pages food chain 24 - practical action

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Intermediate Technology Food Chain 24

KeywordsSpirulina, nutrition,malnutrition, algae,

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IntroductionSpirulina is a food product derived from greenalgae which grows rapidly in brackish pondswhen the conditions are favourable for multi-plication. It has long been used by groups ofpeople from across the globe – Chad, India,China, Japan and Mexico to name but a few.It is simply collected by skimming algae fromthe surface of a pond and allowing the greenpurée to dry in the sun. After drying it is bro-ken into pieces for sale at market (it is calleddihé in Chad). In Chad, the purée is usedwithout drying as a replacement for meat inthe preparation of sauces to accompany thestaple cereal and women increase their intakeduring pregnancy.

Spirulina is not a new food source, it hasbeen around for centuries. There is evidencethat the Aztecs harvested spirulina in a simi-lar manner on Lake Texcoco (on the site ofMexico City). However, scientists did not ‘dis-cover’ spirulina until 1939, when the remark-able nutritional value of this micro-algaesoon became well known.1 It is now the rich-est source of protein known to man (60–70%of its weight) and its proteins are of an excel-lent quality since they contain all of theessential amino acids. Spirulina is alsoextremely rich in beta-carotene, vitamin B12,vitamin E and iron, making it extremelyeffective in fighting infections, xeroph-thalmia, skin diseases and anaemia. It isimportant for growth and the maintenance ofa healthy nervous system. It is rich ingamma-linolenic acid which helps fight car-dio-vascular ailments and stimulates theimmuno-defence system. It has shown verygood results in the care of children sufferingfrom protein-energy deficiency, of childrenexposed to radiation around Chernobyl andin the reduction of cholesterol levels.

In India, a study carried out on 5,000 chil-dren of pre-school age showed that after fivemonths of taking 1g of spirulina per day, the

proportion of children suffering from xeroph-thalmia dropped from 80% to 10%; for mal-nourished children a dosage of around 10gper day was prescribed.

Finally, spirulina is very easily digestedwhich enables it to be used followingoperations on the colon. The inventory of itstherapeutic applications has yet to becompleted.2,3

Industrial production of spirulinaIn 1978, the first industrial production of spir-ulina began in Mexico, in the form of a finepowder. In 1993, world production wasaround 1,000 tonnes per year, generatedlargely by Mexico, California, Thailand,Hawaii, India and Israel. Japan is the largestconsumer (especially of prepared disheswhere meat is replaced by spirulina). InEurope, spirulina can be found in chemistsand in health food shops, generally in capsuleform.

Use of spirulinaPowdered spirulina has a smell reminiscent ofdried fish that may be off-putting to thoseunfamiliar with the product. This smell iscaused by the drying process. The smell dis-appears when the powder is mixed intosauces, purées, drinks or other foods, with no

Small-scale production of spirulina

Spirulina is a green algae which has foundvalue as an alternative source of first qualityprotein. It is also rich in vitamins and ironand has several medicinal uses. It is relativelyeasy to culture, using the minimum ofequipment and as such is suitable forproduction at the small scale. The nutritionalbenefits have been proven in feedingprogrammes for malnourished children inIndia and Africa. This article describes theproduction of spirulina and gives briefaccounts of its use to alleviate malnutrition.

A 22m2 pool at Bangui

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side effects on the taste of the food. Pow-dered spirulina does however alter the colourof food it is added to, unless it is alreadygreen (as in okra or spinach sauces). Accep-tance of food fortified with spirulina maytherefore take some time to get used to andmay be subject to personal preference. Spir-ulina in capsule form does not have this nega-tive side effect on the appearance of the food,but is around fifty times more expensive. Indi-viduals who take spirulina – either in food or

capsules – for health benefits notice anencouraging increase in wellbeing, especiallyat times when they require greater physical orintellectual strength (for example, athletes,students, people involved in accidents, andthe sick).

The idea of culturing spirulina, or similaralgae, in arid zones (in addition to thosewhich grow naturally in some areas) wasconsidered some time ago but has onlyrecently been put into practice. Given itswholesale price and qualities, the price ofproducing spirulina industrially makes it quitea cheap product for markets in developedcountries but too expensive for the poorpopulations of the South. The cost priceessentially covers labour, depreciation ofequipment, packaging and transport. Therehave been different attempts using varioustypes of cheap small-scale equipment4–9 andthese are of particular interest if domesticconsumption is being considered. The firstsmall-scale production was developed inIndia, and Chile has also had some interestingexperiences in this respect.

The following production method has beensuccessfully carried out in several countries.

Description of the productionsystemThe main requirement is for a watertight poolwith a surface area of at least 10m2 and a min-imum depth of 20cm. The pond should haverounded corners to allow for easier churningand mixing of the water. The pond can bemade from a range of materials, depending onwhat is available locally, the permanence ofthe pond and the finances available. In somelocations it may be necessary to cover thepond with a plastic film which acts as a sunshade, protecting the growing algae from thestrong rays of the sun and contamination. It isuseful to consider using a sheet-metal cover toprotect the surface against heavy rainfall.Unless a translucent glass polyester fibrecover is available, the metal cover should beremoved after the rain to allow the sun toreach the algae.

Culture conditions are very simple and theamount of intervention needed is minimal:

● The optimum temperature should bearound 35°C. Temperatures above 38°Cand below 25°C should be avoided.

● In areas where there are large numbers ofinsects, the pools should be protected bymosquito nets if possible.

● The culture must be agitated, either byaquarium pumps if electricity is available,

Pools established inKabinda, DRC, in 1996

One method ofharvesting: a bag

suspended above theculture.

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Some small-scale production experiences in AfricaThe following give examples of cases where spirulina production has been put into prac-tice in various African countries. All were initially started with the view to using spirulinain feeding programmes for children suffering from protein-energy deficiency.

Near Abomey, in BeninThe Camillien Centre at Davougon11 whichincludes a health centre and a leprosy clinic(the largest in Benin) was able to obtainimported spirulina in 1992 thanks to the Com-mittee of Friends of Emmaüs des Ulis(CAEU).12 In 1993, with the financial supportof Technap,13 a small pool of around 4m2 builtfrom polyethylene sheeting was established. Alocal person was trained in spirulina cultureand given a salary by the Camillien Centre.

In 1994, two permanent pools of 8m2 eachwere built, with support from Codephi, and asecond person was trained in spirulina cul-ture.

In 1995, a visit from Codephi14 enabled theestablishment of a butane gas dryer whichcould be used during the rainy season, alongwith a system of injection of carbon dioxide(from a brewery in Cotonou) which enabledthe yield to be increased.

Yield was no greater than 6g/m2/daybecause mosquito nets had been placed overthe pools and so exposure to the sun wassub-optimal (there was also the partial shadeof palm trees). Production, of course,decreased during the rainy season. In view ofthe number of sick people who came to theCentre, it was necessary to establish morepools. In the meantime, imported spirulinacontinued to be received thanks to the CAEUand this enabled spirulina to become knownin other health centres (some of these healthcentres also wanted to begin production).

Bangui, in the Central AfricanRepublic.The Bangui Charitable Home15 includes ahealth centre specialising in the care of mal-nourished children, of which there are manyin the region. This health centre received 3tonnes of spirulina from the largest producerat the time (Sosa Texcoco of Mexico). In 1994,the NGO N.S.B. that supports this health cen-tre, asked Antenna Technologie to establishspirulina production. By the end of 1996, thetotal pool surface area was 230m2 over threedifferent sites.

In Burkina FasoIn 1996, Brother Dieudonne Zaongofrom the Renutrition and NutritionalEducation Centre in Nanora decidedto commence production of spir-ulina in Nanoro. The first pool builtwas fairly small at 9m2. After cultiva-tion had been successfully estab-lished in this pool, a second pooland a small building for tools andmaterials was subsequently builtwith support from Codephi. Bothpools were equipped with an auto-matic method of stirring using pad-dle wheels (activated by a solarpanel). Originally, the stirring had tobe carried out eight times per dayfor periods of 3 minutes each whichwas time consuming and limited thetime available for harvesting andlooking after the culture.

