Greetings from the UK. The Internationalagro-processing team would like to offerour congratulations and best wishes toEmma Judge, our Food Chain productionmanager, who has recently joinedSkillshare International as their PublicRelations Officer. Emma has been avaluable member of the agro-processingteam for the last four years and herdeparture is a loss to the Internationalagro-processing team and to ITDG as awhole. The recent improvements in FoodChain have all happened under Emma’smanagement of the journal. In addition toworking with the agro-processing team,Emma provided information material forthe Hands On project, a series of shortfilms on appropriate technologies that isbroadcast via BBC World. We all miss herexperience and enthusiasm and wish herwell in her new post.

Before leaving ITDG, Emma carried outan impact study of Food Chain. Thisentailed producing a reader survey, whichwas included in two issues of the journal,and conducting interviews with selectedreaders in Peru and Sri Lanka. Theresponse to the reader surveys wastremendous, with replies coming from allover the world. Thank you to all who tookthe time and effort to write to us with yourcomments. The interviews with individualreaders also revealed several interestingcase studies and gave us a real insightinto how you use the information in thejournal. The results of the study arepresented in one of the articles in thisissue of Food Chain. Assessing the impactof journals and other information sourcesis difficult, but it is an essential part ofmaking sure that we provide you withinformation that is useful and valuable.We are very pleased with the material andinsights that this study has generated sofar and are taking all your comments intoconsideration for future issues. We arealways on the lookout for further evidenceof impact of the journal, so if you haveanything to contribute, please do so,

either by letter or by e-mail tofoodchain@itdg.org.uk

This issue of Food Chain brings youarticles on a range of topics. Theaspiration of many small-scale processorsis to supply their products to the EUmarkets. An article by David Kay gives aninsight into the challenges and obstaclesthat processors face and need toovercome in order to meet the minimumstandards. Also on a marketing theme isan interesting article by Helene Coetzeethat describes how processors can carryout product acceptability tests withilliterate consumers.

A project in India, funded by the CropPost Harvest Programme of DFID isassisting rural farmers in India to increasethe quality of their tomatoes for sale in themarkets in Delhi. This has involved anevaluation of the current packaging andtransport practices and has resulted inrecommendations for improvedpackaging. The field testing of the newpackaging system is described in thearticle by Girja Sharan and Kishor Rawale.

In Peru, attempts are being made tohalt the de-forestation of the Amazon.ITDG is involved with projects that look atsustainable management of the forestresources, while at the same timeproviding alternative sources of incomegeneration for the forest dwellers. JorgeEliot describes early work on a nativespecies – the wild almond or soapwood(Caryocar glabrum).

As always, we hope you enjoy readingthis issue and that you can share theinformation with your colleagues. Wewelcome feedback on the quality andvalue of the journal and comments onwhat you would like to see included infuture issues. As ever, we urge you tosend articles of your experiences forpublication in the journal.

Sue Azam-AliAgro-processing Specialist

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Front Cover: Memory ofFadzavanhu Enterprises inZimbabwe, displayingpeanut butterA4 Zimbabwe A5.19 ITDG/ZUL 1999

Greetings

Gre

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Back Cover: Maria CantoZanabria uses CadenaAlimentaria to makechocolateA4 Peru D3.06 ITDG/ECJ 2001

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IntroductionNorthern Nigeria is an impoverishedregion where people in rural communitieseke out a living from subsistence farming.There is no electricity, thereforerefrigeration is not possible. As a result,perishable foods spoil within days. Theloss of foods is not only wasteful, it posesfood safety hazards and loss of potentialincome for farmers who are forced to sellimmediately after harvest.

In northern Nigeria, the art of pottery isdeeply rooted in African culture.Traditionally, all manner of vessels, fromcooking pots to wardrobes, are mouldedfrom clay, but today they have largelybeen replaced by aluminium containers.Mohammed Bah Abba grew up in a familyof pot-makers and was therefore familiarwith working with clay. His idea of makinga low cost fruit and vegetable cooler grewfrom his interest in traditional simpletechnology and his desire to help the ruralpoor of northern Nigeria.

The technologyThe innovative cooling system that Abbadeveloped in 1995 consists of twoearthenware pots of different diameters,one placed inside the other. The spacebetween the pots is filled with wet sandthat is kept constantly moist, therebykeeping both pots damp. Fruit, vegetablesand other items such as soft drinks are putin the smaller inner pot, which is coveredwith a damp cloth and left in a very dry,ventilated place. The water contained inthe sand between the two pots evaporatestowards the outer surface of the larger potwhere the drier outside air is circulating.The evaporation process causes a drop intemperature of several degrees, cooling

the inner container and extending theshelf-life of the perishable food inside.

Abba carried out several trials with thepot, consistently refining the invention overa two year period. He found that aubergineswould stay fresh for 27 days instead ofthree, tomatoes and peppers lasted for upto three weeks and African spinach, whichspoils after one day in the intense tropicalheat, remained edible for 12 days.

After several refinements to theprototype pot, Abba was satisfied with theinvention and then went about making itavailable to local rural communities. Heemployed some of the local unemployedpot makers to produce an initial batch of5000 pots. These cost about US$0.30 percooler to produce. These pots weredistributed, free of charge, to five villagesin Jigawa, northern Nigeria. Later, in 1999,Abba built additional pot-making facilitiesand produced a further 7000 pots thatwere supplied to another 12 local villages.Abba estimates that almost three quartersof rural families in Jigawa are now usinghis cooling device.

Impacts of the pot-in-pot cooler on rural livesThere are several beneficiaries andbenefits of the new pot-cooler:

● Farmers can control the selling of theirproduce, selling on demand rather thanrush-selling to avoid spoilage. They cantherefore command higher prices fortheir goods

● Young girls who would traditionallyhave to sell the family produce on adaily basis, can now reduce this to onceper week and as a result have moretime available to attend school. Thenumber of girls enrolling in primaryschools is rising

● Married women can sell food from theirhomes and therefore reduce theirdependency on husbands as the soleproviders

● Fresh fruits and vegetables areavailable for longer periods, therebyincreasing the variety of the diet

● Improved food storage facilities meansthat there are fewer outbreaks of food-related illnesses and disease

● Pot making generates significant ruralemployment opportunities, thereby

Development of a low-cost cooler topreserve perishable foods in countrieswith arid climates

Mohammed Bah Abba has recently been awardedthe Rolex Award for Enterprise for his role in therefinement of an ancient technology to meet theneeds of modern life in Nigeria. Mohammed BahAbba took the traditional pot-in-pot cooler andadapted it. The principles of the technology are verysimple. When heated by the sun, water contained inwet sand between two jars evaporates, cooling thecontents of the inner pot. A range of traditionalfruits and vegetables such as spinach, tomatoes,onions and other perishable goods can all bepreserved for longer periods.

keywords

Storage, low-costrefrigeration, foodspoilage,evaporativecooling, fruit andvegetables

slowing the pace of rural exodus to thecities.

Following the resounding success of thecooler-pot in Jigawa State, Abba will soonstart to distribute the cooler in the fourneighbouring States. One of the biggestobstacles he is trying to overcome iseducating the villagers about the newtechnology. To do this he has devised aneducational campaign tailored to villagelife and the illiterate population. He hasmade a video recording of the cooler pot,that he plays on a cloth screen with aportable projector and generator. Heshows the video in the evening since that

is when farmers return from the fields andare keen to watch an entertainingpresentation.

