even if some link in the


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evolutionary chain is missing. In some cases, however, the later replica may depart so

much from its genetic model that the autochthonous character of a grave-form may be

established only in an indirect way. In such cases it is necessary to separate the elementsof the sepulchral structure and to analyze individually the sepulchral constants (the

manner of burial, the attitude to the remains of the cremated body, the relationship

between the location of the pyre and the grave, the position of the remains of cremationin the burial pit, the type and character of the grave-goods) and the ephemeral elements

(the form of the grave). Links with the earlier tradition must be evidenced in the

sepulchral constants.

A considerable number of graves of autochthonous origin contain Roman elements andthus provide evidence for an analyzes of the character and degree of Romanization in the

territory of Yugoslavia. Intense Romanization which transformed the local culture took

place only in the large towns, along important communications and at the major strategicpoints on the limes. In the other areas prehistoric traditions continued to develop. The

clearest indicator of this continuity of culture are the burial customs and the grave-forms.

Autochthonous Grave-Forms in Noricum and Pannonia

The autochthonous burial horizons in the Yugoslav parts of Noricum and PannoniaSuperior are: the Norican-Pannonian barrows; the post-Mokronog horizon; the cemeteries

of the "Stenjevac" type; and the cemeteries in the zone between the post-Mokronog

horizon and the horizon with the Norican-Pannonian barrows.

Burial under Norican-Pannonian barrows represents the dominant form of burial inNoricum and the north-western parts of Pannonia Superior in the Roman period (map 1).

The basic features of this grave-form are: cremation on the ustrinum (usually outside the

boundaries of the barrow); the placement of the remains of the pyre - without theseparation of the remains of the cremated body - into burial pits (usually without a

receptacle); and the heaping of a small barrow over the burial pit. The differences in the

forms of graves are a result of the social differentiation of the population, not of different

sepulchral conceptions. The type and character of the grave-goods stress the importanceof the autochthonous component in this grave-form. The pottery is usually closely

associated with the prehistoric eastern Alpine ware (pots with "broom-shaped" designs,

three-legged bowls, etc.), there are parts of the Norican-Pannonian costume, while lamps,coins, glass objects and luxury ware are very rare. In the Norican-Pannonian barrows

from the Roman period we see a survival of the Hallstatt traditions, but not as a "revival"

of these forms in the conditions after the Celtic occupation, for the Celts did not have

organizational means for such a suppression of autochthonous sepulchral traditions. It isapparent rather in a continuity which is more conspicuous in settlements than in

cemeteries, although the cemeteries, too, display elements of unbroken development. The

burials under Norican-Pannonian barrows from the Early Iron Age and from the Romanperiod are almost identical in their sepulchral forms, which is a fact that can be explained

only by direct continuity. This continuity is a consequence of the fact that the ethnic

situation in this territory did not change over a long period of time. Secondary culturalimpulses during the Celtic domination which had a greater impact in the river valleys


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than in the hilly districts, where Norican-Pannonian barrows are located, did not seriously

affect the sepulchral ideas of the Noricans, who were probably the bearers of the burial

under Norican-Pannonian barrows.

The post-Mokronog horizon of burial comprises a number of graves discovered on

several sites in the western part of Pannonia Superior (map 2). The common features ofthe graves belonging to this horizon are that the body was cremated on the ustrinum, that

the remains of the pyre were not separated from the remains of the body and were placedinto the burial pit without an urn. The graves were flat, and the burial pits were of a

simple circular or rectangular form and without any features of the "grave architecture".

The accompanying material was scant. The commonest grave-goods were earthenwarevessels, usually local products, and parts of the Norican-Pannonian costume (fibulae A

236, A 238, A 67 and parts of a Norican-Pannonian belt). There are no material

indications of Romanization, such as lamps, coins, glass, fine pottery or terra sigillata. Itwas only in Emona, where the process of Romanization had different stages and took a

more organized form, that such finds were discovered among the grave-goods.

All the basic elements of the post-Mokronog horizon of burial show that it is an

autochthonous horizon very little affected by the process of Romanization. Traits of theearlier, pre-Roman sepulchral tradition are clearly recognizable in these graves. In fact,

the earlier and the later graves are almost identical, the only conspicuous difference being

that the graves of the post-Mokronog horizon did not contain arms. This difference isprobably due to the "pacification" of the native population under the Roman occupation.

The graves of the post-Mokronog horizon represent a continuation of the sepulchral

traditions of the Mokronog culture. This continuity is best seen in the cemeteries which

contain graves from both horizons of burial (Novo Mesto, Dobova, Mihovo, DresinjaVas, Formin, etc.). The bearers of the Mokronog culture horizon are the Celts (the

Taurisci), and the sepulchral continuity seems to indicate that the burials in the post-Mokronog horizon also belong to the Taurisci. The graves of the post-Mokronog type aredatable into the period from the beginning of the 1st century to the middle of the 2nd

centuryA.D., when Romanization ousted out the earlier autochthonous tradition in this

part of Pannonia Superior.