Harvesting has commenced inboth pools. The fresh spirulina isdistributed to the children beingcared for at the Renutrition Centre,either pure or mixed with sugaredwater or with tô (a traditional dishmade from millet flour). It hasalready been possible to note thatthose children receiving spirulinamake a far more rapid recovery thanthose who do not.

In the Kasai Oriental region ofthe Democratic Republic ofCongoKabinda hospital, run by the Com-munity of the Beatitudes, specializesin the care of malnourished chil-dren. The children were fed for oneyear using imported spirulina as asupplementary food. The resultswere sufficiently satisfying to estab-lish local production. This was donein November 1993. It also enabledcommencement of production in aneighbouring nunnery (of the orderof St. Clare).

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or with a brush or scoop, at least four timesevery day (more when the light reachesaround 50,000 lux).

● Drinking water must be available intowhich can be added various substances toensure a suitable pH (basic, but pH lessthan 11) and which will be used to feedthe culture. To achieve the desired pH,sodium bicarbonate and urea are usuallyused. The bicarbonate could be replacedby a wood ash lye and possibly the urea byurine coming from a healthy individual(one who is not taking any medication).This latter alternative is not alwaysacceptable.

To commence the growth of algae, it is impor-tant to use as large and concentrated a sampleas possible. If the sample is small, cultivationmust be initiated in small receptacles (bowlsand then pools), slowly increasing the volumeas the culture multiplies. This is to ensure thatthe concentration of algae is never too weak.A simple test is carried out to check for thecorrect concentration.

A white disc is immersed in the culture at adistance of 5cm from the surface. If the disc isnot visible, the concentration of the algae iscorrect. If it is visible, the concentration is tooweak. When the disc is not visible at 5cm, it issaid that the ‘secchi’ is less than 5.

If the concentration is too weak, there is arisk that the culture will be destroyed byexposure to the sun. To avoid this, the pro-tection of a sun screen is required, but thiswill slow down the growth of spirulina. If

commencing the culture in a pool, it may benecessary to use such screens, but it ispreferable to commence with a culture of asmall thickness and surface area (variablesurface areas can be obtained in pools byusing sheeting). The thickness and surfacearea can be increased as the algae develop,ensuring that the ‘secchi’ always remains lessthan five. Growing the culture in this waymay take four or five weeks whilst with alarger sample it can be obtained within a fewdays.

When a growth of around 15cm thick andof an appropriate concentration (secchi three)has been obtained over the whole pool, har-vesting can be done every day or every otherday.

A nylon or polyester bag can be suspendedabove the pool, into which the culture ispoured through a sieve. This sieve removesany rubbish. The filtrate generally falls backinto the culture but from time to time it is nec-essary to renew the environment. This can beachieved by periodically throwing away thefiltrate (thus purging the environment). Thebag retains the spirulina from which the wateris squeezed by compressing it.

Fresh spirulina is thus obtained and can beconsumed in this form (it is the most pleasantway and that which provides the most vita-mins). It can be kept for several days in arefrigerator or by adding 5–10% of cookingsalt and covering it with oil.

To keep it for longer periods, the spirulinamust be dried. This can be carried out in asolar-powered drier.

ConclusionTraditional methods of spirulina production:

● Suitable for establishing at the small scalesince they do not require sophisticatedequipment or large financial investment

● Only require modest investment and brieftraining;

● Enable record production in terms ofprotein yield per hectare (at least doublethat of soya which previously held therecord, without requiring more water);

● Yield a high value food product which isbeneficial for the alleviation of malnutritionand in the prevention of many vitamindeficiency diseases.

It is to be hoped that spirulina cultivation maybecome more widely known and dissemi-nated throughout the world, especially inregions that are economically and socially dis-advantaged.

The first poolestablished in Nanoro(Burkina Faso) after

the paddle wheels wereput in place

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References1. Brandily M. Sc., Avenir 152, p 516 (1959)

Depuis des lustres, une tribu tchadienneexploite la nourriture de l’an 2000.

2. A. Belay et al. J.of Applied Phycology 235p. (1993). Current knowledge on potentialhealth benefits of spirulina.

3. J. Falquet, Spiruline. Aspects Nutritionnels(1996), Antenna Technologie, 29 rue deNeuchatel, CH-1201, Geneva, Switzerland.

4. R. Fox and I. Navrari (1973), F-34190 StBauzille de Putois, France. An experimen-tal respirating basin for spirulina culture.

5. R. Fox, Spirulina production and poten-tial, 1996, Edisud, Aix en Provence,France.

6. Jeeji Baï and Seshadri. Arch. Hydrobiol.Suppl. 80, Stuttgart, March 1988. Small-scale culture of spirulina.

7. Jeeji Baï. 6th Int. Conf. on Applied Algol-ogy, Sept. 1993, Ceske Budejovice.Decentralised spirulina mass culture forlocal use.

8. D. von der Weid, Bulletin of the Instituteof Oceanography, Monaco, Special Edi-tion no. 12, April 1993, p. 187. Spirulinaproduction. An Indian Village Experiencein Tamilnadu.

9. Ayala and T. Vargas, 6th Int. Conf. onApplied Algology, Sept. 1993, CeskeBudejovice. The design and operation of aculture system producing spirulina in adesert zone.

10. Thesis by P. Bucaille, Toulouse University,France, October 1990. Intérêt et efficacitéde l’algue spiruline dans l’alimentation

des enfants présentant une malnutritionprotéino-énergétique.

11. Centre Camillien de Davougnon, PO Box139, Abomey, Benin.

12. Comité d’Amis d’Emmaüs des Ulis,Passerelle du Printemps, avenue desChamps Lasniers, F-91940 Les Ulis,France.

13. Technap, 4 rue Le Bouvier, F-92340 Bourgla Reine, France. A collective of NGOsworking to develop and diffuse appropri-ate technology within developing coun-tries.

14. Coopération Developpement PHIlibertDelorme, 1 rue Curnonsky, F-75017 Paris,France. An association working towardsthe transfer of knowledge in the areas ofwater, food, housing and health.

15. Foyer de Charité de Bangui, PO Box 335,Bangui, Central African Republic.

The editors of Food Chain acknowledge theauthors of the article (J. P. Jourdan*, P. Ancel**and E. Boileau***) and the editors of Echos duCota for giving permission for this article to be

reproduced in Food Chain.The authors of the article can be contacted forfurther information at the following addresses:* Rhône-Poulenc. Le Castanet, F-30140,

Mialet, France.** Engineer with Gaz de France. Member of

Codephi. Allée de la Chapelle 80, F-95120,Ermont, France.

*** Member of Technap. Allée des tourterelles7, F-91940 Les Ulis, France.

The pools at Davougon(Benin)

Essential oils can be extracted from variousparts of plants including roots, leaves, stems,seeds and flowers. The oils represent the aromaof the material and find use in perfumery andflavourings. An oil consists of an often complexmixture of heat sensitive chemical compoundsthat boil at temperatures between 150 and300°C. Many of these compounds are soluble insteam and a process known as steam distillationis used to extract them from the plant material.Others are not steam soluble and are known as‘fixed’ oleoresins. These have to be extractedusing organic solvents.

The preparation of the raw material for dis-tillation varies from plant to plant. Some, inparticular flowers, should be distilled immedi-ately after harvest, others have to be stored ordried and some require fermentation. Woodymaterials and roots require cutting and grind-ing to aid the release of the essential oils.

There are three basic types of distillation:

● water or hydro-distillation where steam isgenerated by boiling water in the still body

● water and steam or wet steam distillation● dry steam in which steam is generated by

an external boiler.

Water Distillation is the simplest methodand is widely used in developing countries.The charge of material is placed in the still,covered with water and boiled. The essentialoils leave the still via a condenser. Very oftenheating is over a wood fire. Open fire heatingcan cause problems due to lack of controland burning which result in poor quality oils.