Abba has recently started to sell thepots at US$0.40 per pair, which is US$0.10higher than the original production cost.He uses the profit to further develop andexpand production. His aim is to exportthe pot cooler to other hot, dry countrieswhere cold food storage is a problem.

This extract is taken from the article –the Winners of the Ninth Rolex Awards forEnterprise, which can be found on theinternet at http://www.rolexawards.com/laureates/home.html

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IntroductionThe tropical Amazon forest is home to adiverse range of food resources and nutsare of particular importance. These includethe well-known Brazil nut (Bertholletiaexcelsa) and cashew (Anacardiumoccidentale). Many other lesser knownnuts are used as food including that of thewild almond (Caryocar glabrum) describedin this article.

In common with other nuts, the wildalmond has a high percentage of oil(60–70%) (see table 1). This is higher thanthe true almond (56%), but very similar tothe Brazil nut, which is also found inabundance in the region. The oil of thewild almond has a fairly high meltingpoint (29–32°C), which is much higherthan the true almond (9–12°C).

The importance of wild almond to theAguarana people of PeruITDG-Peru is working closely with nativecommunities of the Aguaruna people wholive in the Peruvian Amazon. This area hassuffered greatly from deforestation due tologging activities and there is very littlenatural regeneration of many of the treespecies. ITDG is working with the localcommunities to find ways to continuemaking a living, through sustainablemanagement of the forest resources. Aspart of this project, the locals haveidentified over 70 important forest treespecies, many of which are unknownoutside this region. The wild almond is oneof the plants that they identified as beingan important resource both as food and forsale. The wild almond grows at variousaltitudes in the Aguaruna reserves of AltoNaranjillo. Local community leaders havenoted that the tree is able to establish itselfin areas of cleared land, which makes it anideal local species for re-forestation type of

work. It also makes a useful intercrop,grown alongside cassava.

Our work, which includes marketacceptability studies, indicates that wildalmond has a high acceptability with boththe indigenous population and in nearbytowns. It therefore has potential forinclusion in reforestation schemes in theAlto Naranjillo region.

Small-scale processing of nutsThe native community harvests the nutsbetween March and July. The spinymesocarp and endocarp are removed withmachetes to extract the nut, which is oftensplit. This is then eaten raw.

While some members of thecommunity eat the nuts, they are now aless important part of the diet thanpreviously. The reasons given for thedecrease in consumption is that people’sdietary habits have changed withincreasing influences from outside thearea. The ITDG project has carried outseveral tasting trials that haveconsiderably motivated the communityand encouraged them to consume andprocess more of the nuts.

Improved processingShell splittingOne of the objectives of improvedprocessing is to remove the nuts from thespiny endocarp without breaking thekernels. This requires very careful use ofthe machetes and knives while splittingopen the shell. Alternative methods ofcracking the shells can be investigated.

DryingTo improve drying, a system has beendeveloped which involves boiling thecomplete seed pods (including the

Sustainable use of the nuts of the soap-wood tree in the Alto Mayo region of Peru

Keywords

Almond,soapwood,processing

Jorge Eliot of ITDG Latin America in Peru describes theutilisation of the nuts from an Amazonian tree(Caryocar glabrum). The tree is known as temashnumby local Indians and piquirana in Portuguese. Now it isusually referred to as ‘wild almond’ although it is in noway related to, or should be confused with, the truealmond (Prunus amygdalus).

Table 1. Typical properties of wild almond andother common nuts.

Wild almond Almond Brazil

Oil (%) 61.4–70.4 55.8 68.2 Melting point (°C) 29–32 9–12 n/a

Ref: Clement,C. FAO; Salunkie et al, (1992).

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endocarp) to reduce enzymatic changeswhich cause rancidity. Sun drying thentakes place on black painted metal roofsheets, with natural ventilation. The driedpods can then be stored complete or afteropening in paper or plastic bags for up to 8months. This extends the availability of thenuts for the whole year depending ondemand. The dry seeds develop a strongerflavour, which is much preferred by theAguarunas.

PeelingAfter removing the spiny mesocarp theseeds are covered with brown skin thathas to be removed before eating. Boilingthe seeds in water for five minutes allowseasy removal of this skin.

FryingAfter drying for a few hours the seedsmay then be fried in oil adding salt orsugar as desired.

CrystallisationThe seeds are heated in a pan over a lowfire (gas cannot be used as the heat is toointense). This crystallises the sugar on thesurface of the seeds, without it sticking tothe pan. Meanwhile a strong sugar syrupis prepared and kept hot without boiling

throughout the wholeprocess. Seeds, eitherdry or toasted areplaced in a panfollowed by one or twolarge spoons of syrup.Gradually more syrupis added until all theseeds are covered witha uniform coating ofsugar. After cooling theproduct is packed inpaper bags.

The futureWhile industrial

processing of wild almond is not justified,small-scale processing is a goodalternative for the poor people in theAmazon. It is providing an income tothose in Alto Naranjillo by sales to localpeanut processors in the town ofMoyabamba.

In addition the seeds are an ideal productfor coating with chocolate. Local institutionshave potential and have indicated there is alocal demand of one or two tonnes.

There are also indications that, due to thecomposition of its oil, the wild almond mayhave potential as an oil for use in cosmetics.

ReferencesSalunkie, D K, Chavan, J K, Adsule, R N and

Kadam, S S (1992). World Oilseeds: Chem-istry, technology and utilisation. AVI Pub-lishing, Van Nostrand, Reinhold, NewYork.

Clement, FAO. www.fao.org/docrep/v0784e

Contact: Jorge Eliot is project manager of theSustainable Forest Project at ITDG Latin America.

He can be contacted at ITDG Peru, Casilla Postal, 18–0620, Lima 18, Peru

or via e-mail at JorgeE@itdg.org.pe

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Wild almond can be coatedwith chocolate as aconfectionery item

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According to our readers Food Chain andits Spanish partner Cadena Alimentaria dohave a varied and far-reaching impact onthe livelihoods of marginalised andvulnerable people in the South, throughthe use of appropriate and qualityinformation on small-scale agro-processing. Food Chain is available topeople in rural areas who use theinformation in the journal for incomegeneration, improved food security andnutrition. For a large majority of ourreaders, Food Chain is the only journalproviding this type of practicalinformation. Food Chain is an extremelypowerful information sharing tool that ishighly valued by its readership.

Over one year ago (in issues 26 and 27of Food Chain) we asked you to help usassess the impact of the journal by tellingus how you use the information. Theresponse to these requests has beentremendous. A selection of thecorrespondence we received appearsbelow. In addition to the appeal in thejournal, we carried out interviews withselected readers to gain a deeper insightinto how the journal is used. This was afascinating exercise, rather like a detectivetrail in that each interview gave new linksthat needed to be followed. The interviewstook place with readers in Sri Lanka andPeru. A selection of their stories appearbelow. We hope you find them inspiringand interesting. More of the case studieswill appear in future issues of the journal.

AppealsYour responses to the appeal in issues 26and 27 of Food Chain illustrate the diverserange of readership that we attract. Theseinclude people from international andlocal NGOs, government organisations,CBOs, the private sector, universities andother academic and research institutionsthroughout the world. Food Chain is sentto over 2800 readers in 140 countries andis read by many more.

You informed us that Food Chain isused in a wide variety of ways including:

● As a catalyst for ideas● For technology transfer● As a teaching aid and workshop

materials● For improving household income

through improved processing andmarketing methods

● To help small and cottage industries togrow and prosper

● As a platform for exchange of ideas andtechnologies between developingcountries.