In the zone of the merging of the influences of the post-Mokronog horizon and thehorizon with the Norican-Pannonian barrows there appear specific, hybrid forms of

graves with elements of both funerary horizons (map 3). The elements of the post-

Mokronog horizon are the form of burial pit. the way in which the remains of the pyrewere placed into the burial pit, and the fact that the graves are flat. The influence of the

Norican-Pannonian barrows is evidenced in the "grave architecture" (the walls of the

burial pit are lined with stones laid without mortar) and in the accompanying material(the pottery with the features typical of the eastern Alpine centres). This hybrid form of

the graves is a result of a mixture of elements from two ethnic and cultural spheres (the

Noricans and the Taurisci). In view of this, it seems quite likely that Pliny refers to this

area in his remark"quondam Taurisci appelat, nuncNorici".


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Graves of a simple form, included into the horizon of cemeteries of the "Stenjevac" type,

are common in many parts of Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior. The greatest

number of the graves of this type has been explored on the type-site Stenjevac. Thegraves usually have a circular, epipsoid or rectangular burial pit filled with the remains of

the pyre. A small proportion only (15-20%) contained urns. The accompanying material

consists mostly of the pottery of local provenance, while glass and terra sigillata are veryrare. The manner of burial, the attitude to the cremated remains, the form of the burial pit,

the type and character of the grave-goods indicate that this grave-form is autochthonous.

It seems likely that the graves from the cemeteries of the "Stenjevac" type represent acontinuation of the La Tne sepulchral tradition in this region. In the late La Tne (Lt. C-

D) biritualism was no longer practised and cremation became the basic form of burial.

The body was cremated on the ustrinum and the remains were then transferred directly to

the burial pit or the urn. As regards their basic funerary features, the graves belonging tothe late La Tne period in Pannonia and those from the cemeteries of the Stenjevac type

from the Roman times are similar and may be considered as manifestations of similar

sepulchral ideas. The difference in the accompanying material (the presence of weapons

in the graves from the late c period and their absence from the graves of the Stenjevachorizon) is of minor importance and is a result of partial Romanization. The unity of the

sepulchral idea on which the graves of this type from the late La Tne and the Romanperiods were based is also shown by the fact that they have been found in the same

cemeteries (Sotin, Gardos and others). This continuity was not greatly affected by the

Roman occupation. The ethnic picture did not radically change: the predominant

elements of the population were the Celtic tribes and the earlier, native, Pannonianpopulation. The ethnic continuity in this area was accompanied by the continuity of the

sepulchral idea. The Hungarian part of the province of Pannonia (Vasas, Sserzegtomaj,

Gyor-Nadorvaros, etc.) presents a similar picture.

The graves in the cemeteries of the Stenjevac type are basically very similar to thosebelonging to the post-Mokronog horizon. The similarity results from the fact that these

graves belonged mainly to the Celtic ethnic element. The main difference is in the fact

that the graves of the Stenjevac horizon have a more conspicuous Pannonian component(e.g. graves with urns.) The accompanying material is also different (elements of

Norican-Pannonian costume are very rare in the cemeteries of the Stenjevac type). The

boundary between these two horizons is represented by Mons Claudius (Medvednica-Ivancica), which is also mentioned in classical sources as a boundary between the

Taurisci and the other Celtic populations in Pannonia.

The Bosnian part of the Sava valley, in which graves of the so-called Oseriates horizon of

burial have been discovered, also belongs, organizationally, to the province of Pannonia.The graves belonging to this horizon are, however, very similar to some sepulchral forms

found in the province of Dalmatia and will be discussed in that context.

Graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase ( and II type are common in Pannonia, and

particularly in Pannonia Inferior (Sirmium, Mursa, Beska, Kunovec, Breg). It is notpossible to say at present whether these graves were a result of influences coming from

the south-east (from Moesia) for whether they were an integral part of a broader cultural


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sphere (the Morava valley, the lower Danubian valley, southern Pannonia), in which

similar evolutionary processes of autochthonous character let to the emergence of similar

forms. Without giving a definitive answer to this question, we should like to point out thechronological precedence of the graves of this form in Moesia because this fact may be of

help in determining the direction in which influences spread.

Autochthonous Grave-Forms in Moesia Superior

A very small number of graves which belong to the Roman funerary conception has beenfound in Moesia Superior, (the number of such graves does not exceed 5 % of the total).

The Roman grave-forms have been discovered only in large urban centres (Viminacium,

Scupi, Naissus, Singidunum) and along the Limes (Boljetin, Karatas). However, even in

the cemeteries of major towns (Scupi, Viminacium, Naissus) these graves represent aminor form. A analysis of the number of autochthonous and Roman graves in the

cemeteries of Moesia Superior shows that the intensity of Romanization was not very

great in this territory. This conclusion is corroborated by the inscriptions, in which native

names predominate, and by the epichoric basis of the majority of cults evidenced in theterritory of Moesia Superior.

