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International Journal of Interdisciplinary Research in Science Society and Culture(IJIRSSC) Vol: 2, Issue:1, (June Issue), 2016 ISSN: (P) 2395-4345, (O) 2455-2909 © IJIRSSC

www.ijirssc.in 12

Forest Fire Disaster: Pattern, Causes, Issues and

Challenges – A Case Study in Raigad District,

Maharastra,India

Dr. Prakash Dongre

Associate Professor, Department of Geography,

Nagindas Khandwala College, Mumbai, India.

Mail- [email protected] ____________________________________________________________________________________________

ABSTRACT : Forest fires are natural as well as manmade disasters. They consist of wild fires which

destroys trees as well as the wild life. They influence the livelihood of people living in forests, those are

mainly tribals. Large number of forest fires occurs annually in India, as maximum forest belongs to

tropical deciduous types. There is a need to study forest fires scientifically, as very few attempts are

made by scholars and organisations such as Forest Survey of India.

Present study is of spatio-temporal analysis of forest fires, their causes and impacts on forest

environment of Raigad district. The study does not focus on a single theme or problem. Forest fire data

obtained from Forest Survey of India form the year 2005 to 2012. Fire locations are plotted on maps. A

spatio temporal analysis carried out at taluka level with reference to altitude, transport links,

settlements and other anthropogenic factors. Suitable statistical, cartographic and GIS techniques used

to understand patterns of fires. Field visits and interviews with Forest Department officials and local

people were carried out to get their perspectives on forest fires.

Keywords: Forest fire, Impact of forest fire,Livelihood of people ,Raigad , Wild fire.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

I. Introduction:

Forest fire is defined as “any uncontrolled fire in combustible vegetation that occurs in

the countryside or in a wilderness area”. It is also called as wild fire, brush fire, bushfire, grass

fire, hill fire, squirrel fire, etc (Cambridge Dictionary, 2008). Forest fires are classified in to

three types as ground fires, crawling or surface fires and crown canopy or aerial fires [2].

Origin cause of forest fires can be natural or manmade. A forest fire destroys trees as well as

the wild life. They influence the livelihood of people living in the forests, those are mainly

tribals. Large number of forest fires occurs annually in India, as maximum forest belongs to

tropical deciduous types. There is need to study forest fires scientifically, as very few attempts

are made by scholars and organisations such as FSI. In this paper the researchers focused on

patterns, frequency, causes and areas prone to forest fires in Raigad district. Other issues such

as prevention, detection, and involvement of local people in forest fire management are also

taken in to consideration.

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II. Objectives of the Study:

The main objectives in this paper is -

1. To study forest fire at a micro level by different methods.

2. To understand a spatio temporal pattern of forest firte at taluka level with reference to

altitude, transport links, settlements and other factors

3. To understand causes and impacts of forest fires on environment

III. Study Area :

Raigad district is located between 17.510 to 19.10

0 North latitude and 72.47

0 to 73.40

0

East longitudes (Map-01). This coastal district has geographical area of 7152 kms2. It has 15

tehsils/ talukas and 26 census towns, 11 statutory towns and 1999 villages. This district has a

total population of 26, 35,394, out of which 39% people live in urban areas. This district has an

average literacy rate of 83.89%, with male literacy 90.68% and female literacy rate of 76.79%

[3]. The district has a good network of roads and Konkan railway passes through it. JNPT

international port and many other small ports are located in district. Roha, Patalganga, Mahad,

Rasayani, Taloja and Nagothane are the main industrial centres having MIDC industrial

estates. Raigad is emerging as a hub of attraction for MNCs, developers, and is well positioned

to be the next big growth centre being in proximity to Mumbai.

Topography and climatic conditions are conducive for the growth of dry deciduous and

semi-evergreen forests covers on windward slopes of Sahyadri and adjoining hills. District has

41% of its geographical area under forest. It has 13 km2 areas under very dense forest, 1248

kms2 area under dense forest, 1630 kms

2 under open forest and 70 kms

2 under scrub [4].

Northern part of district is located near the city Mumbai and facing problem of human pressure

on its natural resources. Raigad is one of the highly vulnerable districts to forest fires as most

of its forests fall in dry deciduous category. Crawling or surface fires are the most common fire

type in Raigad district [5].

