FOOD AND FOOD PRODUCTIONUnit 1

Contents

1 Food 11.1 Food sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1.2 Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Taste perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.3.1 Sweet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.2 Sour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.3 Salty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.4 Bitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3.5 Umami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4.1 Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4.2 Contrast in texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4.3 Contrast in taste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4.4 Food preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4.5 Restaurants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.4.6 Food manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.5 Commercial trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.5.1 International food imports and exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.5.2 Marketing and retailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5.3 Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.5.4 As investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6 Famine and hunger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.6.1 Food aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.7 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.7.1 Allergies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.7.2 Other health issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.8 Diet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.8.1 Cultural and religious diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.8.2 Diet deficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.8.3 Moral, ethical, and health-conscious diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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1.9 Nutrition and dietary problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121.10 Legal definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.11 Types of food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151.15 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161.16 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Food manufacturing 172.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.2 Industry organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Food processing 183.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183.2 Benefits and drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.2.1 Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193.2.2 Drawbacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3.3 Performance parameters for food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203.4 De-agglomerating batter mixes in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.5 Trends in modern food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.5.1 Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.5.2 Hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.5.3 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.6 Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.8 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

4 Food technology 234.1 Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234.2 Consumer acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.3 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

5 Food preservation 255.1 Traditional techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

5.1.1 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.1.2 Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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5.1.3 Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.1.4 Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255.1.5 Salting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.1.6 Sugaring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.1.7 Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.1.8 Pickling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.1.9 Lye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.1.10 Canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.1.11 Jellying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.1.12 Jugging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.1.13 Burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

5.2 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.2.1 Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

5.3 Industrial/modern techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3.1 Pasteurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3.2 Vacuum packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3.3 Artificial food additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3.4 Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.3.5 Pulsed electric field electroporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.3.6 Modified atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.3.7 Nonthermal plasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305.3.8 High-pressure food preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305.3.9 Biopreservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305.3.10 Hurdle technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

6 Food safety 336.1 ISO 22000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.2 Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.3 Regulatory agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

6.3.1 WHO and FAO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336.3.2 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346.3.3 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346.3.4 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346.3.5 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3.6 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3.7 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3.8 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3.9 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

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6.3.10 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356.3.11 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.3.12 Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.3.13 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.3.14 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

6.4 Manufacturing control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.4.1 HACCP guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

6.5 Consumer labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.5.1 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.5.2 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376.5.3 Australia and New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

6.10.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406.10.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436.10.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 1

Food

For other uses, see Food (disambiguation).

Various foods

Foods from plant sources

Food is any substance[1] consumed to provide nutritionalsupport for the body. It is usually of plant or animal ori-gin, and contains essential nutrients, such as fats, proteins,vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by anorganism and assimilated by the organism’s cells to pro-vide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth.

Historically, people secured food through two methods:hunting and gathering and agriculture. Today, the ma-jority of the food energy required by the ever increasingpopulation of the world is supplied by the food industry.Food safety and food security are monitored by agen-cies like the International Association for Food Protec-tion, World Resources Institute, World Food Programme,Food and Agriculture Organization, and InternationalFood Information Council. They address issues suchas sustainability, biological diversity, climate change,nutritional economics, population growth, water supply,and access to food.The right to food is a human right derived from theInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and CulturalRights (ICESCR), recognizing the “right to an adequatestandard of living, including adequate food,” as well asthe “fundamental right to be free from hunger.”

1.1 Food sources

Most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtaineddirectly from plants; but even animals that are used asfood sources are raised by feeding them food derivedfrom plants. Cereal grain is a staple food that providesmore food energy worldwide than any other type of crop.Corn (maize), wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties– account for 87% of all grain production worldwide.[2]Most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed tolivestock.Some foods not from animal or plant sources include var-ious edible fungi, especially mushrooms. Fungi and am-bient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermentedand pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks,cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another exam-ple is blue-green algae such as Spirulina.[3] Inorganic sub-stances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar areused to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient.