The autochthonous grave-forms m Moesia Superior are represented by the graves of the

Mala Kopasnica) Sase I, II and III type and by individual graves found under mounds ineastern Serbia. It is possible that some graves with urns (e.g. Androvac) should be also

included into this group. They have not been fully published yet, but they seem to be

based on the earlier La Tne funerary tradition rather than on the usual Roman funerarypatterns.

The graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase I and II type have been reported from a number

of sites in Moesia Superior, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Dacia and Macedonia (cf. map. 19). Thegraves belonging to Variant I have a large rectangular burial pit filled with the remains ofthe pyre; the sides of the burial pit are burnt because of the purification of the burial area.

The graves belonging to Variant II represent a more complex form of Variant I. Here the

burial pit is dug within a larger pit, so that a tomb a etage was formed. The sides of theupper and lower pit were burnt. The body was cremated on the ustrinum (ustrina have

been found at Viminacium, Kosmaj and Intercisa) and a large quantity of the remains of

the pyre was placed directly into the burial pit, without an urn. We suppose that thesegraves derivate from the graves a etage known from the northern coast of the Black Sea

and the lower Danubian valley in prehistory, although those graves held inhumation

burials. Influences emanating from that area also led to the appearance of the graves a

etage of the bustum type under mounds in the territory of Thrace; hence the similaritybetween the Yugoslav and the Thracian examples should be considered as a matter of

converging, not analogous phenomena. The graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase I and II

type belong to the period from the beginning of the 1st to the beginning of the 4th centuryA.D. The earliest graves of this type have been discovered in the territory of Yugoslavia

(Scupi, Stobi), which may mean that this was the original area of this form. Ethnically,

these graves should be probably associated with the Dacian-Misian-Dardanian culturalsphere.


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The graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase III type are similar in form to the graves of the

Mala Kopanica - Sase I type, but their sides are not burnt. The body was cremated on the

ustrinum, and the remains of the pyre were placed, without the separation of the remainsof the body. into an ellipsoid burial pit. Such graves have been reported from several sites

in the Morava valley, in the Skopje basin and in Kosovo (map 20), and they are datable

into the period from the end of the 1st century to the beginning of the 4th century AD.Their distribution shows that they should be probably associated with the Dardanian

population. Graves of this type derive from the graves of a similar sepulchral constitution

from the pre-Roman period found in this area (the latest horizon of graves at Romaja,Karagac, Krsevica, Tupu,nica).

Of the graves under mounds, those at Moravac show certain specific features, while the

others-belong to the Thracian ethno-cultural sphere (cf. map 21-24). The form of the

grave in the central part of the mound at Moravac has no direct analogies in the easternpart of the Balkan Peninsula, where burial under mounds represents the basic sepulchral

form.

The earthenware material from these mounds shows some similarities with the products

of the late Dacian La Tne, but the evidence that is available does not warrant anassociation of the grave under the mound at Moravac with the burials under tumuli in

Dacia.

Autochthonous Grave-Forms in Macedonia

The autochthonous grave-forms in Macedonia are represented by the graves of the

Beranci-Stobi type found in the middle Vardar valley and in Pelagonia, and by the gravesunder mounds from eastern Macedonia.

The graves of the Beranci-Stobi type (map 27) represent, as regards their basic funerary

elements (cremation on the ustrinum), a direct continuation of the earlier sepulchraltradition in this area. The body as cremated on the ustrinum and the remains of the pyre

were placed, without the separation of the remains of the body, into a circular or

rectangular burial pit surrounded or lined with small stones. Such graves appear towards

the end of the Archaic period and remain the basic form in the classical and Hellenisticperiods. Sacral continuity of the grave-forms and locations of cemeteries can be noticed

on some sites (Demir Kapija, Beranci). This continuity is a reflection of the ethnic

continuity in this area. The ethnic picture as not radically altered; the Paeonians (thePelagones should be viewed within this ethno-cultural context) represent the dominant

ethnic category which did not change to any greater extent in the vagaries of their

military and political power. It is interesting to note that the graves of the Beranci-Stobitype have points of similarity with those of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase III type in Moesia

Superior. This fact may also have interesting historical implications.

Several tumuli from the Roman period have been reported from eastern Macedonia (cf.

map 29). These mounds may be ultimately associated with the Thracian population,although they display certain specific features. Thus the "princely" grave under mound


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from Tarinci has no direct formal analogies with the graves in the Thracian cultural

sphere. The elements which this grave has in common with the Thracian tumuli are:

burial on the spot of cremation (bustum), the mound, the type and character of the grave-goods (chariot, candelabrum, weapons, applique ornaments made of gold.) The chief

difference is in the spatial organization of the grave. The grave at Tarinci has two zones

(on a horizontal plane) with a different sepulchral content. This is a reflection of theearlier sacral tradition in this region, attested by the flat graves at Karaorman dating from

the late Archaic period. This marging of the elements of the Thracian and autochthonous

sepulchral traditions may be a result either of the direct presence of the Thracians or,more probably, of the "Thracization" of the autochthonous population.