Most common anthropogenic causes of forest fires in the district are:

Promotion of early flushing of grass for grazing livestock, at the onset of monsoon

Burning under storey to clear the forest floor and enable collection of minor forest

products

Forest/human habitation interface e.g. during burning of agricultural wastes in

adjoining cultivated areas fire spreads occasionally to surrounding forests

Facilitation of hunting of wild herbivores

Conflicts over the land right claims and an attempt to encroach on forest lands

Negligence while commuting through forests

Sparks from electricity transmission lines during strong gusty winds

Poverty and lack of adequate employment among the forest dwellers

Some kind of animosity towards forest department

Unchecked rab fire spreads to nearby forest areas due to winds



Map-01: Study Area

IV.Methodology:

This paper is mainly based secondary data obtained from Forest Survey of India website

and Forest Department. Fire locations, contours and taluka boundaries are plotted on map of

Raigad. Suitable statistical, cartographic and GIS techniques used to understand patterns of

fires. With the help of field visits and interviews with Forest officials an interpretation is made

of the forest fires.



V. Result and Discussion :

1.Analysis of Forest Fires of Raigad

Fig- 1: Forest Fires and Annual Rainfall - Raigad

Source: FSI and IMD

Figure – 1 shows recorded forest fires with the help of instrument MODIS of NASA.

Two satellites Terra and Aqua are equipped with MODIS. Each MODIS has 36 spectral

bands to view the earth. Viewing swath width is of 2330 Kms and the satellites scan Indian

Territory at interval of 4 to 8 hrs (four times a day). Image resolution used in detecting fire is

one square kilometer.

Fires in Raigad vary from 23 in 2005 to 114 in 2013. It is observed that distribution and

quantum of monsoon in the previous year has direct impact on fires in the district. There is a

gradual increase in fire incidences in the district till 2010 and in this period there was decline in

rainfall. After which there was a sharp decline in fire incidences in 2011. This may be due to

extension of monsoon rains in the district up to the month of November in 2010. In 2013 there

is sharp increase in fire incidence and this is due to lower monsoon rainfall in 2012.

b) Month wise variation: ‘Fire season’ in Raigad starts during late winter. Grass and ground

remains moist up to January and hence number of fire incidences till this month are very few in

numbers.

Fig. – 2: Raigad - Month Wise Forest Fires (2005-2013)

Source: FSI, 2013



Fire incidences increases from the month of February, with rise in daytime temperature

and fall in humidity. The maximum numbers of fires in the district are recorded in the month of

March. In this month average evapotranspiration in district remains to about 180 mm and there

is no precipitation. During this month huge amount of dry biomass is available as maximum

forest trees shed their leaves. High temperature, low humidity and high wind velocity helps in

spread of fires. The number of fire incidences falls gradually after April due to non availability

of sufficient dry biomass. Fire season gets over in month of June as district receives monsoon

showers around second week.

c) Day wise variation: Maximum fires are starts during the day. When day wise forest data

analysed it was observed that maximum incidence of forest fires are recorded on holidays

including Sundays and a day before and after public holidays.

Fig. – 3: Raigad - Day Wise Forest Fires (2005-2013)

Source: FSI, 2013

Poaching is the most important reason behind setting up fires in forests by Katkari

tribes. They set fire at the base of gently sloping hills, and put traps uphill to catch wild pig, rat,

rabbit and other small herbivorous animals, as these animals try to escape from the fire below

and run uphill. Fires thus set by people spread in forests as they never try to put it off after

poaching. These types of fire incidences are maximum on holidays due to fewer forest guards

and relaxed vigilance.

d) Spatial distribution of forest fires: When forest fire incidences of last eight years are

located on map with their locational attributes. The derived map shows the zones prone to

forest fires in the district. Major forest fires zones identified in district are:

i. Central zone: More than 50% fires of the district took place in this zone. This zone is

located between towns Pen, Pali, Roha and Alibag on both the sides of NH - 17. Here the forest

is of RF category and it is located mainly on low altitude hills (< 350 mts). Forest is of dry

deciduous category with dominance of species like teak, Ain, Dhavda, Bibla, Khair, Nana,

Sissum, Hedi, Kalam, Sawar and Asana and good undergrowth of grasses and shrubs.