1.1.1 Plants

See also: Herb and spice

1

2 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around2,000 plant species are cultivated for food. Many of theseplant species have several distinct cultivars.[4]

Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals,including humans, because they contain the nutrientsnecessary for the plant’s initial growth, including manyhealthful fats, such as Omega fats. In fact, the major-ity of food consumed by human beings are seed-basedfoods. Edible seeds include cereals (corn, wheat, rice,et cetera), legumes (beans, peas, lentils, et cetera), andnuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils- sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed (including canola oil),sesame, et cetera.[5]

Seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moder-ation, are considered a health food, although not all seedsare edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, posea choking hazard, while seeds from cherries and applescontain cyanide which could be poisonous only if con-sumed in large volumes.[6]

Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including theseeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolvedsuch that the fruits of the former are an attractive foodsource to the latter, because animals that eat the fruitsmay excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, there-fore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cul-tures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins,and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables.[7] (For more infor-mation, see list of fruits.)Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that iscommonly eaten as food. These include root veg-etables (potatoes and carrots), bulbs (onion family),leaf vegetables (spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables(bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegeta-bles (globe artichokes and broccoli and other vegetablessuch as cabbage or cauliflower).[8]

1.1.2 Animals

Main articles: Animal source foods and Food chainAnimals are used as food either directly or indirectly by

Various raw meats

the products they produce. Meat is an example of a directproduct taken from an animal, which comes from musclesystems or from organs.Food products produced by animals include milk pro-duced by mammary glands, which in many cultures isdrunk or processed into dairy products (cheese, butter,

etc.). In addition, birds and other animals lay eggs, whichare often eaten, and bees produce honey, a reduced nectarfrom flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cul-tures. Some cultures consume blood, sometimes in theform of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, or in acured, salted form for times of food scarcity, and othersuse blood in stews such as jugged hare.[9]

Some cultures and people do not consume meat or an-imal food products for cultural, dietary, health, ethical,or ideological reasons. Vegetarians choose to forgo foodfrom animal sources to varying degrees. Vegans do notconsume any foods that are or contain ingredients froman animal source.

1.2 Production

Tractor and Chaser bin

Main articles: Agriculture, Food industry and Geneticallymodified food

Most food has always been obtained through agriculture.With increasing concern over both the methods and prod-ucts of modern industrial agriculture, there has beena growing trend toward sustainable agricultural prac-tices. This approach, partly fueled by consumer demand,encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and organicfarming methods.[10] Major influences on food produc-tion include international organizations (e.g. the WorldTrade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy),national government policy (or law), and war.[11]

In popular culture, the mass production of food, specif-ically meats such as chicken and beef, has come un-der fire from various documentaries, most recently Food,Inc, documenting the mass slaughter and poor treat-ment of animals, often for easier revenues from largecorporations. Along with a current trend towardsenvironmentalism, people in Western culture have had anincreasing trend towards the use of herbal supplements,foods for a specific group of people (such as dieters,women, or athletes), functional foods (fortified foods,such as omega-3 eggs), and a more ethnically diversediet.[12]

1.3. TASTE PERCEPTION 3

Several organisations have begun calling for a new kindof agriculture in which agroecosystems provide food butalso support vital ecosystem services so that soil fer-tility and biodiversity are maintained rather than com-promised. According to the International Water Man-agement Institute and UNEP, well-managed agroecosys-tems not only provide food, fiber and animal prod-ucts, they also provide services such as flood mitigation,groundwater recharge, erosion control and habitats forplants, birds fish and other animals.[13]

1.3 Taste perception

Main article: Taste

Animals, specifically humans, have five different typesof tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami. As ani-mals have evolved, the tastes that provide the most energy(sugar and fats) are the most pleasant to eat while others,such as bitter, are not enjoyable.[14] Water, while impor-tant for survival, has no taste.[15] Fats, on the other hand,especially saturated fats, are thicker and rich and are thusconsidered more enjoyable to eat.

1.3.1 Sweet

Structure of sucrose

Generally regarded as the most pleasant taste, sweetnessis almost always caused by a type of simple sugar suchas glucose or fructose, or disaccharides such as sucrose,a molecule combining glucose and fructose.[16] Complexcarbohydrates are long chains and thus do not have thesweet taste. Artificial sweeteners such as sucralose areused to mimic the sugar molecule, creating the sensationof sweet, without the calories. Other types of sugar in-clude raw sugar, which is known for its amber color, as itis unprocessed. As sugar is vital for energy and survival,the taste of sugar is pleasant.The stevia plant contains a compound known as steviolwhich, when extracted, has 300 times the sweetness ofsugar while having minimal impact on blood sugar.[17]

1.3.2 Sour

Sourness is caused by the taste of acids, such as vinegarin alcoholic beverages. Sour foods include citrus, specif-ically lemons, limes, and to a lesser degree oranges. Souris evolutionarily significant as it is a sign for a food thatmay have gone rancid due to bacteria.[18] Many foods,however, are slightly acidic, and help stimulate the tastebuds and enhance flavor.

1.3.3 Salty

Salt mounds in Bolivia.