The sepulchral tradition in the neighborhood of lake Ohrid (which did not belong to the

province of Macedonia, but to Epirus) is somewhat different. Here, the dominant rite in

the classical and Hellenistic periods is inhumation, either under mounds or in flat graves.The bearers of this form of burial were the members of the Illyrian tribe of the

Dassaretae. With the beginnings of the Roman occupation of this area the burial rite

changed and native population adopted other forms of graves - not the Roman ones, butthose from the neighboring Pelagonia, which may be interpreted as an expression ofresistance to the conquerors.

Autochthonous Grave-Forms in Dalmatia

The interpretation of the autochthonous grave-forms in the province of Dalmatia presents

complex problems and requires a special methodological approach. In the case of theautochthonous forms of graves in the other provinces it is possible to establish a direct (or

partly modified) link with the earlier sepulchral traditions both in the form of the grave

and in the manner of burial. In the province of Dalmatia, however, there is no apparent

continuity. The only exceptions are the "sub-Illyrian" horizons of burial (the Iapodes,Meseises, Oseriates and partly Daesidiates), which show continuity with the graves from

the prehistoric period.

The horizons of burial located in the primary Illyrian territory (central and northernDalmatia, the territory of the Docleates and the Piristal) present a different picture. Here

the basic traits of the earlier sepulchral tradition were suppressed and only its secondary

manifestations can be recognized. Inhumation was the basic rite in this Illyrian territorybefore the Roman domination. With the beginning of the Roman occupation cremation

superseded inhumation as the dominant rite. Since the native population did. not have

cremation graves in its own tradition., id adopted the Roman grave-forms or,occasionally, forms from the adjacent regions in which cremation had been known before

the Roman domination. It is therefore erroneous to ascribe the Roman forms of graves,

especially those in the interior of the province, to immigrants or to a highly Romanized

population. These graves belong mostly to the native population, and the degree of itsRomanization may be assessed on the basis of secondary funerary elements (the character

of the grave-goods, the type of cremated remains, the location of the graves, details of the


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funerary cult, etc.). The graves from the horizons of northern Dalmatia and of the

Docleates are nearer to the Roman sepulchral idea, while those from the horizons of

central Dalmatia and of the Pirustal have closer links with the autochthonous tradition.

The horizon of burial of the Pirustae comprises the graves discovered in the supposed

territory of the Pirustae. The cemeteries explored in this region are those at Komini(Municipium S ....), Kolovrat and Radoinja (map 10). The cemeteries at Komini and

Kolovrat contained a number of grave-forms which can be divided, according to theirbasic features, into two groups: graves without urns (with or without burnt walls) and

graves with a receptacle (urns made of pottery or stone, and ash-chests). It is supposed

that these two groups of graves belong to two different ethnic and cultural categories ofthe population.

In the period before the Roman conquests, the native population used the inhumation rite

and buried their dead under mounds. This is inferred from the analogies with the sphere

of the Glasinac culture. With the beginnings of the Roman occupation, the burial rite

changed and cremation became the dominant form of burial. The native population whichhad not known cremation in its funerary tradition, adopted the forms of graves from the

neighboring regions. It is very likely that the models came from the east (the territory ofthe Dardanians), where the basic form are the graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase type.

The simple burial pits filled with the remains of the pyre or the burial pits with burnt

sides (i.e. the graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase I and III type) at Komini and Kolovratare probably a result of the adoption of the grave-forms from the adjacent regions and

their incorporation into the local sepulchral tradition. The graves with earthenware or

stone urns and with ash-chests are probably associated with the immigrants from central

Dalmatia (from the hinterland of Salona), who were settled there in an organized way atthe beginning of the 2nd century A.D.

Several funerary elements indicate that the origin of the graves with earthenware or stone

receptacles should be sought in the region of central Dalmatia. They are: the form of thegraves, the type of the receptacles, the type and character of the grave-goods, the

structure of family burial units (a reduced area maceria cincta of the Aquilein type), the

insertion of the graves into earlier mounds (Radoinja), and, partly, the type of grave-stones. Evidence of the presence of immigrants from central Dalmatia has also been

found in epigraphic monuments and in the rites (e.g. the cult of Silvanus).

The occurrence of the graves of the Mala Kopasnica - Sase type in Dacia may be partly

accounted for by the migration of the Pirustae to this territory in the time of Traianus.

Similarly, the graves belonging to the horizon of burial of the Docleates do not havedirect links with the graves of the pre-Roman period in the territory settled by the

Docleates. The graves from the pre-Roman period discovered in this territory contained

inhumation burials (Momisic, Medun, Tuzi). Skeleton graves have also been reportedfrom the neighboring territory of the Labeates (Gostolj). With the Roman occupation the


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burial rite changed. Cremation became the basic form of burial, and the Docleates

adopted alien grave-forms because cremation was not known in their sepulchral tradition.