Water and steam distillation. In thismethod, the charge of material is supported ona mesh above water which boils in the base of

the still. Wet steam passes through the chargecarrying away the essential oil. If open fireheating is used there is little chance of burningof the charge. It is important that the steam isable to find its way through the charge andoften several screens are used to support thecharge to avoid material packing down.

Steam distillation is the most advancedmethod. Steam is generated in a boiler andpassed to a perforated coil in the base of thestill. The charge is held on screens, as inwater-steam stills. Steam distillation has theadvantage of higher fuel efficiency, greatercontrollability and produces high quality oils.

The advantages and disadvantages of thethree systems are summarized in Table 1.

The steam, carrying the oil, leaves the stillbody via an exit called a gooseneck. A meshis frequently placed in the gooseneck to avoidmaterial being blown out of the still by thesteam pressure.

Condensers. After leaving the still, thesteam must be condensed back to water bycooling it in a condenser. Two types of con-denser are used, coil and tube.

Coil condensers are easy to make and lowin cost. However, they use a considerableamount of water, are not efficient and cangenerate back pressures to the still.

Tube condensers are efficient, have lowback pressure and use less cooling water, butthey are expensive and need a good work-shop for fabrication.

The metal used for constructing a con-denser depends on the type of oil being dis-tilled because it must not react with the oil.Mild steel is rarely suitable and the ideal mate-rial, stainless steel, tends to be very expen-

Essential oil distillation

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KeywordsEssential oil,distillation,small scale

Wo

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Rev

iew Essential oils are high value, low volume

commodities that can provide incomes to bothfarmers and producers provided markets canbe found for the oils. This article describes thebasic principles of essential oil distillation. Thefollowing article gives a detailed account ofthe extraction of citronella oil as an exampleof small scale production.

Table 1

Water/steam distillation Steam distillation——————————————————————————————————————————— ————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

High capital cost

Workshoprequired

Dangers with highpressure steam

Low capitalcost

Ease ofconstruction

Low pressure

Danger ofoverheating

Lower yields

High water/fueluse

Higher yields

Consistent quality

Good energyefficiency

Florentine flasks

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Citronella is a large grass of the Cymbopogonfamily which originated in the East Indies.Several species (Cymbopogon citratus, C.narus, C. winterianus, C. martini and C. flex-uosus) are cultivated for oil distillation. C. cit-ratus is commonly known as lemon grass andis cultivated for use in south east Asian cook-ery and in the food industry.

Citronella is grown in people’s backyardsand taken, brewed in water, to remedycoughs and malaria. An infusion is taken as arefreshing and digestive drink.

C. narus is slowly being introduced intoTogo from Ghana, where its cultivation iscommonplace. Its oil is primarily sought afterby soap factories, which is why the grass isgiven the name of ‘adjalégbé’, that is, the soapgrass.

Conditions for cultivationCitronella will grow in most tropical climatesup to 1000m provided that there is an evenlydistributed rainfall of at least 900mm. Theplant flourishes in light but can withstand par-tial shade. In the absence of sufficient light itwill grow less and will yield less essential oil.Planting is recommended at the beginning ofthe rainy season. Continual rain encouragesattacks of rust whereas a long dry season willstunt its growth. It is adaptable to all soils aslong as they are permeable. For commercialproduction, a well drained rich shaly/sandysoil plus organic manure combined with min-eral fertiliser are recommended. The plant ispropagated by dividing the base.

The harvestThe first harvest can take place between four tosix months after planting. The long leaves arecut from the plant at around 10cm from theground. Yields vary enormously, from 57 to 300tonnes per year, according to the growing con-ditions and the length of the period for which itis planted. Subsequent harvests can be gatheredat between two and six monthly intervals. Thenumber of times the plant can be harvesteddepends on the condition of the vegetation, butto ensure good yields, plants must be replantedevery two years. Citronella grass is highlyinflammable and should be protected from fire.

Distillation of Citronella oilAfter harvest the leaves are left to dry andwilt. Citronella can be distilled by any of themethods described in the previous article,although steam distillation is the cheapest

sive. In many cases, copper pipe or, better, tinplated copper is acceptable.

As the steam leaving the still condenses theessential oil separates and normally, but notalways, begins to float to the surface. A specialseparator, called a florentine flask, is used toallow the water to continually run away whiletrapping the oil. There are two basic types offlorentine flask; one for light oils that float onthe water and another for heavy oils whichsink. These are shown in Figure 2. In somecases, such as Bay leaf oil, both light andheavy oils condense. Such cases require greatskill from the operator who has to change theflorentines as distillation proceeds. Very oftenseveral florentines have to be used in series toeffect complete oil recovery. The water tem-perature at this stage can be critical to highrecoveries and in many primitive stills the tem-perature of the condensate is too high for

good recoveries. High temperatures can alsolead to the loss of the lightest part of the oilwhich may have an important aroma charac-teristic.

At the end of the distillation the oil is finallyseparated in a glass separating funnel, dried byfiltering it through a funnel plugged with cot-ton wool and packed in a sealed glass bottle.

Figure 3Traditional distillationunits in Sri Lanka

Citronella, the plant of a thousandproperties

The editors of Food Chain are grateful to thejournal Le Grenier for allowing this versionof the article to be produced in English.Citronella oil is produced by steamdistillation from plants of the Citronella orCymbopogon family. The oils have acharacteristic lemon smell and find wide usein a range of products including soaps,fragrances, insect repellents, herbalmedicines and food products. It is producedin many countries and, after citrus oilsextracted from oranges, lemons and limes, isone of the major essential oils of commerce.Well known trade sources of the oil includeSri Lanka and Java. The distillation ofessential oil from Citronella offersopportunities for the small scale processor.

KeywordsEssential oil, steamdistillation, citronella

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method. In West Africa, the GermanAgency for Technical Co-operation(GTZ) has developed and pro-moted a low cost extractionmethod based on a still that is usedfor the brewing of palm wines.The cut leaves are placed in a drumand covered with an equal amountof water. The still is closed and theoil distilled off over a wood fire.The oil which floats on top of thewater is separated in a Florentineflask. Typical yields of oil are 2 to3%.After extraction of the oil, theleaves can be used as fodder forsheep, goats and cattle. A combina-tion of citronella cultivation andlivestock rearing would be a goodway of making use of the wasteproducts.

Characteristics of the oilCitronella oil is a yellow colour witha strong lemon fragrance. The oil isdarker if the leaves are fermentedprior to distillation. The commercial

value is related to the composition and the rela-tive contents of citronelal and eugenol, the twomain components. Citronelal and eugenol areusually present in the ratio of 65:35.

MarketingEnormous amounts of citronella oil areimported into the West African sub-region.GTZ is encouraging local distillation of cit-ronella and lemon grass oil to replace costlyimports. It is estimated that around 700 tonnesof lemon grass oil alone are imported eachyear into Benin, Togo and Ghana. Currentlylocal annual production is only 100 tonnes,most of which is produced in Ghana. There isthus an obvious potential for expansion of theindustry to meet the needs of the ten or socompanies currently importing the oils for usein local soap factories and other industries.GTZ believes there are opportunities for pro-ducers to obtain incomes provided that com-mon marketing structures are put in place thatwill allow producers to identify better markets.

Further information can be obtained fromEtse K Kuma, NGO T.2A, PO Box 7446, Lomé,

Togo. Tel: (228) 25 16 05.

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Citronella oil has many uses,in particular:

● As a therapeutic oil inaromatherapy. The oil hasvasodilatory, anti-inflammatory, sedative,stimulating and digestiveproperties.

● As an aseptic. The oil hasantibacterial and antifungalproperties.

● As an aromatic/deodoriser.These are the properties itis best known for. The oilis extremely pungent andis a powerful fixative. It ishighly sought after in theperfumery, cosmetics andsoap industries and, forthe C. citratus species, inthe food industry.

● As an insect repellent.Citronella oil is effectiveagainst midges andmosquitoes.

Ecuador has a very diversenatural flora with over 25,000different plant species.Around 1200 of these areknown for their medicinalproperties and are seen on sale in the local markets. Thedomestic demand for essential oils for use in traditionalmedicine is high and is increasing, but the local produc-tion of oils is still in its infancy, Each year, 15 tonnes ofessential oils have to be imported, mainly from the USAand Australia.