Several of you told us how much youvalue Food Chain and expanded yourreply to include details of the type of workit is used for. The map opposite shows asummary of how the material in thejournal has been used in variouscountries.

Case studies from interviewsA total of 18 case studies were collectedfrom interviews with readers of thejournal in Sri Lanka and Peru. In general,they provide anecdotal evidence of directpositive impact on beneficiaries, includingincome generation and improvednutrition. They also show evidence of thematerial being used in training coursesand for workshop materials, as well asbeing a general reference source forNGOs. In some cases the material in thejournal has been translated or used as asource for publishing articles.

It is apparent that the original recipientof the journal is often only anintermediary who distributes informationto the end beneficiaries. The case studiesillustrate occasions where readers havepassed on information to other end users.In order to identify how these peoplebenefited from the material, it wasnecessary to follow some complicated butrewarding trails. This data has beenrecorded in the relevant case studies.

It is evident that there are relatively fewsources of food processing informationavailable, especially to those of you livingin rural areas. Again and again duringinterviews, you mentioned that there wasno other source of practical informationaccessible in either Sri Lanka or Peru andthat Food Chain fills an essentialinformation gap for people trying toimprove their livelihoods through incomegeneration or improved nutrition. Theinterviews also revealed that on averagebetween five to ten people read each copyof Food Chain.

Recent research in Uganda and Ghana(Isabel Carter, 1999) has sought to addressthe value of information dissemination indeveloping countries. The report exploresin detail the sources and types ofinformation accessed by grassroots

Food Chain – What impact does it have?

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ITDG Food Chain 29

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ReferencesCarter, I (1999).Locally generatedprinted materials inagriculture: experi-ence from Ugandaand Tanzania, DFID.

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farmers. It is widely assumed that manygrassroots farmers are non-literate andthat print is an in-effective medium ofcommunication with this target audience.As a consequence, printed informationthat is produced on agriculture is usuallyaimed at resource rich, commercialfarmers. The findings of this research

demonstrate that as long as one person ina community can read the language theinformation is written in, the wholecommunity can benefit. This isdemonstrated by the interviews with MrGamini Ratnayake in Sri Lanka and MariaCanto Zanabria in Peru who share theinformation in Food Chain / Cadena

Maria Canto Zanabria, Palian, Huancayo – PeruMaria Canto Zanabria is 36 years old. She is married with an 8 year old daughter and2 year old son. She lives in a rural village called Palian. She has run a micro-enterprise in food processing for 10 years and produces jam and traditional flourfrom maca (a largely unknown root vegetable found at high altitudes in Peru).

Chocolates from macaMaria has been receiving Cadena Alimentaria for four years and it is the only practicalsource of information available to her and other people in the rural areas. In June1999, there was an article about chocolate production and Maria, with the help of herfamily, has used this article to start producing chocolate herself. Maria uses maca(Peruvian ginseng) to make the chocolate. In December and February, productionlevels peak because of Christmas and Valentine’s Day. Production is also high aroundMother’s Day. Maria can produce 200 chocolates every day and in one week sheproduces 200 to 300 packets which contain either 5 or 10 chocolates. It costs Maria 2soles to make and package 5 chocolates. She sells the chocolates to intermediaries inbulk for 3 soles. The intermediaries sell them to clients for 4 soles a packet. Mariasells to the intermediaries because they are the only people who will buy in highvolumes. The chocolates are sold in Huancayo.

Maria pays herself the minimum salary per month and invests the rest of theprofits from her business back into the enterprise to buy equipment, for example,chocolate moulds and raw materials. She does not need a fridge because it is so coldin the mountains that the chocolate does not melt.

Other uses of Cadena AlimentariaMaria used the article on chocolate processing to prepare her own chocolate. Shecould not find any other practical material but the article contained enoughinformation for her to be able to copy it and produce a high quality product.

She has also used some other articles, for example, information on the nutritionalvalue of sunflower oil. She says that there is no other information available like thisanywhere – it is usually very general whereas in Cadena Alimentaria the parametersare clear and the articles are specific so they can be replicated, for example,temperatures andquantities. No otherorganisation orindividuals sendpracticalinformation directlyinto the rural areas.Maria teaches eightother people aboutthe information inCadenaAlimentaria. Shehas photocopiedarticles and passedthe journal ontoother friends in thearea.Chocolates made

from maca A4 P

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SEPAR, Junin Region, Huancayo – Peru

BackgroundSEPAR is an NGO working in local development and agro-processing, mainly in therural areas. The organisation works with 3600 rural families and provides training andtechnical assistance in a range of products e.g. cereals and grains; dairy products;and bee keeping. The focus is on business aspects and gender and the aim is toimprove quality, technical skills and equipment in existing work. SEPAR works with 67micro enterprises to improve their sustainability and competitiveness.

Use of the journalsSEPAR have been receiving Food Chain since 1992 and Cadena Alimentaria since1994. The journals are read by several staff members and they are kept in the libraryfor use by other internal and external people. Each issue is photocopied three timesand circulated to staff. SEPAR use Cadena Alimentaria for technical assistance and forpractical purposes in rural areas.

The journals are used for:● a source of technical information● a source of social/economic information● a source of commercial or marketing information● to keep up to date with food processing issues● for training courses/workshops for small-scale producers/rural communities.

Some examples of how the journal is used:● The article on dryers has been adapted and used for experiments. As a result of

modifications, there is now a successful micro enterprise with a good dryeradapted from a range of technologies. It incorporates a solar and mechanical dryerinto the same system and belongs to five women who produce maca products andfruit products

● Adapted information on confectionery and dairy products for micro-enterprises● Used article on candy processing and packaging to prepare training materials● Share information in Cadena Alimentaria using flow charts and pictures so that

rural people can understand the processes● The library prepares two page information logs, which include all the articles in

Food Chain/Cadena Alimentaria● Used for reference purposes.

Mr Samarajeewa, University of Peradeniya, Kandy – Sri LankaMr Samarajeewa has worked as a professor in the Department of Food Science &Technology at the University of Peradeniya since 1981. Most of the informationavailable to students and professors is from text books. Food Chain is uniquebecause it is the only information source that provides practical experience, adviceand solutions.

About Food ChainMr Samarajeewa has been reading Food Chain for the last 4 or 5 issues. He heardabout it through ITDG. He keeps back copies for reference purposes

Uses Food Chain:● as a source of technical information● as a source of social/economic information● for lecture notes for school or college courses

Mr Samarajeewa makes Food Chain available to his students. He recommends articlesto read, passes on articles to colleagues and students and photocopies relevantmaterial for his students. At the university, the students use Food Chain for thepractical course work in food production. By educating students, information will bepassed onto farmers and local communities where they carry out their field experience.

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Alimentaria with other people in the ruralareas where they live.

In summaryThe range of uses to which Food Chaincontributes is impressive. We aredelighted that the journal is having such apositive impact and that the informationsupplied within the journal is serving theneeds of the target audience. However, wemust not be complacent. There are moreimprovements that could still be made.We would like to improve accessibility ofthe journal by making it available in morelanguages. Another priority is to considerhow we can cut down on the cost ofpublishing and distribution.

This issue of the journal will beaccessible via the ITDG website(www.itdg.org). In time we hope to makeback copies of the journal available in thisformat. We are acutely aware that internetpublishing is not the most appropriateformat for all our readers, especially those

in remote rural areas. For this reason wewill continue to seek funding to publish ahard copy.