Population density here ranges between 200 to 400 persons/ kms2. Here patches of forest are



fragmented by cultivable land and small settlements. Maximum numbers of fires are located

near Beloshi, Bhise, Nigde, Koodgaon, Jirne and other tribal dominating villages (Map -2 and

Table -1). Poaching, animal grazing, collection of minor forest products and some agricultural

practices are the reasons behind fires in this zone.

Map – 2: Spatial Distribution of Forest Fires

Source: SOI, FSI and ISRO

ii. Northern zone – About 25% forest fires of the district are located this zone. Two major

pockets are seen in this zone, one around Karnala Bird Sanctuary and other north of Matheran

and Karjat hills. These fire patches are emerging around urban centers such as Uran, Panvel,

Khopoli, and Karjat. Forest patches around Karnala Sanctuary area located on low hills. These

RF patches are of dry deciduous category with very good undergrowth of grasses. Forest here

Table – 1: Tahsil Wise Forest

Fires

Taluka

No. of

Forest

Fires

Forest

Area in

Kms2

(2006)

Roha 88 188.49

Pen 62 111.51

Alibag 41 101.24

Mangaon 39 82.66

Mahad 38 117.08

Sudhagad 36 136.36

Karjat 34 131.97

Panvel 26 96.59

Uran 12 17.38

Mhasala 10 66.81

Khalapur 9 99.49

Poladpur 7 61.13

Murud 5 71.82

Tala 4 18.14

Shrivardhan 3 42.02

Grand

Total 414 1342.69



is located around village Dighode, Barpada, Kahle, Durshet, Vasambe etc. Forest which is

north of Matheran and Karjat are located on medium height hills. This RF category forest is of

semi-evergreen and dry deciduous category. It is located near Ardhe, Sugve, Kalamb and

Poshir. Rapid urbanisation, industrilisation and increasing population pressure are some of the

reasons of fires in this zone.

iii. Southern Zone- About 25% fires concentrated in this zone. Two major pockets are seen

here i.e. around Mahad and Mhasala towns. Around Mahad fire patches are located around

village Lakhpada, Vaghose and Karinar. Around Mhasala fires are located around Khurtudi,

Chandora, and Vadhambe. In this zone most of fires are due poaching, agricultural practices, to

get quality grass, tourism and to clear the ground to collect minor forest products.

e) Taluka Wise Pattern:

Roha taluka has largest number of reported fires, followed by Pen and Alibag (Table -

1). Maximum fires in Roha are due to its large forest cover and deciduous nature of trees. Fires

in Pen and Alibag talukas are due to high population pressure, urbanisation and presence of

large number of tribal villages within the forest boundaries. Very few forest fires are located in

southern talukas of district where forest area is less, population density and level of

urbanisation is also less. It is noticed that majority of fire locations are seen near the roads and

settlements. Very few fires are seen on higher altitudes or inaccessible areas.

f) Altitude Wise Forest Fires:

Table- 3: Raigad - Altitude Wise Changes in Forest Cover and Forest Fires

Raigad 6948.96 1614.99 (2006) 414 (2005-

2013)

272.3 (1971 to

2006)

Altitude

(mts)

Area in

Kms2

% to Total

Area

% to Total

Forest

% to Total

Fires

% of Decline

in Forest

0-10 930.71 13.39 2.96 1.69 0.07

10-150 3878.68 55.82 41.00 52.17 61.24

150-300 1242.78 17.88 27.43 24.15 17.32

300-450 592.91 8.53 17.66 16.67 11.51

450-600 209.15 3.01 7.49 2.9 5.79

600 > 94.73 1.36 3.45 2.42 3.45

Grand

Total 6948.96 100 100 100 100

With the help of GIS software total area, area between two contours and forest areas are

calculated (Table - 2, Map - 3 and 4). Out of total geographical area of the district 13% area is



located in between 0 to 10 mts and it has around 3% forest out of total forest of district. In this

zone forest fires are very few as forest here is of evergreen mangrove type. Maximum

geographical area and forest area of the district is located in altitude zone between 10 to 150

mts. Here there is concentration of more than 50% fires and so maximum forest loss is in this

zone. This is the most densely populated zone. Here there is concentration of maximum human

activities and it has good transport network. More or less similar pattern of previous altitude

zone is observed in zone of 150 - 300 mts. From 300 mts and above, geographical area and

forest fires declines gradually in spite proportion of area under forest cover is higher. Here the

loss of forest is also comparatively less. This is mainly due to poor accessibility, lower

population pressure and occurrence of semi-evergreen trees.