There is some local production of essential oils.Alfredo Kattan runs a small distilling unit, extractingessential oils to supply clinics and doctors in Quito andRiobamba. These natural medicines are very important inEcuador, especially for the primary health services inrural areas. The method Alfredo uses – steam distillation– and the equipment are very simple and are availablelocally. He believes that small scale distillation offersgreat potential as an income earner in rural areas andhopes that one day every small community could run itsown distillery. The demand for the essential oils is evi-dent, it is the practical know-how that is lacking.

There are a number of factors which prevent the truepotential of these crops being exploited. One of the mostbasic problems is that the names of the plants vary fromregion to region and there is no local expertise availableto classify the species. Another major stumbling block isthe lack of suitable distillation equipment and local tech-nology. There are only three companies in Quito that

construct and sell the equip-ment and much of the plantmaterial is exported for pro-cessing.Quality control and quality

assurance are essential, especially if the oils are to beexported. There is a close correlation between qualityand price for essential oils and, in aromatherapy, onlyunadulterated oils can be used. However, the introduc-tion of adequate quality assurance mechanisms is costlyand beyond the means of many processors.

Most of the knowledge on the medicinal propertiesand use of these essential oils is not documented. Thetraditional medicine men of Ecuador (the shamans) havea wealth of knowledge that has been passed downthrough the generations. However, this knowledge variesgreatly from region to region with the changing flora. Amajor development in this area was the bringing togetherof shamans from all over Latin America at a workshop inQuito. This provided an opportunity for exchange ofinformation and discussions on how to establish an infor-mation network.

This exciting development in the sharing of informa-tion and knowledge could mean that Alfredo’s dream ofsmall distilleries in each community could soon becomea reality.

This is an extract of an article by Andreas Greinerwhich appeared in GATE (4/98), the journal of GTZ. Formore information contact GTZ, GmBH, Post Box 5180, D-65726 Eschborn, Germany. E-mail [email protected]

Essential oil distillationin Ecuador

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The Cashew TreeThe Cashew tree, Anacardium occidentale, isnative to Latin America, but it is now wide-spread throughout Asia and Africa. The tree isparticularly well suited to dry areas as it canwithstand dry conditions and infertile soil. Thecashew nut with its thick shells is resistant todrought and pests. The tree takes two to threeyears to bear its first fruit and then continuesproducing for over 20 years. The cashew sea-son in Sri Lanka is very short, from April toJune.

The cashew tree has an unusual fruitingbody which consists of a swollen nutrientfilled stalk known as the ‘cashew apple’ andthe cashew nut which is an extension of theapple.

The cashew nut is one of the most popularedible seeds in the world. Raw or cooked,sweet or spicy, devilled (spicy) or fried, in acake or in a curry, cashew nuts can delightyour taste buds.

Cashew processing in Sri LankaIn Sri Lanka, cashew processing as an industryhas been in operation since the early 20thcentury. In the traditional processing system,cashew processing is done mainly by lowincome women in rural parts of the country.They are hired by a mudalali (a middleman)who packages and sells the processed cashewto the buyers/exporters.

Small-scale cashew processing is an impor-tant source of income for many women in SriLanka. However, within the traditional, small-scale sector, cashew processors have pro-duced a low quality, low value product. Inaddition, processors have been entirelydependent on powerful middlemen to providethem with loans and to purchase processedkernels. This situation has been further exac-erbated by the fact that until recently neitherthe government nor the private sector haveacknowledged the potential for small-scaleprocessors to run their own commercial pro-

cessing enterprises and to compete on anational level.

Cashew processing is not a pleasant task. Itrequires the removal of two pericarps beforethe cashew kernel (the part we consume) isextracted. The outer shell is very hard andcontains a resinous fluid that can cause skinirritation and blisters. Traditionally, this shellis removed by tapping it with a heavy ‘rod’until the nut cracks. At this point, the cashewnut liquid seeps out. As the liquid is corro-sive, the women have to protect their hands.The nut is turned over and tapped again untilthe nut has cracked completely open. Thekernel inside is levered out using a sharpenedmetal probe. Experienced shellers in SriLanka can shell 3,000 nuts in one day.

After this shell is decorticated, the thinnerinner shell (testa) has to be scrapped off. It iseasier to remove the testa if the decorticatedcashew is dried. Drying the cashew at thisstage also prevents enzyme activity andreduces spoilage and discolouration. Thedryers or ‘ovens’ are owned by themudalalis. The women also use makeshiftheating devices: a flat metal tray on a fire-wood stove. This informal system of cashewprocessing is widely practised. Yet, there isanother system that can increase the qualityof the final product and is being practised inseveral rural communities scattered through-out Sri Lanka. It all began as a technologyintervention.

Cashew Processing

Sun Drying↓

Removing the outer shell↓

Drying↓

Removing inner shell↓

Sorting↓

Packaging

IT Sri Lanka got involved in the cashew indus-try in 1992, when they received a requestfrom a group of cashew processors for a moreaffordable and efficient way to dry the cashewnut.

IT Sri Lanka aimed to empower small-scalecashew processors by helping them accessinformation on markets and technologies, andby improving their status within the cashewindustry.

Empowering small-scale cashewprocessors in Sri Lanka

This article describes how IntermediateTechnology worked with the small-scalecashew processing sector in Sri Lanka.Through work improving the technologiesused to process the cashew nuts, the qualityof cashew nuts produced has beenimproved and the quantity increased. This,along with better marketing of the cashewnuts has resulted in increased incomes forthe producers and many improvements intheir quality of life.

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Improved drying technologiesIT Sri Lanka pilot tested a ‘tray dryer’ that hadbeen developed and used in Peru, with agroup of processors in Vanathavilluwa (Putta-lam District). The tray dryer used in Peru con-sisted of a cabinet with a series of trays inside.Hot air produced by diesel or gas burners wasblown through the trays to dry the produce. Aleverage system was used to lift the trays sothat the tray at the bottom of the cabinet (withthe driest material) could be removed.

Tray dryer field tests have been completedin initial pilot sites in Vanathavilluwa andBuruthakele. This led to substantial modifica-tion of the heating and tray moving system

based on feedback from users. The heatsource was changed so that the dryer usedsaw dust rather than gas or diesel. The dryernow works, looks better, and the cost hasbeen reduced to 26,000 Rupees (US$300). Thefinal version is called an ‘Anagi’ dryer.

To disseminate this technology effectively,IT Sri Lanka has trained seven manufacturersand provided them with appropriate inputs(including full working engineering drawings)so that they can produce high quality dryers.They were also invited to a workshop withusers to discuss user problems in relation tothe dryer and its operation and this has giventhem a better insight into user needs.

Cashew processing in VanathavilluwaRaw cashew nuts

Processed in the unit 6,557 kgProcessed by the members 8,277 kg

Cashew nuts processed: 3,015 kg

Processed nuts sold to exporters:Large nuts (180W) 938 kgMedium (240W) 408 kgSmall (320W) 380 kg

Amount of kernels sold to Cashew 117 kgCorporation without grading.

Total income received for 779,335 Rupeesvalue added cashew:.

Access to Credit: Seylan Bank has given 800,000 Rupeesas a group loan to the society. Regional Rural Develop-ment Bank has given 35,000 Rupees per person. Eachmember received an average additional income of 3,090Rupees per month from processing of cashew.

The Cashew Corporation was influenced by IT Sri

Lanka to ensure that representatives from the Vanathavil-luwa group participated in a seminar to raise awarenessabout the changes in quality requirements as a result ofthe introduction of Export Certification Scheme of March1996. The Vanathavilluwa group at the time was the onlyexample of small processors in Sri Lanka that were pro-ducing high quality cashew (apart from the Cashew Cor-poration and organized industry.) Their experience waswidely discussed, and a site visit to the small processingunit was made. This made the Vanathavilluwa groupvery proud and happy to be recognized as the pioneersof improving the quality of small-scale cashew process-ing in Sri Lanka. They challenged some businessmenwho commented on the process saying that they adhereto quality controlling methods that were better than themethods used by many big businessmen.