Lastly, the content of the journaldepends largely on you, our readers. FoodChain is your journal, your platform forcommunicating and sharing experienceswith other small-scale food processors.We are responsible for co-ordinating theinformation and ensuring it is madeavailable to a wide audience. Without yourinput we cannot publish the journal. Weneed you to continue sending us details ofyour activities and experiences in small-scale food processing to share with therest of our readers.

Remember, we can only make Food Chainsuitable for your needs if you tell us what youwant and feedback on your likes and dislikes.

Please e-mail any suggestions, commentsand articles for publication to

foodchain@itdg.org.uk

Mr Gamini Ratnayake, Matale – Sri Lanka

BackgroundMr Gamini Ratnayake lives in the hills above Matale and is married with one son whois nine years old. He is self-employed and runs “Growers and Processors” whichproduces organic vanilla, vegetables, fruit, spices and medicinal plants; andprocesses tomatoes, spices and medicinal plants. He cultivates spices, mainly vanilla,but when the rain is heavy and there is no sunshine, vanilla cannot grow. He workswith local community groups, artisans and producers.

Mr Ratnayake has been exporting vanilla for five years. Before that he grew andprocessed tomatoes but this became a difficult business when the governmentstopped the import tax on tomatoes coming in from India and other countries and hefound that he could not compete with the prices. Worldwide, only 2% of vanillademand is being produced and therefore Mr Ratnayake decided to enter the market.

About Food ChainMr Ratnayake has been reading Food Chain for three years. He finds the informationextremely useful and uses it for domestic purposes and technology ideas. MrRatnayake can read Food Chain because it is in simple English. He would prefer it to bewritten in Sinhala because then all the housewives would be able to read it and use theinformation. He shares information with people in the village and for those whocannot read themselves, he explains the processes to them.

He shares the information in Food Chain with people in his village, using smallgroup teaching and teaching notes.

Uses of the journal:● He has adapted and translated information on mango chips and now produces

mango chips himself● He uses the recipe for family consumption but intends to try to produce mango chips

for market level. About 30 other people have also produced mango chips fordomestic consumption as a result of his recommendations

● They process other vegetables, such as bitter gourd● He is also developing soya bean processing in the village.

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IntroductionSupplying products to EU markets andentering the global marketplace is theaspiration of many small-scale producersand processors, hoping for the highestpossible return for their effort. However,meeting the necessary legal requirementsis a difficult challenge. The numerouspieces of legislation in place to protectpublic health and ensure tradingstandards are maintained are substantialand far reaching, requiring that importedfoods should be produced in accordancewith the standards expected within theEU. This means, under UK law forexample, that any food processing sitemust ensure that safe, wholesome,unadulterated food is produced. It alsorequires that facilities which handle andprocess food also meet minimumstandards.

Legal requirementsIt is essential that small-scale processorswishing to supply these markets knowabout, and understand, theserequirements so that they can worktowards meeting the necessary standards.Producing food in accordance with EUfood law is important because incidentsresulting from poor practice, orunhygienic production of foods, have hadreal, and occasionally, fatal consequences.This is the case for either imported or EUproduced foodstuffs.

An example of an imported foodproduct where such an incident occurredis the cooling of a tinned product whichtook place using contaminated river water.Upon cooling, the tin contracted and smalldroplets of water entered. This enabledthe bacterium Clostridium botulinum togerminate in the anaerobic conditionsinside the tin and the result was that ondelivery to the UK, and subsequentopening, heating and consumption,several people were poisoned and killed.

Other incidents and issues havereinforced the legislation and pushed foodquality on to the agenda of consumers.Examples of these incidents and issuesare the diseases BSE in cattle and CJD inhumans, numerous food poisoning

outbreaks and genetic modification. Theissue of genetic modification (GM) is ahugely important one to consumers andthe appearance of GM products in thefood chain without proper scientificresearch and understanding, or the correctlabelling provision to enable consumers tomake an informed choice, has createdgreat alarm.

No-one wants food poisoning and no-one wants contaminated, unwholesomefood, so food production standards arevery important. Therefore, producingwholesome foods is vital to all and has tobe encouraged. This can be achieved byfollowing good agricultural practice (GAP),good manufacturing practice (GMP) andcomplying with the relevant pieces oflegislation.

These standards can be achieved on asmall-scale providing that those whooperate such facilities are trained in thegood practices and elements of foodtechnology appropriate to their products.Where any improvements required tomeet the market standards are substantial,additional support can be obtained from anumber of sources which will bediscussed below.

Supplying local markets requires thesame care and attention as whenproducing food for export. Where theyexist, the legal requirements of foodproduction in the country of manufacturemust be met. Then, in addition, therequirements of the importing country canbe identified and worked towards inpreparation for export to foreign markets.

Adding valueGiven that the legal requirements of foodproduction for the country of import aremet, how can additional value for growersand processors be incorporated into theproduct? How can a better return andimproved working conditions beobtained? Two possible answers to thisare discussed here in the context of acashew nut processor. These methods ofadding value are a) for a product to becertified organically grown and processedand b) to become involved in fair trade.

Both have positive philosophies andactually offer the consumer the chance to

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Keywords

Markets, legislation,fair trade, food law,organic trade,quality assurance,HACCP

Insights into supplying organic and fair trade markets using a case study of fair trade organic cashew nuts fromEl Salvador

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purchase products produced in a way thatis compatible with their beliefs andattitudes. This kind of socially responsibleconsumerism is extremely important andcan positively affect the people involved.

As consumers, we could say that itdoesn’t really matter how our food isproduced, we could ignore the workingconditions of employees within the foodchain and just shop blindly. As employers,we could say that making money at anycost is what matters and that the effectson both people and the environment don’tmatter. However, a large proportion ofpeople, both consumers and employers,do care. Being organic and fair tradedoesn’t just mean that value is added tothe selling price of the product only, valueis also added to the people involved inproducing that product and to theenvironment in which the product wasgrown. This is because the standardswhich are set, when adhered to, reap apositive social and environmental benefitwhilst enabling businesses to trade tomake profit.

Organic and fair trade principlesCurrently, organic and fair trade structuresare separate. Organic production methodsare legally well defined. The organicmarket is massive and still growing.Seven out of ten consumers in the UKnow purchase organic products1. Themarket for organic products has increasedby more than 100%, year on year, since1998, and by 72% in the year up toNovember 2000, to a value of £332.5million2. Information technology has aidedthose in this market by enabling them tosell to many customers via the internet.Many organic trading floors exist on theweb and this has opened upcommunication between growers,processors, retailers and the consumer.This market then is very well establishedand regulated under the EC Directivecovering the production of organic foodsupplied into the European Union as wellas being well monitored and approved byorganic sector bodies such as the SoilAssociation3.

Becoming organic requires theagricultural system to be managedwithout the use of pesticides or geneticmodification. It requires strict adherenceto the legislation and covers the entireprocess from primary producer to final

consumer, offering the consumer aproduct which is guaranteed to beorganic. Substantial documentationensures the integrity of the product; agreat deal of work at the farming end andseparate processing systems/productionruns are necessary to ensure that theproduct is truly organic and notcontaminated in any way with non-organic produce. It offers the consumer amore traditional product, produced ingreater harmony with nature. It respectsthe land and eco-systems, and works withthem – not against them.

Fair trade is still waiting for thatexplosion in demand which organicsexperienced a few years ago. However, nolegal definition yet exists for fair trade andcannot, therefore, be measured to arecognised standard in the same way. Thisis unfortunate as fair trade can bringprogress to the communities involved,acting as the supportive shoulder to leanon for many small-scale producers whocan find the market place, with all itsstandards and legal requirements,confusing and somewhat overwhelming.