Map - 3 : Altitude Wise Forest Fires Map - 4 : Taluka Wise Variation in Forest

Cover

Source: SOI and FSI

2. Impact of Forest Fires:



Forest Department records shows that on an average 140 to 150 fire incidences gets

reported in Raigad every year. Every fire burns about 7 - 8 ha of forest. Around 1000 to 1200

ha of forest land gets badly affected by these fires each year (Table - 4). Estimated loss by fire

as per FD is very low and that is only Rs. 1100 to 1400 per fire. This damage valuation is much

lower than that of even UNDP estimates of Rs. 9000/-- ha in year 1987. This damage valuation

is of only timber and firewood; it does not include the loss suffered in the form of biodiversity,

nutrient, soil moisture and other intangible benefits.

Both FD and FSI are not reporting each and every forest fire due to the limitation of

manpower and technology respectively. According to the FD less than 1% forest area gets

burned every year, but in reality more than 25% forest area of Raigad burns every year (field

observation).

Table - 4: Forest Fires in Raigad (2006-2010)

Name of Forest Division 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

Alibag 63 119 155 96

Roha 15 52 48 25

Total 78 171 203 121

Source: Thane Circle Annual Admistrative Report, 2010

Forest fires, either natural or manmade, play a significant role in ecosystem

dynamics. Following are some of the common environmental problems associated with forest

fires:

1. Recurrent fires adversely affect natural regeneration and lead to the slow death of

the forest. Simultaneously, vegetation present in the grassland also disappears. To a

certain extent, regular fires converted the forest into grassland.

2. Forest fires also increase soil erosion and alter the physical and chemical properties

of the soil, converting organic ground cover to soluble ash and modify the micro-

climate through the removal of overhead foliage.

3. Biomass burning is an important source of atmospheric bromine in the form of methyl

bromine. Bromine leads to the chemical destruction of ozone in the stratosphere [6].

4. Forest burning enhances emissions of nitric oxide and nitrous oxide from soil. Biomass

burning affects the reflectivity and emissivity of the earth's surface as well as hydrological

cycle by changing rates of land evaporation and water runoff [6].

5. Biomass burning is an important source of greenhouse gas emissions and is the largest

source of air pollution [7]. Globally, biomass burning is estimated to produce 40% of the

carbon dioxide, 32% of the carbon monoxide, 20% of the particulates and 50% of the highly

carcinogenic polyaromatic hydrocarbons [8].



6. Severe burns caused by forest fires can result in nearly complete destruction of

organic matter and bring about changes in the physical, chemical and biological

properties of the upper layers of mineral soil. This makes the trees more susceptible to

insect/pest attacks.

7. Repeated fires in forest ecosystems decreased tree densities and species diversity,

and associated changes in species composition and forest structure [9].

3. Forest Fire Management:

Forest fire management in Raigad district is carried out by FD. Only conventional

method such as demarcation and maintenance of network of fire lines is made every

year. These fire lines are demarcated from 15th

November to 15th

February. These lines

are in need of regular sweeping even after 15th

February. Width of fire control line varies

between 03 mts to 15 mts but 03 mts width fire line is most common. Temporary fire watchers

are also appointed to keep watch and also to carry out work of fire suppression during

emergency. About Rs. 18 lakh was spent in year 2009-10 on fire management in the district.

Regular patrolling is made by forest staff and fire watchers during fire season. FD also

sets up few watch towers at ideal location for early detection of fires. FD also tries to

involve local villagers to suppress the fire after the fire incidence is reported. After

every fire incidence a panchnama is made by FD staff of the affected area. More than

90% fires incidences in the district are anthropogenic origin. On many occasions fires

are intentionally set by people but only in few rare incidences FD catches the culprits

and makes the recovery of losses or gives punishment to them.

It is nearly impossible to record all the fires for FD. Moreover, the fire season coincides

with the busiest work season for the forest staff as this is the season of collection of forest

products and preparation for plantations. As fire offences do not carry the same significance as

illicit felling of trees or poaching, their record keeping has not been taken seriously. However,

there is a need to keep records of all fires for ecological reasons.