Saltiness is the taste of alkali metal ions such as sodiumand potassium. It is found in almost every food in lowto moderate proportions to enhance flavor, although toeat pure salt is regarded as highly unpleasant. There aremany different types of salt, with each having a differentdegree of saltiness, including sea salt, fleur de sel, koshersalt, mined salt, and grey salt. Other than enhancing fla-vor, its significance is that the body needs and maintainsa delicate electrolyte balance, which is the kidney's func-tion. Salt may be iodized, meaning iodine has been addedto it, a necessary nutrient that promotes thyroid function.Some canned foods, notably soups or packaged broths,tend to be high in salt as a means of preserving the foodlonger. Historically salt has long been used as a meatpreservative as salt promotes water excretion. Similarly,dried foods also promote food safety.[19]

1.3.4 Bitter

Bitterness is a sensation often considered unpleasantcharacterized by having a sharp, pungent taste. Unsweet-ened dark chocolate, caffeine, lemon rind, and some typesof fruit are known to be bitter.

1.3.5 Umami

Umami, the Japanese word for delicious, is the leastknown in Western popular culture but has a long tradi-tion in Asian cuisine. Umami is the taste of glutamates,

4 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

especially monosodium glutamate (MSG).[16] It is char-acterized as savory, meaty, and rich in flavor. Salmon andmushrooms are foods high in umami.

1.4 Cuisine

Main articles: Cuisine, Regional cuisine and Globalcuisines

Many cultures have a recognizable cuisine, a specific setof cooking traditions using various spices or a combi-nation of flavors unique to that culture, which evolvesover time. Other differences include preferences (hotor cold, spicy, etc.) and practices, the study of whichis known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversifiedtheir foods by means of preparation, cooking methods,and manufacturing. This also includes a complex foodtrade which helps the cultures to economically surviveby way of food, not just by consumption. Some populartypes of ethnic foods include Italian, French, Japanese,Chinese, American, Cajun, Thai, African, and Indian cui-sine. Various cultures throughout the world study the di-etary analysis of food habits. While evolutionarily speak-ing, as opposed to culturally, humans are omnivores, re-ligion and social constructs such as morality, activism, orenvironmentalism will often affect which foods they willconsume. Food is eaten and typically enjoyed through thesense of taste, the perception of flavor from eating anddrinking. Certain tastes are more enjoyable than others,for evolutionary purposes.

1.4.1 Presentation

A French basil salmon terrine, with eye-appealing garnishes

Main article: Food presentation

Aesthetically pleasing and eye-appealing food presenta-tions can encourage people to consume foods. A commonsaying is that people “eat with their eyes”. Food presented

in a clean and appetizing way will encourage a good fla-vor, even if unsatisfactory.[20][21]

1.4.2 Contrast in texture

Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eatingfoods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchyin an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal ofeating it. Common examples include adding granola toyogurt, adding croutons to a salad or soup, and toastingbread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping,such as jam or butter.[22]

1.4.3 Contrast in taste

Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the ap-peal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example,such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to gowell together, as in kettle corn and nuts.

1.4.4 Food preparation

Main article: Outline of food preparation

While many foods can be eaten raw, many also un-dergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety,palatability, texture, or flavor. At the simplest level thismay involve washing, cutting, trimming, or adding otherfoods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involvemixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermenta-tion, or combination with other food. In a home, mostfood preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some prepa-ration is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal;other preparation may help to preserve the food; othersmay be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made upof food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific timeand place.[23]

Animal preparation

The preparation of animal-based food usually in-volves slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning, andrendering. In developed countries, this is usually doneoutside the home in slaughterhouses, which are used toprocess animals en masse for meat production. Manycountries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For ex-ample, the United States has established the HumaneSlaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal bestunned before killing. This act, like those in many coun-tries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law,such as kosher, shechita, and dhabiĥa halal. Strict inter-pretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully awarewhen its carotid artery is cut.[24]

On the local level, a butcher may commonly break downlarger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts, and pre-

1.4. CUISINE 5

A refrigerator helps to keep foods fresh.

wrap them for commercial sale or wrap them to orderin butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may befabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger. Howeverfish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel andquick-frozen for preservation of quality.[25]

Cooking

Main article: Cooking

The term “cooking” encompasses a vast range of meth-ods, tools, and combinations of ingredients to improvethe flavor or digestibility of food. Cooking technique,known as culinary art, generally requires the selection,measurement, and combining of ingredients in an orderedprocedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Con-straints on success include the variability of ingredients,ambient conditions, tools, and the skill of the individualcook.[26] The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflec-tion of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, eco-nomic, cultural, and religious considerations that affectit.[27]

Cooking requires applying heat to a food which usually,though not always, chemically changes the molecules,thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nu-tritional properties.[28] Cooking certain proteins, suchas egg whites, meats, and fish, denatures the protein,causing it to firm. There is archaeological evidenceof roasted foodstuffs at Homo erectus campsites datingfrom 420,000 years ago.[29] Boiling as a means of cook-