Fair trade is a more complex issue thanthat of organic in that it reaches acrosscultures which differ substantially, in orderto establish fair working conditions andimprove the hopes of disadvantagedproducers. It is about people investing inthemselves with help and advice from fairtrade organisations.

Fair trade criteria vary according to theorganisation with which the small-scaleproducer operates. Criteria can includeequal rights for women, protection againstexploitation for both adults, (especiallywomen) and children, minimalenvironmental impact, fair wages in thelocal context and so on. The process ofworking toward fair trade criteria can bechallenging, as it requires the consciousacknowledgement by, and support of, thecommunities involved where suchattitudes and ideas may be new andunfamiliar.

The fair trade market is one that isgrowing but is not large. Theinfrastructure of the fair trade movementis still evolving and, as a consequence,building sustainable relationships, whichmeet the expectations of processors andproducers, can be difficult. It can,however, have its benefits and theexample of a small-scale supplier of fairly

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traded, organically produced cashew nutshighlights both the positive and negativeaspects of incorporating these added-value processes to trade.

Example of an organic and fair tradecashew nut supplierSES (Sistema Economico Sectorial), in ElSalvador, is a community of growers andprocessors, working with both organicand fair trade principles. Their organicstatus is verified annually against thestandard laid down by the EU law onorganic food production, and they arerecognised, nationally and internationally,as suppliers of very high quality,organically produced, fairly traded cashewnuts. For SES, organic agriculture and fairtrade is seen as a hope of a sustainablemarket for their product at a better pricethan the commercial equivalent. Thisapproach gives them a distinction in theirbranding and marketing within ElSalvador and elsewhere; they arerenowned as one of the strongest, mostknowledgeable organic organisations inCentral America.

Supplying the EU market place hasbeen one of the main challenges for SES.Complying with the necessary quality andlegal requirements has been a realachievement. SES has managed to vastlyimprove its processing facilities in recentyears, by incorporating the followingsystems that now enable them to processand supply cashew nuts:

● quality system● auditing● HACCP system.

In addition to this, they have maintainedthe organic processingrequirements, kept thenecessary recordsrequired by the organicsector bodies and the fairtrade movement,maintained fulltraceability on theirproducts (ensuring that agiven harvest can betraced right to the pointof purchase), andmaintained the qualityrequired in thepurchasers’specifications.

What is truly inspiring about all this isthe fact that SES employees are a groupof displaced people who started with nextto nothing after suffering and surviving aterrible civil war. They still have poorliving conditions and an urgent need fortraining and education. Add to this theregion’s natural tendency for hurricanesand earthquakes, and the importance ofsustainability in their economy and theirtrading relationships cannot be over-emphasised. SES works hard to trade theirorganic, fair trade cashews. Even with theassistance they have had, reaching fullcapacity in their processing plant is a realchallenge which is proving to be a burden.The fixed costs of the business are high.They need investment in their plantations,investment in product diversity and innew product development.

Support and knowledge of marketaccess are also very important factors forSES. The group were almost cut off fromthe global markets due to their exporterand importers pulling out last year. SES,therefore, as a business is by no means ina position of great strength and eventhough they have a superb crop, all ofwhich can be sold, the financialconstraints they face currently, and lack ofadditional funding from the fair trademovement or EU social fund, means theproject could very well end.

A great shame this would be too, forthese people deserve to succeed.

To overcome their difficulties SES needthe continued support of fair tradeorganisations to lift themselves out ofpoverty and enable them to create astable, sustainable future. Fair tradeorganisations can play a vital role in thedevelopment of small-scale processors

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and producers because, when properlyresourced, they can make a positivedifference to people’s lives. However, theamount of support needed by a processorfrom a fair trade organisation should notbe under estimated. Sometimessignificant investment in facilities andtraining are required and, as many fairtrade organisations are charity based,frustrations can arise on both sides due tothe finite commitment that can be made. Itis a pressing matter that fair tradeorganisations give their full support toprocessors and growers. This ought to bea learning process in which a smallprocessor is adequately supported inovercoming any difficulties they mayexperience in supplying competitiveglobal markets, and enabled to performbusiness operations for themselves.

SES have benefited greatly from inputby fair trade organisations who havesupplied technical advice and support,quality assurance audits, market accessinformation, advance payments andgrants; they have been able to partiallyfinance the building of a local school, fundthe building of wells and latrines andeffect house repairs in the wake ofHurricane Mitch. However, this input hasto be followed up by sustainable,increasing orders and, although this isbeing worked towards, their situationremains fragile. It is, therefore, importantfor fair trade organisations to help createconsumer awareness of, and demand for,fairly traded products. Effective marketingof the fair trade “brand” is necessary tocommunicate to consumers the reasonswhy every one is better off buying such an

item. It is the market demand for theirproducts that is important for small-scaleprocessors and producers. If the demandis not there then the premium which fairtrade and organic attracts is reduced andmaintaining the standards can becomecostly. Both have to be commerciallyviable. No matter how important organicand fair trade appear to be from anenvironmental and ethical point of view, ifconsumers don’t recognise that theproducts they purchase have an impact onall those who contributed to theproduction and, as a consequence changetheir shopping habits for the better, thesevery beneficial and worthwhile added-value processes will diminish to thedetriment of the small-scale processorsand producers.

References:1. Mintel report, “Organic Focus” (The Soil

Association), January 20002 Taylor Nelson Sofres report, “Organic

Focus” (The Soil Association), February2001

3. http://www.soilassociation.org

Written by David Kay BSc. (Food Studies),(IFSTGrad). David is a legal and technical advisor

to food industry clients and has recently beeninvolved in producing Quality Assurance audits

for a Fair Trade organisation with food producersand processors during a visit to Central and South

America. This article has been produced withcontributions from Mr. Carlos Vargas who is an

independent food consultant and engineer. Carloschooses specifically to work with fair trade

suppliers.

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For more information on fairtrade visit

http://www.fairtrade.org.uk

The Soil Association website is at

http://www.soilassociation.org

BackgroundInternational Development Enterprises(IDE) works in India, mainly in the field ofsmall-scale irrigation. It is involved in aproject funded by the DFID Crop PostHarvest Programme that seeks toinvestigate improved methods ofpackaging and transporting tomatoes. Thetomatoes are produced by small-scalegrowers in the vicinity of Shargaon inHimachal Pradesh. Growers traditionallyuse wooden boxes called peti to pack andtransport their produce. The Himachalgovernment, however, has recentlybanned the felling of trees to make theboxes in order to reduce deforestation.Neighboring states have not followed suitand wood will continue to be available forsome time, but eventually an alternativeto wood will be required. Research by IDEidentified corrugated fibreboard boxes(CFB’s), recently developed for growers inGujarat, as being a potential replacementfor the wooden peti. IDE carried out aseries of trials of the boxes with the localgrowers in Solan area. They selected abox with a 15kg capacity (code VC-15) forthe initial trials. Core Emballage, acompany in Ahmedabad that hadpreviously collaborated with the IndianInstitute of Management, Ahmedabad(IIMA), manufactured 2500 boxes for thetrials.

Aims of transport trial● To determine whether VC-15s could

withstand the rigours of the 350km, 12hour road journey from Solan to Delhi

● To compare the degree of protectiongiven to the produce by the VC-15 ascompared to the peti

● To obtain feedback from growers,traders and others on various featuresof the boxes such as ease of filling,handling, price etc

● To develop second generation boxessuitable for the Solan area, taking intoaccount the results of the trial andfeedback.