The chairperson of the Group Ms. Sujeewa was subse-quently interviewed by the national radio. She advisedother small processors to change their practices and letpeople know about all the potential benefits.

The cashew fruit – thekernel is at the base of

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This has been successful. Eight villages arenow using this improved drying technology toincrease the quality and quantity of thecashew nuts they produce. At least three morevillages plan to use the technology in 1999.

Collective processing andimproved marketingTechnology is just one aspect of improvingthe processing of cashews. The women havebeen encouraged to conduct their enterprisecollectively in order to increase their access to

credit (to purchase a substantial cashew stock)and to market their products more effectively.

A processing unit has been built atVanathavilluwa which can accommodate thedrying and other processing activities as wellas provide sufficient storage capacity for rawcashew nuts. Other units have been built in theother villages which are smaller and houseonly the dryer. Shelling generally takes place atprocessors homes (except at Vanathavilluwa).

This collective processing has enabled theprocessors to access credit. Access to credithas improved considerably in five villages

Protective gloves mustbe worn for crackingcashews to preventburning from thecorrosive liquid

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Cashew processing in YodhakandiyaYodhakandiya is a dry-zone village in theHambantota District in Sri Lanka. Here culti-vation is mostly confined to one season (the‘Maha’ season), although a few people alsofarm as tenants during the ‘Yala’ season.During the rain-fed Maha season farmerscarry out ‘chena’ (slash and burn) vegetablecultivation in nearby forested areas. Most vil-lagers are totally dependent on this for theirlivelihoods. The practice began when the vil-lage suffered crop failure after severedrought that lasted for four consecutive sea-sons. Last year there was a total loss of crop-which left them with no other income gener-ating options.At this time, IT Sri Lanka conducted a pro-gramme to motivate the community whohad lost hope. Through this programme,cashew processing was identified as a

potential alternative income generationavenue. In 1987, villagers learned aboutcashew processing and started doing it as abusiness. IT Sri Lanka facilitated this processby providing support for skills developmentin processing and exchange visits toKaluwelgoda and Madelgamuwa. The activ-ity of this group was at a much lower levelthan all other villages since they had noaccess to credit.

The cost of production was also compara-tively higher due to processing of smallerbatches. However, this very small incomewas extremely useful in a context wherethere were few other options. IT Sri Lankahighlighted this experience to local authori-ties who agreed to extend credit facilities tothe group. The group is now very strong,highly motivated and determined to build astronger organization.

(Vanathavilluwa, Palugassegama, Kaluwelgoda,Madelgamuwa and Santhanagama). For exam-ple, the group in Vanathavilluwa had access toonly 290,000 Rupees initially through RegionalRural Development Bank. This has nowincreased to up to 750,000 Rupees.

The women have also begun to grade thecashew kernels according to sizes, as requiredby the international market.

The improvements above have led toincreased productivity and an improved qual-ity. The groups in Madelgamuwa andVanathavilluwa are now producing morethan 1,200 kg of processed cashew nuts amonth, while Kaluwelgoda is producingmore than 700 kg. The quality of the finalproduct has been improved. An indication ofthis is that the percentage of broken nuts isless than 20% in all villages which have beeninvolved with the programme for at least ayear and varies from 5–10% in mature sitescompared to 30% and over in new ones. InVanathavilluwa, it has been reduced to lessthan 4%.

Cashew processors in four villages(Kaluwelgoda, Vanathavilluwa, Madelgamuwaand Santhanagama) are now selling 100% oftheir produce directly to exporters; some3,000–4,000 kg of processed cashews beingsold per month. They are acknowledged as areliable source of a quality product.

Increased incomes for producersDue to the above changes the processors inVanathavilluwa, Kaluwelgoda, Madelgamuwahave increased their incomes by more than10%. In Santhanagama and Palugassegama,the increase has been 5%. Each processor inVanathavilluwa, Kaluwelgoda and Madelga-muwa is now earning 4,500–5,000 Rupees(US$60–70); in Santhanagama and Palu-gassegama at least 2,000–2,500 Rupees(US$25-30) per month; and Yodhakandiyaincome is about up to 1,500 Rupees (US$20)per month.

This has made a big impact on thewomen’s lives. For example, the women havesaid that they can now ‘get income from

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Tray dryer modified fordrying cashews

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cashew directly rather than through their hus-bands’. Earlier, their husbands generally soldcashew to middlemen on behalf of them, asthe women worked at home rather than goingout.

The women have used this income for:

● good food● better clothing● better family healthcare● new furniture and other necessary

household items● a better education for their children● improvements to their houses, e.g. white

washing, permanent roof and new toilet● repaying housing loans.

They have even been able to save money andincrease their savings in the banks. InKaluwelgoda, eight members of the group arenow setting aside 3,000 Rupees per month forseettuwa which is a famous traditional savingsystem mainly practised by women.

The increased incomes have enabled thewomen to gain respect and recognition by thevillages as self employed business people.

Improved status for small-scaleproductionSmall-scale cashew processors are nowregarded as reliable producers and goodinvestment opportunities by a range of organi-zations. The Cashew Corporation, the ExportDevelopment Board and the Industrial ServiceBureau have recognized that small producersare capable and reliable. One export companyis directly buying from the small-scale cashewprocessing groups in Vanathavilluwa, Kaluwel-goda and Madelgamuwa. The Seylan Bankand RRDB have provided increased credit tosmall processors in Kaluwelgoda, Madelga-muwa, Vanathavilluwa and Santhanagama.Seylan Bank released Rs.100,000 per projectbeneficiary in Kaluwelgoda, Madelgamuwaand Vanathavilluwa. RRDB has increased theloan amount from Rs.35,000 to Rs.75,000 forVanathavilluwa after assessing work progress.The Samurdhi beneficiaries who are involvedin cashew processing work in Santhanagamawere also able to obtain a loan of Rs.20,000from Kurunegala RRDB.

This article was written by Vishaka Hidellageand Karin from Intermediate Technology Sri

Lanka. They can be contacted at IntermediateTechnology Sri Lanka No.5, Lionel EdirisingheMawatha Kirulapone, Colombo-5. Telephone:

852149,829412-5, Fax: 856188,e-mail: [email protected]

The story of new businessmen in KaluwelgodaMr Keerithirathna is the dryer operator as well as a member of theKaluwelgoda cashew processing unit. From the income he receivedby working in the processing work he has started his own businessby opening a small retail shop in his home. He sells goods such assugar, tea, and salt which are necessary in most houses. He repaysthe bank loan instalment from the little income received from thisshop, and soon he will be able to sell his own garden produce too,such as pineapples, cassava and bananas. Not only does he havethe shop but he has also started to sell his own cashew products inhis shop with his label:

KEERTHI CASHEW PRODUCTSNet wt …Gram Price Rs…Exp Date…….No. 38 Kaluwelgoda, Makewita-Ja-Ela

He prepares his cashew nuts by cooking them with a little oil, chilliand salt powder before putting them into packets. He goes fromshop to shop marketing his cashews. He has been able to purchasehis own motorcycle and is able to do his work much more quicklythan before.

Mr Keerithirathna continues his cashew processing work as amember of the society and also markets individual products to theCashew Corporation as well as to the retail shops in Colombo. Hehas produced about 276,460 kg of processed cashew during themonth of September 1997 and sold out to the Cashew Corporationand others earning an income of 75,879 Rupees.

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Traditional method ofcashew processing

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Keywordsyoghurt, cottagecheese, small-scale,fermentation

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IntroductionThe small scale production of high qualityyoghurt and cottage cheese is perfectly possi-ble but does require care and an understand-ing of the process. While the production ofgood cheese and yoghurts involves a degreeof art, it is based on sound scientific princi-ples. The production of yoghurts and cheeseinvolves a living organism and it is thereforeimportant to understand the needs andrequirements of the organisms. It is essentialto pay attention to detail and accuracy in con-trolling temperatures and incubation times.