VI.Conclusion : Suggestions for Better Management-

FSI and FD cannot record each and every fire. So the extent of fire affected areas and

losses by it can be of greater intensity than recorded by government agencies. Fires constitute

a major threat to the forests in Raigad. Forest fire prevention is an important function of the FD

and Village Forest Protection Committees. Following are some of the suggestions for better

forest management:

1. Fire protection camps/squads should be set up during fire season at strategic locations

along with regular patrolling and reporting and on-the-ground verification of satellite

information.



2. Basic training should be given to the temporarily appointed fire watchers, fire

suppression squads and members of JFM.

2. The MODIS data should be replaced by IRS data, which is of higher spatial

resolution and it is also possible to carry out monitoring throughout the day. Latest

technology should be employed for early detection of fire and warning about forest fires

should be given to the respective forest officers.

3. Separate machinery is required to take care of private forests during the time of

disasters like fire.

4. There is need to create public awareness through public meetings, street plays,

religious and political leaders in forested villages.

5. There is need for greater coordination between FD, FSI, ISRO, IMD and Revenue

Department in order to generate a national forest fire danger rating system, based on

the national-level database on forest fires, vegetation and land cover maps, and real-

time weather predictions.

6. During the time of afforestation programme, care should be taken to plant

inflammable species in fire prone areas.

7. More involvement of Forest Protection Communities, JFM Committees, and civil

society is needed in fire prevention, detection and management.

8. Essential and modern equipment for fire suppression, including hand tools, fire

resistant clothing, mechanized equipment, and water tenders, especially for protected

areas, should be provided on a priority basis.

9. There are very few detailed studies are made in the country to get exact idea about

the losses that taken place by forest fires. More detailed ecological and socio-economic

impact studies are required at regional, state and national level.

10. Strict implementation of fire control rules and regulation and rapid disposal of

cases related to forest fires should be followed.

References :

[1] Forest Survey of India Report,(FSI) 2012: Vulnerability of India’s Forest to Fire,

Dehradun, India

[2] Graham, Russell; McCaffrey, Sarah; Jain, Theresa B. Science Basis for Changing Forest

Structure to Modify Wildfire Behavior and Severity. General Technical Report RMRS-

GTR-120. April 2004 [cited 2009-02-06]

[3] Census - 2011, Website – http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results

http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr120.pdf



http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/


www.ijirssc.in 3

[4] Forest Survey of India, ,(FSI) 2011: The State of Forest Reports -2011

[5] Forest Survey of India, ,(FSI) 2011: The State of Forest Reports -2011

[6] Gupta A. K. and Yunus M., (1998): Forest Fire and Ecosystem-Health, ISEB Newsletter,

4(2)

[7] Crutzen, P. J. and Andreae, M. O., (1990): Biomass Burning in the Tropics: Impact on

Atmospheric Chemistry and Biogeochemical Cycles. Science -1990

[8] Levine J. S., (2000): Global biomass burning: A case study of the gaseous and particulate

emissions released to the atmosphere during the 1997 fires in Kalimantan and Sumatra,

Indonesia

[9] Saha S. and Howe, H. F., (2001): The Bamboo Fire Cycle Hypothesis: A Comment, The

American Naturalist

[10] Forest Survey of India, (2011-12): fsi.org.in

http://www.fsi.org.in/list_of_publication.htm#state_of_forest_report

[11] Government of Maharashtra, (2009-10): Thane Forest Circle Annual Report 2009-10

[12] IMD Website: http://maharain.org/raincheck.aspx?

[13] Rekha Pai and Ankila J. Hiremath and Umakant, (Edited) (2007): Rethinking Forest

Fires, proceedings of National workshop on Forest Fires New Delhi

Abbreviations:

FSI - Forest Survey of India, FD - Forest Department, NASA - National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, kms2 – Square kilometers, mts- Meters, ha – Hectares, hrs – hours,

IMD – Indian Metrological Department, NH - National Highway, RF – Reserved Forest,

SOI- Survey of India, ISRO- Indian Space Research Organisation, MODIS- Moderate

Resolution Imaging Specter-Radiometers, IRS – Indian Remote-Sensing Satellite,

JFM- Joint Forest Management

http://www.fsi.org.in/list_of_publication.htm#state_of_forest_report

http://maharain.org/raincheck.aspx?

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