Tomato in the Solan areaFarmers in this region grow tomatoes insmall fields on terraced slopes. The crop isready for the market in June andharvesting continues until August. Duringthis period, this region is the only sourceof supply to Delhi and other markets.Growers therefore get a good price fortheir crop.

HarvestingPickers move along the rows with smallbasket or plastic crates. When full theseare emptied into a larger basket called akilta, which is made of fine bamboo splitsand has a capacity of around 30–40kg. Thetomatoes are taken to a shed, where theyare sorted and packed.

EnvironmentThe region experiences frequent rainsfrom mid-June to August, which coincideswith the main harvest period. During thisperiod, the weather is humid and sky iscloudy. The average temperature in Juneis 33–34°C, falling to 25°C in August. Therewere concerns that the local damp climatemight reduce the strength of the CFBboxes.

Mode of packagingWooden boxes (390x280x200mm) calledpeti are the present main mode ofpackaging. They weigh about 1.5kg, havea capacity of 13–14 kg tomatoes and costaround Rs.18–20 per box. Petis are readilyavailable in kit form, which the growerspurchase and assemble as required. Thereis a well-developed and efficient networkin the area that supplies the growers withthe peti kits. Suppliers deliver the kits at aconvenient pick-up point and growersneed only a hammer and nails toassemble the peti.

A peti has provision for aeration and asmooth inner finish, though nails maysometimes be protruding.

There are efforts underway to developalternatives to the peti. In the Delhi marketthere are already 5-ply CFB boxes fortomatoes available. These boxes have thename of the grower, the variety, lotnumber and ‘Himachal Tomato’ printed onthe side. The boxes are a similar shapeand volume as a peti with 8 vent holes (25mm diameter) on both the longer side-walls and on the top and bottom. Ovalgrips are provided on the smaller walls.

New packaging options for transportingtomatoes in India

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UK £1 = Rs 69.7

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aIn this article the authors describe the results oftrials to transport tomatoes in specially designedcardboard cartons, rather than in the traditionalwooden crate.

Keywords

Tomato, quality,packaging,transport

Current packing practiceTomatoes of a relativelyuniform colour and sizeare selected and packedin layers in a peti. Pineneedles or dry grass isplaced at the bottom andbetween the layers toprovide cushioning andprotection for the fruit. Asheet of newspaper isplaced on top and thebox is closed by nailing.Codes of the grower andthe commission agentand the total number ofpetis being sent on that trip are stampedon each peti. Growers carry the petis ontheir back or on mules to the road-side,where they remain on damp ground forup to four hours until pick-up by thetransporter.

Vehicle, load and roadFive tonne single axle trucks, with leafsprings and no dampers are used totransport the boxes of tomatoes to marketin Delhi. Each truck can hold around 600petis, which are stacked in columns of upto 8 tiers. A tarpaulin covering is placedon top to protect the cargo from rain(Figure 1).

Hill roads are narrow, have numeroushairpin bends and gradients with manypotholes. Journeys along such roadsexpose the load to vertical, lateral andforward and backward sway of thecolumns.

Unloading at the market in DelhiTwo workers typically unload each truck –one in the truck handing boxes to anotherworker on the unloading platform wherethey are stacked. Initially the two workersare close enough for the boxes to behanded down (figure 2). As unloadingproceeds the boxes begin to be thrownacross large distances. Being experienced,the boxes are expertly tossed and caught,but occasionally there is a miss and thebox falls onto the hard floor.

Some of the produce reaching Delhimarket may terminate its journey here.Some may be loaded onto another truckto be taken to other terminal markets inthe country. For produce ending itsjourney in Delhi, the transport distance(from Solan) is about 350 km. For thatgoing onward to other destinations itcould be twice as much.

Trial procedureSeveral small-scale growers wereinvolved with the initial trials. The new

cartons (250 in total) weretaken to Shargaon and thefarmers were shown howto assemble and usethem. Tomatoes that werein the ‘breaker’ stage, i.e.the blossom end had juststarted to turn pink, wereselected for the trial.The cartons were placedon level ground andcarefully filled withtomatoes. The box wasshaken once or twiceduring filling to ensureproper settling. Cartonswere secured with straps

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Figure 1. Truck transportingthe tomatoes.

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Figure 2. Unloading thetruck in Delhi

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before loading on to the trucks. Tomatoeswere also packaged in the traditional petisto compare the efficacy of the new box. Afew sample boxes were weighed afterfilling and the gross weight was found tobe 15kg in both cases.

Loading the truckThe truck used was one that regularlytransports produce to Delhi The VC-15’swere stacked in columns of four and thepetis in columns of seven. The overallcolumn heights were almost the same.The truck held 187 VC-15’s and 247 woodpetis. The placement plan is shown infigures 3 and 4.

The truck left Shargaon at 9.30pm andreached Azadpur market (Delhi) the nextday at 8.00am, having travelled about350 km.Upon arrival in Delhi, the truck wasunloaded and the boxes and theircontents inspected for damage. All of theVC-15s were checked for damage to thepackaging. Only a sample of the cartons

(those on the floor ofthe truck which isconsidered to be themost vulnerableposition) were openedto check for damage tothe produce.

Results of the trial

Damage to containersThere was no damage(burst boxes orirreversible bulges) toany of the boxes. AllVC-15’s and the woodenpetis retained theirstructural integrity. This

is despite the fact that some VC-15s wereinitially exposed to a slight wetting due toa leaky tarpaulin.

Damage to Produce

Table 1. Damage to the produce duringtransport

Position in truck % damage——————————————————————————————

VC-15 Peti

Front 4.6 2.3Centre 0 0Back 0 4.1Overall 1.5 2.1

Damage to the produce is summarised intable 1. Overall damage to the producewas 1.5% in VC’s and 2.1% in the petis. Weconclude that this low level of damage isacceptable and is similar for both forms ofpackaging. The damage to produce islower than that observed in trials inGujarat that involved a 250km roadjourney. This is not surprising since thetransport trial in Gujarat was carried out inMarch when temperatures were 40°C.Higher temperatures increase the rate ofrespiration and accordingly the ripening.Also, growers in Gujarat usually packnearly red ripe tomatoes rather than theunder ripe ones. These external factorsincrease the susceptibility of tomatoes todamage in transit.

Modification requiredFollowing the initial trials and taking intoaccount the feedback from the users of the

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Figure 3: Stacking the VC-15s and petis in thetruck

Front of truck

Woodenboxes

Vastrapurcartons

Woodenboxes

Vastrapurcartons

2mFigure 4: Plan view of theplacement of VC-15 andpetis in truck

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cartons, several changes are now beingconsidered:

● Reduction in volume of box. On arrivalin Delhi it was observed that a gap ofabout 3–5 cm had developed in thecarton, due to settlement during thejourney. This suggests that a VC-15 canactually accommodate about 1.5–2 kgmore tomatoes. However, rather thanincrease the quantity of tomatoes perbox, a decision was made to reduce thevolume of the crate

● Placement of ventilation holes. The 8ventilation holes (four each on thelonger side-walls) are clustered closetogether around the centre of the longwalls. This weakens the area near theholes. The holes can be positionedfurther apart without affecting aerationof the carton

● Side grip. To improve handling, the sidegrip of the carton can be provided.