Yoghurt ProductionThe minimum equipment required to makeyoghurt is a large saucepan, a thermometerand a clean spoon for stirring. A slightly moreprofessional approach is to use a thermostati-cally controlled electric yoghurt maker whichincubates the organisms at their optimum tem-peratures. A set of scales will be required toaccurately weigh out ingredients.

The science behind making yoghurt is inthe culturing. Fresh milk contains a range ofacid and flavour producing micro-organisms,but only two of these work together to turnmilk or cream into yoghurt. These are calledStreptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillusbulgaricus.

If raw milk is kept warm, it will sour due tothe growth of lactic acid forming bacteriawhich grow first. These compete with the twodesirable strains, preventing them from grow-ing. It is therefore necessary to start theprocess by pasteurising (boiling or simmering)the milk to stop or slow the growth of theundesired bacteria. Heating also removesmuch of the oxygen present in the milk, pro-viding a better medium for the growth of thedesired organisms.

Streptococcus thermophilus grows bestbetween 45 and 47°C. Lactobacillus bulgari-cus on the other hand, grows best between 37and 42°C. What actually happens is that theStreptococcus thermophilus is the first to startgrowing, then as the temperature of themedium falls the Lactobacillus (which isresponsible for the flavour) takes over.

MethodologyWhile yoghurt can be made entirely fromfresh milk, a richer flavoured, thicker productwill result if half a cup of evaporated milk orthree heaped tablespoons of powdered milk(either whole or skimmed) is added to eachlitre of fresh milk. The final recipe used willdepend on the preferences of customers. Atypical outline for yoghurt preparationinvolves the following steps:

● Pour one litre of fresh pasteurised,homogenized milk into a saucepan ordouble boiler, if available, and slowly heatwith constant stirring to avoid burning, to82–84°C. Turn off the heat and hold at thattemperature for approximately fiveminutes. Use a thermometer that has beenchecked in boiling water (water boils at100°C).NOTE: If UHT (Ultra Heat Treated orsterilized) milk is used it is not necessary topasteurise but simply heat to 49°C.

● Allow the milk cool to 49°C. The coolingprocess can be accelerated by immersingthe saucepan or double boiler in a coldwater bath. At 49°C the milk is ready forthe addition of the starter culture.

● Mix well and dissolve the dried culture orcommercial plain yoghurt in about half acup of the warm milk, pour back into theremainder of the milk and mix well. Thetemperature of the milk in the saucepanwill now have fallen to the desired range of44–46°C.

● The cultured milk is then allowed toincubate in a warm place, or in aninsulated box, until it sets. The time takenwill depend on how active the starterculture/starter was and how well thetemperature was maintained. If everything

Preparation of starter.The starter consists of milk containing thetwo strains of actively growing yoghurtbacteria. It is either prepared from a com-mercially available freeze dried culture ifavailable (5 gms/litre of milk), or one ortwo teaspoons of a fresh commercial plainor natural yoghurt. The milk used shouldbe pasteurised as described above. Whilestarters can be maintained in an activelygrowing state for a long time by transfer-ring small amounts into fresh milk daily orweekly, it is much easier to save a fewgrams of finished yoghurt from one batchfor use in the next batch.

The manufacture of yoghurt andcottage cheese

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Dr Hamilton from Jamaica describes howperfectly acceptable yoghurt and cottagecheese can be prepared at the small scaleusing simple equipment. The article includesdetailed methods and a short section onhow to overcome basic problems in yoghurtproduction.

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was carried out correctly, the yoghurtshould set in about four hours. At thispoint, using a spoon that has beensterilized in boiling water, check the flavourand consistency. Note the level of acidity,flavour and texture.

● If the yoghurt has the desired flavour andtexture, stop the growth of the organismsby placing in a refrigerator for a minimumof eight hours.

ProblemsAlthough the production of yoghurt is rela-tively simple, it does not always work well onthe first attempt. There are several reasons forthis and the following checklist (table 1) canhelp to rectify some of the more commonproblems. If you are making yoghurt for thefirst time, do not give up if the product fallsbelow your expectations. Experiment with dif-ferent combinations of raw ingredients andincubation times until you find a method anda product that suits your customers’ needs.

Yoghurts with fruits andflavouringA variety of fruits and flavourings can be usedto create exciting new tastes and textures inyoghurt desserts. When adding fruits orflavourings, whether the yoghurt is incubatedseparately or in combination with the fruit, itis important to allow it to set in a refrigeratorfor a minimum of eight hours.

Fruit Yoghurt: Use fresh, canned or frozenfruit. It can be added as slices, chopped orpureed as toppings or mixed into yoghurt.

‘Swiss Style’ yoghurt: Stir pureed fruit intoyoghurt until it is a heavy cream consistency;refrigerate for 2 to 3 hours.

Yoghurt sundaes or yoghurt parfaits: Forsundaes, put favourite fruit at the bottom of aserving dish and spoon yoghurt on top. Gar-

nish with cherries or nuts. For parfaits, layerfruit or preserves with yoghurt in a glassbowl, and again garnish with nuts, cherriesand honey.

Flavoured yoghurt: Use flavours to create afruit flavoured syrup, thickened with cornstarch and sweetened with sugar.

Cottage cheeseCottage cheese is a soft, crumbly, acid cheeseprepared from skimmed or partially skimmedmilk or skimmed milk reconstituted from milkpowder. Cottage cheese differs from otheracid coagulated cheese in that the pieces ofcurd are kept separate by cutting, scaldingand washing.

The organisms involved in the preparationof cottage cheese are a mixture of lactic acidproducing Streptococcus and Lactobacillus. Aswith yoghurt production, the starter can be afreeze-dried culture, or, since the finishedproduct contains living organisms, commercialcottage cheese can be used to develop astarter. When making a starter from commer-cial cottage cheese, the cheese should first beblended to break down the curd to a liquidand added at the rate of 5% or more to smallamounts of skimmed milk. It is then incubatedat 32°C for about five hours to allow thestarter culture to grow.

Two methods for making cottagecheese: the short and long set methods.In the short set method, a small amount ofrennet (an enzyme used for the coagulation ofmilk) is added to ensure the formation of afirm curd. The milk is first pasteurised byheating to 82–84°C, and rapidly cooling to32–33°C. 5% starter culture is added (50ml perlitre of milk) together with rennet at the rateof 0.5ml per 10 litre. The mixture is then incu-bated at 32°C for five hours.

Table 1 – Common problems in yoghurt production and possible solutions

Problem Remedy

The yoghurt fails to set or take onthe desired consistency after thenormal time of incubation

A liquid (whey) forms on the top ofthe yoghurt, or it has a grainytexture

a) Check the quality of the milk used. It should be fresh.b) The temperature was too high when the starter was

added (over 50°C).c) The temperature of incubation was too high.

Maintain temperature between 43-44°C.d) The starter was added when the milk was too cold.

(Less than body temperature 37°C).

a) The milk was too hot when the starter was added.b) The time of incubation was too long.c) The level or amount of starter was too high and/or it

was not properly stirred into the pasteurised milk.HINT: Adding gelatin will greatly inhibit whey formation.

When using the long set method, theamount of starter is reduced to only 1–2% andthe incubation temperature is reduced to22°C, but the incubation time is increased to12 hours. When the curd has set at the end ofthe incubation, a liquid (whey) will be seenon the surface.

Good results can also be obtained byadding the starter, as in the short set methodat 32°C, and incubating overnight without theuse of rennet.

The cheese is ready when sufficient acid hasbeen produced. This is confirmed by therelease of whey from the cheese when it is cutwith a clean knife. The curd is next cut intosmall cubes about 8–13 mm. On a larger scale,

a special rectangular cutter made from stainlesssteel wire that produces regular sized pieces isused. At home, the same effect can beachieved in a bucket using a thoroughlycleaned, sterilized tennis or badminton racquet.

After cutting, the curd pieces are cooked inthe whey in a double boiling pan at 49–53°Cfor a minimum of two hours. The scald tem-perature must be sufficient to control thegrowth of spoilage organisms.