In the cemeteries of classical Doclea there are graves without urns (Mala Kopasnica -Sase I, II and III), which represent forms taken over from the Dardanian territory through

the mediation of the Pirustae, and graves with earthenware, stone and glass urns, and the

dolium, which were adopted directly from the Roman funerary practice The type andcharacter of the grave-goods (lamps, glass, coins) show that the inhabitants of Doclea

were highly Romanized. The central Dalmatian horizon of burial presents a similar

picture, the only difference being that here the autochthonous traits are slightly morepronounced (map 9). In the are a between the rivers Cetina and Neretva the dominant

burial rite in the Early and Late Iron Ages was inhumation (usually under mounds). The

latest graves of this type are those at Posusje, which date from the first years AD. The

Roman occupation led to a radical change in the burial rite and cremation completelyousted out inhumation.

In the new circumstances, the native population used the Roman forms of graves (urns,

ash-chests, the dolium), for it had no precedent in its own tradition-nor in the tradition ofthe adjacent regions whose inhabitants had also use the inhumation rite in the pre-Romanperiod. The graves of the central Dalmatian horizon of burial retained, however, some

elements of the earlier tradition. Some graves contained weapons and objects of

adornment (fibulae of the simplified Aucissa type, lunula-shaped earrings withpendentives) while an earthenware receptacle made in the prehistoric tradition was used

as the urn. The graves were usually secondarily dug into prehistoric mounds, which is

probably an expression of the idea of the continuity of the sacred site. In the other hand,the grave-goods common in Roman graves are rarely found in these graves (lamps, coins,

glass, luxury pottery). The graves of the central Dalmatian horizon of burial probably

belonged to the Dalmatae, the Daorsae and other minor Illyrian populations which

inhabited the territory between the rivers Cetina and Neretva.

The graves of the northern Dalmatian (Liburnian) horizon of burial show the highest

degree of Romanization. The earlier sepulchral tradition is completely superseded here

and its traces cannot be perceived. This situation is rather surprising in view of theconservative attitude of the Liburnians. The forms of burial of the Liburnians had not

essentially changed throughout the Early and Late Iron Ages. They buried their dead

under mounds or in flat graves using the inhumation rite. Even the burial in a contracted

position - an archaism which is a clear testimony of the conservative attitude of theLiburnian population - persisted for a long time. These graves nasally contained jewelry,

while pottery was rare. The coming of the Romans caused a complete break with

autochthonous sacral and cultural tradition. With the introduction of cremation, theLiburnians adopted the Roman grave-forms, burial rites and the type of the

accompanying material. Some traces of the earlier tradition can be noticed in the

appearance and fabric of the earthenware urns and in the fibulae (later variants of thefibulae of the Podgradje type). Weapons occur sporadically in the graves in the area

round the Krka river (Velika Mrdakovica, Dragisic); this is a result of the influence from

the adjacent territory of the Dalmatae. Even the Liburnian cippi, local products of thisarea, do not display autochthonous elements although they may be partly considered as a


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projection of the idea of the unity of the house-mound-gravestone. It may be supposed

that the Liburnian cippi represent a cheaper local substitute for the high quality Aquileian

tomb monuments and mausolea, with which they have some points of similarity asregards the tectonic structure and the arrangement of the individual elements of the

"architecture". Graves with earthenware and stone urns, boxes built of bricks and the

dolia (map 8) have been found on a number of sites in the Liburnian territory. They aredatable into the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. The high degree of Romanization of the

Liburnians is a reflection of the specific position of this region in the administrative

organization of the province of Dalmatia and of its fiscal and judicial links with Italy.

In the interior of the province of Dalmatia it is possible o distinguish several horizons ofburial in which the autochthonous sepulchral basis is in evidence: the burial horizons of

the Iapodes and the Oseriates, which belong partly to the province of Pannonia as well,

the burial horizon of the Mesoi, the burial horizon of the Deasidiates, and the post-Glasinac burial horizon.

The burial horizon of the Iapodes comprises the cemeteries from the territory inhabitedby the Iapodes in the pre-Roman and Roman periods (map 12). The basic funerary

features of the graves belonging to this horizon are directly related to the earliersepulchral tradition. This continuity is seen in the manner of burial (cremation on the

ustrinum), in the relation between the grave and the pyre, the attitude to the remains of

cremation (the remains of the body were not separated from the remains of the pyre), theform of the grave and the type of the grave-goods. In Phases V and Via of the culture of

the Iapodes (according to Z. Maric's periodization), which precede immediately the

Roman conquest of this territory, the most common grave-form is the one containing an

earthenware urn with the remains of the pyre. This grave-form appears also in the earlierperiods of the culture of the Iapodes (as early as Phase I), but it becomes common only in

Phase V. The same form and the same sepulchral content are found in the Roman period,too. Neither does the accompanying material change. The most common finds are potteryvessels, jewelry and weapons, while elements typical of the Roman graves of the early

imperial times - are scarce. Even the graves with stone urns (Jezerine, Ribic) contain

material marked by non-Roman, autochthonous features (weapons and fibulae of the lateLa Tne type). The urns of the Iapodes also belong to this horizon of burial. They

represent a combination of the native epichoric tradition and an alien morphological

conception.