● Barrier to moisture intrusion. In viewof the local climate the boxes needto be made more impervious tomoisture

● Feedback from growers and traders.Growers in Shargaon and traders inDelhi suggested that the dimensions ofthe box be kept close to that of the peti.They also insisted that the price shouldbe kept close to that of the peti

In considering the question of volume ofthe new boxes and the need for them tomatch as far as possible the size of thepetis, the researchers made anassessment of the bulk density of thetomatoes.

Current practice is not to segregate thetomatoes according to size. However, asthe table below illustrates, tomatoes ofvarying sizes have very different bulkdensities.

VolumeThe bulk density of tomatoes wasmeasured at Ahmedabad and Shargaonby sorting tomatoes in different sizes-small, medium, large and also for themixed lots. A template with holes ofvarying diameter was used to determinesize. A CFB box was filled by hand, shaken5–6 times to ensure uniform settlementafter which the tomatoes were weighed.The measurements for each size werereplicated four times. Table 2 shows themean values.

Table 2: Bulk density of tomato arriving atAhmedabad APMC market (July)

Size Bulk density (kg/m3)

Small (below 5 cm) 681

Medium (5–5.5 cm) 638

Large (above 5.5 cm) 617

Mixed (as in lot) 642

Table 3: Bulk density of tomato at Shargaon

Size Bulk density (kg/m3)

Small 681

Medium 687

Large 619

Mixed 694

Dimensions of small, medium and large are not statedand may not be same as in Ahmedabad

The bulk density has clear implications onthe weight of tomatoes per box and is anarea that needs more study. In addition,there may be a premium price for largertomatoes.

Based on the results of the trial,prototypes of new boxes are beingfabricated with the following features:

● Volume as near as possible to 21.6 litres● Outer surface treated with varnish to

reduce moisture intrusion. Laminationwith plastic film is also beingconsidered

● Side grips to be included● Maintaining the volume and price as

close to the peti as feasible.

ConclusionsIn terms of protection afforded to theproduce, these transport trials wereconsidered to be a success. CFB cartonsoffer a viable alternative to the traditionalwooden boxes. It is a technology that canbe replicated throughout India and othercountries for the transport of horticulturalproduce and therefore have a massiveimpact on the felling of trees.

Girja Sharan and Kishor RawaleCentre for Management in Agriculture (CMA)

Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad 380015,

India

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AbstractThe success of any new food product onthe market depends on the ability of thisproduct to meet the needs, tastes andrequirements of the target consumer. InSouth Africa a large proportion of thepopulation is illiterate or semi-literate as isthe case in many other countries wherelanguage barriers are also a problem. Asthis group becomes more westernisedand earns larger incomes, they becomeconsumers making choices about whatfood to buy.

Conventional methods of sensoryevaluation are not appropriate for illiterateand semi-literate consumers since theyare unable to interpret and respond to thevarious questions. Several of these testscan be suitably modified to make themappropriate for use with this group ofconsumers.

IntroductionFood industries the world over have thechallenge of supplying food products to adiverse group of people – from the mostaffluent to the poorest consumer. Thisparticular market sector is a rapidlychanging and dynamic one, shifting aslevels of income increase and urbanpopulations adopt more westernisedeating habits. More money is spent onfood and more food is eaten outside thehome, such as buying from street vendorsor take-aways. Lifestyles are constantlychanging and increasing urbanisation andwesternisation of consumers have variedand far-reaching implications for the foodindustry (Keane and Willets, 1994).

To ensure the success of products andprofits on products, the food industrymust ensure that new products meetconsumer demands. A variety of methods

can be used as indicators to gauge thesuccess of a product, such as sales figuresand questionnaires. However, thepotential acceptability of a new productcan be assessed before it is produced atfull-scale, by carrying out a range ofsensory evaluation methods with a trainedpanel or with ordinary consumers.

Illiterate and semi-literate consumersmake up a large and important sector ofthe product-buying population. However,they are unable to participate effectivelyin standard sensory analysis tests usedto test new products. The ability tomarket-test a new product is equallyimportant for the small-scale processoras the large food industries. Itsacceptability to the intended targetaudience is the key to success of anynew product, no matter what the scale ofproduction.

There is practically no information thatdescribes how to market-test a newproduct with illiterate and semi-literateconsumers.

Consumer sensory evaluationConsumer sensory evaluation can bedefined as ‘the use of consumersthemselves to establish food preferences’(McIlveen and Armstrong, 1996; Shepherdet al, 1988). Involving the end users inproduct testing will be more useful to theprocessor and give a better measure ofconsumer product acceptance. Many newproducts are introduced in to the marketeach year and fail. To minimise the rate offailure it is essential to carry out a marketsurvey to determine who the potentialcustomer is, his perception of the productand the price he is willing to pay. Testingnew products on illiterate consumers iscomplicated by further difficulties relatedto an understanding of the actual tests.

Research into adapted methodsUsing a range of three maize-basedporridge meals, a series of preferencetrials was carried out with literate andilliterate consumers. These were designedto determine how to modify traditionalsensory evaluation tests so that theycould be understood by the illiterategroup.

During the initial testing phases, severalproblems were noted. These included thefollowing:

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Helene Coetzee of Queenswood in South Africa hascarried out research into new methods of sensoryevaluation of new food products with illiterate andsemi-literate consumers in South Africa. Thesegroups of consumers cannot interpret and fill in thescore sheets and preferences tables in theconventional tests. Several traditional methods ofsensory evaluation were modified and tested. Theresearch indicated that traditional sensoryevaluation methods cannot be used for this group ofconsumers without some form of modification, butthere are several acceptable alternatives that arediscussed in this article.

Market testing new food products withilliterate and semi-literate consumers

Keywords

Sensoryevaluation, productdevelopment,illiterate consumer,market research

● consumers were unable to interpretthree-digit numbers on the score sheet

● the pencil provided for scoring wastaken away

● the participants needed lengthyexplanations about the differentmethods, which lead to restlessnessand loss of interest

● participants were unwilling to spit outthe porridge used for testing and didnot use the water for rinsing

● participants did not trust theindividually packed presentation ofsamples and the evaluation in cubicles

● participants were unable to evaluatemore than two samples at the sametime.

Based on the early trials, adaptations weremade to three of the sensory analysismethods – paired preference, rating andhedonic methods.

Major adaptations were made to thescore sheets as follows:

● an outline and a solid symbol of thesame shape were used to indicate apair of samples

● pictorial or symbols were used asanchors for rating scales

● simple and easy-to-interpret facialscales for hedonic methods

● pencils were eliminated and stickersused on serving dishes instead of scoresheets.

More tests were carried out using theadapted methods.

Paired preference testThis is a widely used test to determinepreference and acceptance (Manual,1968). The consumer is presented withtwo samples and is required to make achoice based on some specified criteria orcharacteristic.

In the adaptedtest, consumers were given a blank

button andstickers toindicatepreference for oneof the samples(see figure 1).

RatingThe objective ofrating is toclassify a producton an orderedscale according tothe sensoryattributes of theproduct. Thegraphic ratingscale provides theconsumer with aline-scale that isanchored at theextremes. Theconsumer has toassign eachproduct a scale ofmagnitude thatreflects theamount of thespecifiedcharacteristic orattribute (Manual,1968).In the adapted testthe consumer isgiven a score

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Figure 1: Paired Preference Test

Which of these samples do you like the most? Use the stickers.

Thank you!!!!

Figure 2: Rating Test

Indicate how much you like each sample on the scale below. Use the stickers provided.

Thank you !!!!

sheet with a line scale and stickers thatcorrespond to the products. They areasked to stick the sticker somewhere onthe line that represents how much theylike or dislike the particular product (seefigure 2).