After scalding, the curd is placed in acheese cloth bag and allowed to drain. Finallythe curd is washed three times in water atprogressively lower temperatures, namely 24,10 and 3°C.

After the final cold water wash, the curd isdrained for one hour. At this point, the curdhas a firm, chewy texture. Plain cottagecheese (low calorie) is produced by washingthe curd in a 1–2% salt solution before pack-ing. The product must be refrigerated at 2 to4°C and will have a shelf life of three weeks.

Fruit and vegetable pieces may be added tothe curd to produce a number of flavouredvarieties, for example, onion, chives, sweetpepper and pineapple.

by M.O. (Pat) Hamilton, Ph.D

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A thermostaticallycontrolled yoghurt

incubator

International Workshop on Drying and Improvement of Shea and AeileNgaoundere, Cameroon1—3 December 1999

Objectives of the workshop

✦ Review research on drying, sheaand aeile

✦ Develop an instrument forstrengthening regionalcollaboration

✦ Exchange information on researchresults

✦ Inform leaders of NGOs andpolicy makers about thepossibilities of reducing postharvest losses

Expected outputs

✦ Capitalisation of knowledge ondrying and improvement of sheaand aiele

✦ Determination of researchpriorities and strategies

✦ Inventory of institutions andindividuals working on drying

✦ Publication of workshopproceedings

Main topics

✦ Agroforestry and domestication

✦ Biology, plant improvement andprotection

✦ Chemistry, biochemistry andnutrition

✦ Technology

✦ Equipment and socio-economicaspects

✦ Other contributions

For further information contact Pr C Kapseu, Co-ordinator, Workshop on Drying, ENSAI-IUT, University ofNgaoundere, PO Box 455 Ngaouendere, CAMEROON.Tel: (237) 25 27 51/25 25 99. Email [email protected]

IntroductionThe Palmyrah Workers Development Society(PWDS) is a registered Voluntary Organisationestablished in 1977. It was initiated with theobjective of improving the socio-economicconditions of Palmyrah Workers and theirfamilies in Kanyakumari and Trivandrum Dis-tricts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala States respec-tively. Several programmes were introduced tothe community with the objectives of empow-erment and self-reliance.

PalmyrahPalmyrah is a palm tree that grows in severalcountries including India, China, Sri Lanka,Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand andNepal. The palmyrah tree gives a sweet sapcalled neera from its flowers which is collectedand made into a solid sweetener called jag-gery. There are 500 thousand families engagedin palmyrah work in Tamil Nadu alone.

Palmyrah workersIn general, palmyrah workers and their fami-lies are poverty ridden and oppressed and livein small thatched huts. Their main occupationof palmyrah tapping and processing is neitherremunerative nor safe. It is a seasonal andaccident-prone occupation that usuallyinvolves the whole family. The tapper climbsto the top of the tree to collect the neerawhich is processed by the woman. Childrenhelp the parents to transport the neera, collectthe firewood and boil the neera to produce apalm sugar called jaggery. Sometimes theelder children are forced to look after theyounger ones which denies them their child-hood and formal education.

Most of the palmyrah workers work aswage labourers for landlords who own thetrees. On average a tapper can tap thirty toforty trees and collect 50 to 80 litres of neeraper day. The meagre income they earn fromthis occupation is inadequate to provide themost basic of family needs. In addition, theyare not given proper recognition in societyand are subject to discrimination.

Even though there is tremendous potentialto increase employment opportunities, thepalmyrah industry shows a declining trendbecause of the poor remuneration. This couldbe solved in two ways: producing alternatevalue added products such as palm candy anddevising alternate marketing strategies forpalm products.

Palm product developmentThe studies and experience of PWDS showedthat it is impossible to improve the socio-eco-nomic conditions of the palmyrah artisansunless marketable value added products areproduced from neera instead of the traditionaljaggery. In the late eighties, a German develo-ment organization, FAKT, began to work withPWDS to study suitable alternative productssuch as refined jaggery, spiced jaggery, palmcandy and palm syrup. After careful analysisof the situation, top priority was given to theproduction of palm candy.

Palm CandyPalm candy is a crystalline form of neera. It isa natural sweetener with both nutritive and

Training in food processing – asustainable approach in India

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KeywordsTraining, foodprocessing, India,sustainable

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diaTeaching the art of catching a fish requires

more effort than merely giving a fish to ahungry man. However, once the techniqueshave been learnt, they remain with theindividual for a lifetime and he is able tocontinue catching fish whereas the hungryman had his hunger satisfied for one dayonly. There is a general opinion that Non-governmental Organisations are meant forcharity, but the financial and fundingagencies always ask about viability andsustainability of any project. This can befulfilled only when adequate andappropriate training is provided to thepotential entrepreneurs. Training helps themto acquire more knowledge and skills andyield better results.

Traditional tapping ofsap

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medicinal values. The technology for produc-ing palm candy is not complicated. After col-lecting the sweet sap from the tree top it isheated to 40°C then treated with lime and fil-tered. The pure neera is boiled to 108°C untilit becomes a syrup of a specific viscosity. Theboiled syrup is transferred to a crystalliserand kept undisturbed for at least 40 days toallow crystallisation to take place. After har-vest the crystals are cleaned and neatlypacked. Since it is a natural, medicinal prod-uct, there is good demand for palm candy.

Transfer of technology throughcommunity based candyprocessing unitsTo transfer the technology from the lab to thefield, a palmyrah worker group was identifiedin one village – Madichal. Initially, peoplewere hesitant to adopt the new technologybutafter a series of discussions they agreed to trythe process and the pilot project started in1992. This was a learning experience for boththe palmyrah workers and the technical teamof PWDS. The pilot project proved that candymaking is technically feasible and economi-cally viable. After seeing the success of theMadichal candy unit, people from nearby vil-lages were keen to replicate the same modelin their villages. At present five palm candymaking units are being managed successfullyby the palmyrah artisans.

In each unit, ten to fifteen palmyrah work-ers joined together as producing partners.They regularly supply their neera to the centreand process it centrally. After selling the prod-uct (candy), each member is given a share ofthe profit in proportion to the neera supplied.Their income has doubled through candymaking as compared to jaggery making.

Training approachOur approach is to identify the needy andpotential candidates and train them to becomeexperts in the particular field and enhance

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Sale of traditionaljaggery products

their entrepreneurial skills. The training can bedivided into three parts.

1. Pre-trainingThis is an essential pre-requisite to any trainingcourse. It involves the identification of trainees,preparation of course content, sequence,design, duration, methodology, venue and linkswith other support organisations.

2. TrainingThis is the actual delivery of training, includ-ing both theoretical and practical aspects.

3. Post-trainingThis phase is centred on follow-up. The successof any training depends on how many personshave put it into practice. There may be somestarting problems, for example setting up a pro-duction unit, availing finance, fulfilling the cum-bersome government formalities and becomingestablished in the market place, where traineesneed some counselling and encouragement.Many agencies do not give due importance topost training. I can say, it is a negligence on thepart of the Organisation which provides trainingas follow-up is inevitable and inseparable fromthe actual training.

Designing training coursesFrom our experience we have designed threetypes of training programme, suitable for dif-ferent types of people:

● trainers● members of a candy making unit

(producing partners)● technicians/candy makers

Trainers training programmeThis is designed for the NGO staff who wishto replicate the community based palm candymaking units in their target villages.

The training includes orientation about com-munity based income generation programmes,candy making and information on skill training,comparative economic analysis of jaggery andpalm candy processing, technical feasibility andeconomic viability, concept of rural entrepre-neurship development programme, entrepre-neurial behaviour, business plan, appropriatetechnology, quality control, basic knowledge toinitiate a production unit including environ-mental scanning, government formalities, mar-keting, record maintenance, managementinputs, base-line study, monitoring and accom-paniment, evaluation and follow-up.

The methodology followed is classroominput, group discussions, experience sharing,exposure visits and on the spot training.