The burial horizon of the Oseriates, the greater part of which belongs to the province ofPannonia, and the burial horizon of the Mezoi are not clearly defined ethnically and

culturally, for only a few graves belonging to them have been found. This can be partly

made up by a reconstruction of the elements provided by the earlier sepulchral traditionin this territory (e.g. the cemeteries at Sanski Most and Carakovo). We suppose that there

was cultural continuity, manifested in the sepulchral sphere as well, in this region from

the Early Iron Age (the time of- the emergence of the "urn-field" culture) to the Roman

period. The incorporation of this territory into the Roman provinces of Pannonia andDalmatia did not cause a radical change in the basic funerary conception (the cemeteries

at Donji Laminci, Puticevo, Mosunj, etc.). Cremation continued as the basic rite, and the


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forms of the graves (earthenware urns) and the accompanying material have points of

similarity with the earlier funerary elements in this region. Material reflecting the process

of Romanization is completely absent from the graves of the Roman period. Thechronological framework of the graves belonging to this horizon cannot be established

with precision: they appear at the beginning of the 1st century A.D. and are found until

the middle of the 3rd century A.D., when the process of Romanization was completed inthese regions.

The graves from the pre-Roman period in the territory inhabited by the Daesidiates have

not been sufficiently explored and are therefore difficult to interpret. Several graves from

the Roman period have been discovered in the cemeteries at Breza, Stup and perhapsJanjici. They contained remains of the pyre placed into small burial pits without a

receptacle and grave-goods consisting predominantly of arms and jewelry (there was no

pottery). A certain sepulchral continuity, which can be traced in the cemetery at Breza,shows that in the pre-Roman period, too, the dominating form of the grave was a shallow

pit filled with the remains of the pyre and that the grave-goods consisted of weapons and

jewelry. This grave-form is unusual in this region and its origin cannot be established. Itid both similar to and different from the graves belonging to the Pannonian and strictlyIllyrian cultural sphere. The use of the cremation rite is probably a result of the influences

emanating from Pannonia, but the character of the grave-goods is slightly different, and

the graves are without urns. On the other hand, the character and kind of the grave-goods(especially the absence of pottery) seem to point to the sphere of the Glasinac culture,

although the manner of burial is quite different. This specific character of the graves

belonging to the burial horizon of the Daesidiates may be explained by the fact that theDaesidiates inhabited the territory between the Illyrian Glasinac area and the region in

which the Pannonian sepulchral tradition had taken root. The adoption of individual

elements from different ethnic and cultural spheres resulted in the emergence of a hybrid

form which persisted into the Roman imperial times (the latest graves date from the 2ndcentury A.D.). It is interesting that classical sources, too, refer to the Daesidiates both as

an Illyrian and a Pannonian population.

The "post-Glasinac" horizon of burial consists of several skeleton graves dug into theprehistoric mounds on the Glasinac plateau. The continuity with the earlier graves from

Glasinac is manifested in the burial rite (inhumation is the dominant rite, especially in the

latest phase of the Glasinac culture), in the type of the grave-goods (jewelry, arms; no

pottery), and in he use of earlier sepulchral cores as burial sites. The absence ofinhumation burials from the Late Iron Age at Glasinac makes it difficult to trace the

ethnic and cultural continuity (a possible link may be the skeleton burials under tumuli

from the neighboring Krajcinovici, which belong to the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C.). It isto be supposed that even in the Late Iron Age there were inhumation burials on Glasinac

which marked the cultural and ethnic continuity. The influence of Romanization in this

geographically isolated area with a strong local tradition was very weak and did not affectthe basic cultural (and sepulchral) traits. Hence the Glasinac plateau was the only region

in which inhumation remained the dominant rite in the early imperial times. In this

conservative community even the members of a higher economic and social status werenot Romanized. A grave from Ustikolina, which belongs to the 2nd century A.D.


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contained rich grave-goods, but no evidence of Romanization, such as lamps, coins, glass

or pottery.

Inhumation and Chronological Relationship between Cremation and Inhumation

Before a thorough study of the graves containing skeleton burials in the territory ofYugoslavia in the early imperial times can be made, it is necessary to establish two basic

elements: the origin of this form of burial and the lower chronological limit of its

appearance.

Two hypothesis may be advanced in an attempt o trace the origin of inhumation in theterritory of Yugoslavia in the early imperial times: a) that this rite represents a

continuation of the earlier sepulchral traditions; and b) that inhumation burials represent

an intrusive trait associated with immigrants. The influence of the earlier, autochthonoustradition may be assumed only in the case of the inhumation graves that are located in the

regions in which this form of burial was the dominant one in the pre-Roman period, too.