Hedonic testThe objective of this method is to measurethe level of liking for a product using ahedonic scale. Consumers are asked toevaluate each sample and mark the scaleon the test sheet according to how muchthey like or dislike the sample. A nine-point scale ranging from like extremely todislike extremely can be used.

In the adaptedtest the verbal scale was removed and

replaced by a five-point scale thatused facialstickers. Thesecorrespond to howmuch the productis liked or disliked.Stickers were usedthat correspondedto the sticker onthe product (seefigure 3).

ConclusionsSeveral problemswere encounteredwith thetraditionalmethods ofsensoryevaluation. Theseare summarisedin table 1.However, afterseveraladaptations,methods werearrived at thatwere suitable foruse by illiterateconsumers.

ReferencesKeane A and WilletsA (1994). Factorsthat affect food

choice. Nutrition and Food Science, 94(4),15–17.

Manual on sensory testing methods, STP434(1968). Philadelphia: American Society forTesting and Materials.

McIlveen H and Armstrong G (1996). Sensoryanalysis and the food industry: can com-puters improve credibility? Nutrition andFood Science, 96(1), 36–40.

Shepherd R, Griffiths N M and Smith K (1988).The relationship between consumer pref-erence and trained panel response. Jour-nal of Sensory Studies, 3, 19–35.

For further information contact H Koetzee, PO Box12339, Queenswood, 0121, South Africa.

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ITDG Food Chain 29

Africa

Sout

h Af

rica

Table 1: Differences between traditional and adapted methods of sensoryevaluation for illiterate consumers

Traditional Illiterate and other cultures

● Samples served individually ● Samples not served individually● Panellists seated in booths, served ● Panellists stand in queues, served and

and evaluated evaluated (seated or not)● Group instruction as to procedures ● Demonstration and evaluation by

prior to evaluation researcher prior to evaluation● Group attention ● Individual attention● Use 3 digit numbering to mark samples ● Outline and solid shape symbols to mark

samples● Pencils provided ● Sticker provided on score sheets and

serving containers● Pre-prepared individual samples ● Direct serving of individual samples● Water for rinsing ● Unwilling to rinse – regulate time interval● Verbally anchored scales between samples● Various numbers of samples with ● Pictorial or symbols used as anchors

various evaluations used ● No more than two samples per test

Figure 3: Hedonic Test

Indicate how much you like each sample on the scale below. Use the stickers provided.

Thank you!!!!

23

ITDG Food Chain 29

This book is the report of a study that wasundertaken to assess the information andcommunication needs of small-scale foodprocessors in Mozambique, Zambia andSouth Africa. It examines the broad issuesaffecting the operations of small-scaleenterprises in the three countries, both atthe generic and specific level, andrecommends effective information andcommunication strategies that could beadopted in each.

The report highlights the potentialcontribution that small-scale foodprocessing enterprises can make to theoverall development of the agriculturalsector in Mozambique and Zambia. Thereare several diverse constraints hinderingthe development of small-scaleprocessing enterprises in these countries.These include; the high cost of capital andlimited access to finance, limited technicaland managerial skills, lack of diversifiedmarkets, inadequate business premisesand infrastructure and an unfavourableregulatory environment. For bothcountries the report recommendsapproaches to improve the operatingenvironment for small-scale foodprocessors to increase their productivityand competitiveness. It also underlinesthe need for a strategic approach at thenational level to give direction and focusto the development of the small-scalefood processing sector. In South Africa onthe other hand, the small-scale foodprocessing sector is diverse butinsignificant in terms of contribution tothe GDP.

The first two sections of the book givethe reader useful background informationon small-scale food processing in general– both the constraints and opportunities

faced byentrepreneurs inthis technicalarea. This isfollowed by acomprehensivereview of thefoodprocessingsector in southernAfrica and key themes fordevelopment in this region.

In general the report notes thatimproving the flow of information tosmall-scale food processors is crucial totheir success. A key recommendation oninformation management relates to theestablishment of business support centresin Mozambique and Zambia, drawing onthe experience of two ManufacturingAdvisory Centres that were established inSouth Africa in 1998. The servicesprovided by these centres are varied andare designed to support the small-scaleentrepreneur. They include businessmanagement skills, products and processimprovement, quality and designimprovement, technology upgrading,human resources and training andinformation support and marketing.

The book should be of interest to alarge spectrum of readers, includinggovernment departments, training andresearch institutions, businessassociations and food processingenterpreneurs themselves.

Those in ACP countries who have registered withCTA’s Publication Distribution Service may obtainthis publication using their credit points and their

CTA publications order forms.

Book inesL

Study report by K Atkinson, O Saasa, M J Cardoso and N Hill, CTA 2000. 70pp.ISBN 92 9081 2273. CTA No. 985. 10 credit points.Copies may be purchased from CTA’s bookseller, TRIOPS,Hindenburgstrasse 33, D-64295 Darmstadt, Germany.Tel: +49 61 51 33665/311551; Fax: +49 61 51 314048.E-mail: triops@triops.de Internet: http://www.triops.de

Small-scale food processing in Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia: addressinginformation and communication management needs for sector development

Boo

ks

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ITDG Food Chain 29

This booklet is a summary of theresearch and development carried out bythe Institute for Agricultural Engineeringin the Tropics and Subtropics at theUniversity of Hohenheim.

The Institute offers courses inagricultural engineering in the tropics andsub-tropics for students from agriculturalsciences. It also organises training coursesfor scientists from developing countries.The research concept of the Institutecombines measures to increase yields andpromote sustainable and environmentallyfriendly cultivation. It develops appliedtechnologies and provides expertise on arange of technologies, including the

drying ofagriculturalproduce andsolar energyutilisation inrural areas.

Thispublicationcontainsdetails of a range of post-harvest projects carried out throughoutthe world.

It is a useful resource for those whowant to find out more about post harvestoperations, specifically the drying ofagricultural produce.

University of Hohenheim, Research and DevelopmentTel: 0711 459 2490 Fax: 0711 459 3298E-mail: ats@ats-uni-hohenheim.de

Institute for Agricultural Engineering in the Tropics and Subtropics

Book inesLBoo

ks

Technical Information Service

How do I produce quality fruit juice?

Where can I get the equipment?

What is the correct drying temperature for onions?

How do I carry out a market survey?

The Technical Information Service (TIS) of ITDG can answer these and other technicalenquiries you might have.

With over 30 years experience of development and appropriate technology, ITDG canprovide timely, quality information that responds to the information needs ofindividuals and organisations.

This service is provided free of charge to organisations and individuals working indevelopment. The TIS always aims to supply information of direct relevance to yourcircumstances, but to do this we require you to send us specific details at the time ofwriting.

In addition to agro-processing, we also offer technical advice on a range oftechnologies including energy, building materials, food production, transport andmanufacturing.

To improve the speed and efficiency of our services, the ITDG TIS can now beaccessed via the ITDG website (http://www.itdg.org) and via e-mail(infoserv@itdg.org.uk).

Please send your enquiries, marking it ‘Food Chain’, to: Technical Information Service, ITDG, The Schumacher Centre for Technology and Development, Bourton Hall, Bourton on Dunsmore, Rugby CV23 9QZ, United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)1926 634400 Fax: +44 (0)1926 634401

Enquiries can also be submitted directly to our partner offices in Bangladesh, Kenya,Nepal, Peru, Sri Lanka, Sudan and Zimbabwe.