Training module for tappersThis course is for individuals who will beinvolved in candy making as producing part-ners. The duration of the training is two days.

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The trainees are given the basic concept ofenterprise, entrepreneurship, project andproduct idea, the advantages of palm candymaking, marketing and management andmonitoring of the production unit. Themethodology is class-room input, experiencesharing, group discussion and exposure visit.

Training for technicians and candymakersThe purpose of this training package is toimpart the technology or skills. The courseincludes the salient features of the raw mater-ial, economic benefits of candy preparation,process details, precautions, technology andthe installation of unit.

The duration of the training is forty fivedays, either continuous or in two modulesbecause the palm candy can only be har-vested after forty days of crystallisation. Afterthe successful completion of the training, thetrainees become fully qualified technicians.

Evaluation and impact assessmentEvaluation is a tool to measure the effective-ness of the programme and enable the pro-ducing partners to improve. We insist on par-ticipatory joint evaluation by the trainees andthe evaluation team. Broadly speaking, theevaluation is carried out in two stages:

I. evaluation of trainees immediately after thetraining programme

ii. performance evaluation of the unit afterone year by the internal and external teams

The tools used to monitor progress andimpact are pre-test and post-test filled ques-tionnaires and feedback of the trainees. Onthe other hand, in the performance evaluationthe indicators are palmyrah workers participa-tion and co-operation, quantity and quality ofneera supplied, candy yield, quality controlmechanism, profitability, maintenance ofaccounts, dynamics in decision making andself-management.

The very purpose of the training is toenable the producing partners to manage theirunits by themselves. Managing a unit by a sin-gle person is comparatively easy whereasmanaging a community based unit by a groupof members is very difficult. Here we applythe Participatory Impact Monitoring (PIM)mechanism.

In the conventional method, an outsider isappointed to assess the impact of the unit.There are a lot of disadvantages in thisprocess. The preconceived notions of theassessor may dilute the real growth and it alsocreates dependency on outside experts whichis more expensive. As a result, the producersare hesitant to conduct regular impact studies.

The participative impact monitoring is asimple monitoring tool to assess the impacteffectively. Once trained, they can easily

assess their own strengths, weaknesses, suc-cesses and failures on a weekly basis usingthe indicators and make necessary correctionsin their system which protect them fromheavy loss or damage.

The impact assessment has been carriedout at two levels: unit level impact monitoringand NGO level impact monitoring. The impactof each unit is shared and reviewed in thejoint reflection meeting of all the candy mak-ing units promoted by PWDS. It gives moreclarity and strength among the individualunits. After seeing the successful applicationof PIM in candy units, many other NGOs havecome forward to adopt this monitoring tool.

ConclusionThe systematic training and follow-up pro-vided by PWDS enables the poor palmyrahworkers to become efficient entrepreneurs.When the product quality has beenimproved by value addition through appro-priate technology and training, people’spower is also strengthened. Once apalmyrah worker only dreamt of having ahundred rupee note. Now they are handlinghundreds of thousands of rupees throughthis food processing programme. In such asituation, how can we deny that food pro-cessing training will not be a strategy for sus-tainable development?

John Jayaraj can be contacted at PalmyrahWorkers Development Society, Crystal Street,

Martandam, 629165, Kanyakumari District,Tamil Nadu, India

The studies andexperience at PWDSshowed that it isimpossible to improvethe socio-economicconditions unlessmarketable productsare made instead oftraditional jaggery

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22


Book inesLB

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This book carries an optimistic title andindeed the authors suggest that its contentshave been the result of many years of imple-menting such training exercises. The lessonslearned over the years have been distilled intothis compact volume. The emphasis on small-scale production is also strongly maintainedthroughout.

The book is in two parts. The first fourchapters deal with the mechanics of trainingcourses in their preparation, implementationand finally, but most importantly, in theassessment of their success. These chaptersnever lose sight of the nature of the audiencefor the courses, usually adults with limited for-mal education, whilst paying attention to thedetails which make any course a success —publicity, material preparation, scale, costs andteaching methods. The scope of the coursescovers the obvious practical skills of foodpreparation but also suggests the inclusion ofbusiness/financial and legislative aspects .

The second part, ten chapters, describescase studies based on experiences in LatinAmerica, Africa and Asia and includes exam-ples from eleven different countries. The

processes employedand final productsgenerated are alsovaried: from snacksto fruits, involvingdrying and cook-ing although theactual processesgiven are not important inmy opinion. The themes discussed in thesestudies could form the basis for a course onany product/process in any part of the world.

The book is extremely well presented withphotographs taken at courses, simple dia-grams suitable for handouts and individualstories which include some failures as well assuccesses. This type of extension work is notglamorous but essential to enable the largemass of individuals, particularly women, toimprove their income by adding value to theirusual agricultural products. The spin-off fromsuch income can be seen in improved educa-tional opportunities and health in childrenbesides material comforts.

G. M. Hall

1998, ISBN: 1 85339 425 4, 152 pp, £9.95

Training in Food Processing: Successful Approaches

The author of this handbook on mushroomcultivation has several years of first handexperience of the subject in Africa. Althoughthe book is based on experiences in Ethiopia,the principles are clearly explained and areapplicable to a range of developing countries.The handbook begins with a brief overview ofmushrooms and fungi and their various uses.The importance of fungi in agriculture, healthand medicine, industry and biotechnology arebriefly mentioned before the book movesonto more practical issues.

One of the benefits of cultivating mush-rooms is that they require very little spe-cialised equipment and can be grown on avariety of waste substances. The bookdescribes a range of growth substrates whichare either by-products of other food industriesor are waste products. The range of options

discussed shouldensure that thereare opportunitiesfor people toadopt this tech-nology in arange of coun-tries and situa-tions. There isa very useful section onthe control of pests and pathogens andanother one which describes how to preservemushrooms.The resource section of the book contains acomprehensive glossary and suppliers ofspawn and cultures and laboratory supplies.The handbook is recommended for those whowish to begin or improve existing mushroomcultivation in developing countries.

Dawit Abate, 1998

Mushroom Cultivation — A Practical Approach

23


Cassava doughnuts are thick, cylindrical, friedproducts which are approximately 8cm indiameter and 3cm thick. The texture is stifferthan cake and the crust is soft with a deep,uniform brown colour. They have a shelf-lifeof a few days under correct storage conditionsand are used as a snackfood or in packedmeals.

As in all cassava products, especially thosemade from bitter cassava, it is necessary todetoxify the cassava by removing or deactivat-ing the components that yield cyanide. Themain quality factors are the colour and fine-ness of the flour and freedom from dirt,mould and insects. Oil used for frying shouldbe clear, of good quality and free from rancid-ity.

HygieneHeat during frying destroys most contaminat-ing bacteria and the soft crust restricts recont-amination during storage. Good hygienicpractices should be enforced during prepara-tion of the dough to prevent gross contamina-tion and possible survival of large numbers ofbacteria after frying.

Packaging and storageThe product should be properly cooled beforepackaging into a moisture proof bag in orderto prevent water vapour condensing onto theinside of the pack, moistening the surface ofthe cake and promoting mould growth. Thepack should also be oil resistant and preventcontamination by soils, insects etc. The prod-uct should be stored in a cool, dry place awayfrom sunlight which would accelerate rancid-ity of the oil in the product.

Equipment requiredMixer (optional)Heat sealerScalesThermometer

Cassava doughnuts

Rec

ipes

Process Notes

Cassava Flour

Mix 1kg cassava flour, 75g bakingpowder, 200g sugar, 6 eggs,125g margarine, 1/2 teaspoonsalt and 1/2 litre milk or water.Mix to a smooth dough.

Shape Shape with floured hands, takemixture in spoonfuls, shape intorounds with a hole in themiddle.

Fry Deep fry the doughnuts in hotoil (approx 150°C) until goldenbrown on both sides.

Drain Remove excess oil.

Cool Cool to room temperature.

Pack Pack in plastic bags, preferablyin units of ten for easy countingand wholesale.

Store Store in cool and shaded placeto slow down rancidity.

pages food chain 24 - practical action

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