Inhumation was the dominant rite in the Illyrian territory proper (the littoral and itsimmediate hinterland) and it was used in combination with cremation (biritualism) by the

Celtic populations in Pannonia and in the Danubian valley, especially in the earlier

phases of their presence in this territory.

With the beginning of the Roman occupation the inhumation rite ceased to be used in thisterritory. The suppression of the earlier sepulchral tradition as an expression of ethnic

identity was complete. In the new circumstances, when cremation was the only rite, the

native population adopted Roman forms of graves (the Liburnians, Dalmatae, Daorsi,

etc.) or those from the neighbouring regions in which cremation had been practiced in thepre-Roman period (the Pirustae, partly the Docleates). It is interesting that the Illyrian

population of Dalmatia, settled outside its original territory, in regions where inhumationwas the dominant rite, continued to foster its earlier sepulchral tradition (e.g. thecemetery of Akko near Jericho).

The persistence of the of the inhumation rite as an expression of direct continuity of the

earlier tradition, has been noted in the post-Glasinac horizon of burial only. This

continuity is a consequence of the conservative attitude of the native population and ofthe geographic isolation of this territory, which was distant from the major lines of

communication and therefore outside the sphere of intensive Romanization.

Inhumation was the dominant rite also among the Celtic populations in Pannonia in the

earlier phases of their presence in that region (from the end of the 4th century B.C. to thebeginning of the 2nd century B.C.). In the late La Tne, however, the influence of the

native Pannonian population, which practised cremation, ousted out inhumation, and

cremation became the dominant rite. Sporadic skeleton graves from the late La Tne havebeen reported from Jezerine, Donja Dolina, and Bare near Prijedor. No inhumation

graves dating from the early imperial period, indicative of a Celtic renaissance, have been

found in the territory of Yugoslavia. It is only in a grave holding a skeleton burial and achariot from the neighborhood of Ludberg (map 7) that we can recognize - on the basis of


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analogies from the finds in the Hungarian part of Pannonia - a belated manifestation of

the earlier Celtic funerary tradition. This grave, and a similar one from Petrovina, is dated

into the 2nd century A.D.

The preceding discussion suggests that the native tradition had very little influence on the

appearance of inhumation graves in the early imperial period in the territory of

Yugoslavia. The skeleton graves of this period were an alien form associated withimmigrants from the Orient. This conclusion is supported by the location and distribution

of these graves, the time of their greatest use (which is contemporaneous with the

appearance of Oriental cults and intensive settlement of immigrants from the Orient in

the Balkan provinces), the results of the anthropological analyses of the osteologicalmaterial from some sites (Viminacium), and the character of the accompanying material.

Inhumation burials from the early imperial period have been reported from the cemeteries

of large towns (Emona, Salona, Iader, Senia, Viminacium, Sirmium, Scupi, Naissus,etc.), where the ethnic structure of the population was heterogeneous and where there is

also epigraphic evidence of the presence of east Mediterranean elements.

The earliest inhumation graves have been found in the northern cemetery of Emona,

where some graves are dated by Tiberian and Claudian coins. The majority of inhumationgraves from the other sites belong to the end of the 1st or the beginning of the 2nd

century AD. Some of the grave from the early imperial period cannot be dated with

precision. It seems, however, that the earlier graves of this type are poor and that they

should be attributed to a low social and economic class of the population (probablyslaves), while the graves from the end of the 1st century and from the 2nd century A.D.

are richer and probably belong to the craftsman and merchant classes of the urbanpopulation.

The anthropological analyses of the material from the cemetery in Viminacium have

shown that the skeleton burials from the end of the 1st and the beginning of the 2nd

century A.D. belong to the Anadolian and eastern Mediterranean anthropological types.

Some inhumation burials from the end of the 1st and from the 2nd centuries fromViminacium Scupi, Naissus, etc. contained material of eastern Mediterranean provenance

(glazed vessels, lamps with the representations of Atis from Asia Minor, instruments of

the cult of Cybele on a disc, lamps with the representations of Serapis and Isis, glass of

eastern origin, jewelry made of jade, earrings made in imitation of the models from Syriaand Asia Minor, the "Leuchtturme", etc.).

Consequently, the inhumation graves from the early imperial period should be attributed

to immigrants from the Orient who began to settle in large towns in the 1st century andcame in larger numbers in the 2nd century and at the beginning of the 3rd century A.D.,

as a result of the economic policy of the Antonian and Severian emperors.


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The inhumation graves from the 2nd century A.D. in Dacia (Apulum, Romula) and in the

Hungarian part of the province of Pannonia (e.g. Intercisa) have the same ethnical and

cultural traits.

Allthe general interpretations of the problem of inhumation in the early imperial period

assume, in varying degrees, the presence of an Oriental sepulchral component. The viewsconcerning this problem can be classed into three basic groups:

- that inhumation is a result of intensive contacts and mutual influences between theeastern Mediterranean and Italy;

- that inhumation is a result of the merging of eastern sepulchral traditions and of a

renaissance of the earlier Italian funerary forms, particularly manifested in the decoration

and form of stone sarcophagi found in Rome at the end of the 1st and in the first half ofthe 2nd century A.D.: and

- that inhumation is a consequence of the Christian diaspora.

Although apparently different, these this have some basic elements in common: they all

postulate influences from the East and their merging with the native sepulchral tradition,

and they treat the chronology of these phenomena in the same way.

In connection with this, it is necessary to discuss the problem of the chronological

relationship between cremation and inhumation and to determine the time when

cremation superseded inhumation/This problem ., has been frequently discussed inarchaeological literature, but no definite solution has been offered because the individual

provinces of the Empire had different combinations of the native and Oriental elements

and different attitudes to their earlier sepulchral traditions. The middle of the 2nd centuryA.D. has been often suggested as the period when both burial rites were in equal use, butthis theory does not hold good for the majority of the European provinces of the Empire.

Inhumation was the predominant rite in Gaul, Raetia, Dacia, Thrace, Moesia Inferior,

etc., as late as the first decades or even the middle of the 3rd century AD. The provincesin the territory of Yugoslavia offer a similar picture. In Pannonia Superior, intensive use

of cremation can be traced up to the time of A. Severus, and sporadic cremation burials

appear as late as the first half of the 4th century A.D. Inhumation becomes the dominantrite only about the middle of the 3rd century AD. It seems that too much emphasis has

been laid on the break caused by the Marcomanni wars. It is usually considered that after

these wars inhumation was almost the only rite practised in Pannonia Superior, although

cremation still dominated at the end of the 2nd century A.D.

In Dalmatia, the number of explored cemeteries in which the transition from cremation to

inhumation can be studied within a clearly defined chronological framework is very

small. In fact, we can rely solely on the results of the explorations of the cemeteries ofDoclea. The transition from cremation to inhumation in this cemetery took place in the

fourth decade of the 3rd century A.D., which is the period to which the latest cremation

graves belong and in which inhumation graves began to predominate. However,


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cremation was still practised to a considerable extent even after this period in Dalmatia.

There are cremation graves from the second half of the 3rd century A.D., and even from

as late as the beginning of the 4th century A.D. (Rogatica, Radoinja, Kolovrat). Theearliest inhumation graves in the Yugoslav part of the province of Pannonia Inferior

belong to the end of the 1st century (Sirmium), but they become common only in the 3rd

century A.D. Unfortunately, this material has not been published, so that we cannotdefine more precisely the period in which cremation was superseded by inhumation. It is

interesting to note that even in major urban centres cremation was practiced as late as the

beginning of the 4th century A.D. (the latest graves in Sirmium are dated by the coins ofConstantius II and Iulianus). A few cremation graves from the beginning of the 4th

century have been reported from the Hungarian part of Pannonia Inferior (Intercisa,

Aquincum).

In Moesia Superior there is evidence of cremation in major urban centers (Viminacium,Scupi, Singidunum) until the fifth decade of the 3rd century A.D. (the latest coins are

those of A. Severus in Viminacium and Scupi, and of Philippus I in Singidunum). In a

few cemeteries (Mala Kopasnica, Kamnik near Skopje, Glavnik), however, cremationgraves are dated by the coins of Constantinus I and Licinius. Inhumation becomes thedominant rite in the middle of the 3rd century A.D.

In the province of Macedonia cremation is sporadically practised until the middle of the

4th century A.D. (Stobi, coin of Constantius II; Pesterica, coin of Julianus). By the fourthdecade of the 3rd century, however, inhumation had become the dominant rite (period IV,

according to A. B. Wezolowski's periodization of the graves at Stobi; children's skeleton

burials from the earlier period are an exceptional phenomenon and should be accounted

for the by Roman custom not to cremate children - Pliny.NH, VII, 15).

Generally speaking, the transition from cremation to inhumation in the territory ofYugoslavia took place in the fourth decade of the 3rd century AD. This process .was not

abrupt, but gradual and lasted for generations. The cremation rite persisted for a long time

after that date, not only as "an exception confirming the rule". The appearance ofcremation graves at the end of the 3rd and in the first half of the 4th century AD. cannot

be considered as an expression of the resistance of the pagan population to Christianity,

but as a logical consequence of the continuous evolution of a sepulchral idea whichsurvived in the circumstances of religious toleration.

The change in the burial rite in the territory of Yugoslavia was partly caused by the

impact of the eastern Mediterranean sacral tradition (the manner of burial, the Oriental

cults, the Christian religion), and partly by the social leveling of the population of theprovinces after the Constitutio Antoniana. This act virtually abolished the principle of

the spiritual supremacy of Italy, and particularly of Rome, so that new ideas, more

acceptable to the native population, began to gain ground.

forms of burial in the territory of yu in the time of the roman empire

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