Cooking with a wok in China

ing requires a container, and has been practiced at leastsince the 10th millennium BC with the introduction ofpottery.[30]

A stainless steel frying pan

Cooking equipment Main article: Cookware andbakeware

There are many different types of equipment used forcooking.Ovens are mostly hollow devices that get very hot (up to500 °F) and are used for baking or roasting and offer adry-heat cooking method. Different cuisines will use dif-ferent types of ovens; for example, Indian culture uses a

6 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

A traditional asado (barbecue)

Tandoor oven, which is a cylindrical clay oven which op-erates at a single high temperature.[31] Western kitchensuse variable temperature convection ovens, conventionalovens, toaster ovens, or non-radiant heat ovens like themicrowave oven. Classic Italian cuisine includes the useof a brick oven containing burning wood. Ovens may bewood-fired, coal-fired, gas, electric, or oil-fired.[32]

Various types of cook-tops are used as well. They carrythe same variations of fuel types as the ovens mentionedabove. Cook-tops are used to heat vessels placed ontop of the heat source, such as a sauté pan, sauce pot,frying pan, or pressure cooker. These pieces of equip-ment can use either a moist or dry cooking method andinclude methods such as steaming, simmering, boiling,and poaching for moist methods, while the dry methodsinclude sautéing, pan frying, and deep-frying.[33]

In addition, many cultures use grills for cooking. A grilloperates with a radiant heat source from below, usuallycovered with a metal grid and sometimes a cover. Anopen pit barbecue in the American south is one exam-ple along with the American style outdoor grill fueledby wood, liquid propane, or charcoal along with soakedwood chips for smoking.[34] AMexican style of barbecueis called barbacoa, which involves the cooking of meatssuch as whole sheep over an open fire. In Argentina, anasado (Spanish for “grilled”) is prepared on a grill heldover an open pit or fire made upon the ground, on whicha whole animal or smaller cuts are grilled.[35]

Raw food preparation

Main article: Raw foodism

Certain cultures highlight animal and vegetable foodsin their raw state. Salads consisting of raw vegetablesor fruits are common in many cuisines. Sashimi inJapanese cuisine consists of raw sliced fish or other meat,and sushi often incorporates raw fish or seafood. Steaktartare and salmon tartare are dishes made from diced orground raw beef or salmon, mixed with various ingredi-

Many types of fish ready to be eaten, including salmon and tuna.

ents and served with baguettes, brioche, or frites.[36] InItaly, carpaccio is a dish of very thinly sliced raw beef,drizzled with a vinaigrette made with olive oil.[37] Thehealth food movement known as raw foodism promotesa mostly vegan diet of raw fruits, vegetables, and grainsprepared in various ways, including juicing, food dehy-dration, sprouting, and other methods of preparation thatdo not heat the food above 118 °F (47.8 °C).[38] An ex-ample of a raw meat dish is ceviche, a Latin Americandish made with raw meat that is “cooked” from the highlyacidic citric juice from lemons and limes along with otheraromatics such as garlic.

1.4.5 Restaurants

Allyn House restaurant menu (March 5, 1859)

Main article: Restaurant

Restaurants employ trained chefs who prepare food, andtrained waitstaff to serve the customers. The termrestaurant is credited to the French from the 19th cen-tury, as it relates to the restorative nature of the bouillonsthat were once served in them. However, the conceptpre-dates the naming of these establishments, as evidence

1.5. COMMERCIAL TRADE 7

McDonald’s restaurant, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Tom’s Restaurant, a restaurant in New York City

suggests commercial food preparation may have existedduring the age of the city of Pompeii, and urban salesof prepared foods may have existed in China during theSong dynasty. The coffee shops or cafés of 17th cen-tury Europe may also be considered an early version ofthe restaurant.[39] In 2005, the population of the UnitedStates spent $496 billion for out-of-home dining. Expen-ditures by type of out-of-home dining were as follows:40% in full-service restaurants, 37.2% in limited servicerestaurants (fast food), 6.6% in schools or colleges, 5.4%in bars and vending machines, 4.7% in hotels and motels,4.0% in recreational places, and 2.2% in others, whichincludes military bases.[40]

1.4.6 Food manufacturing

Main article: Food manufacture

Packaged foods are manufactured outside the home forpurchase. This can be as simple as a butcher prepar-ing meat, or as complex as a modern international foodindustry. Early food processing techniques were lim-ited by available food preservation, packaging, and trans-portation. This mainly involved salting, curing, curdling,drying, pickling, fermenting, and smoking.[41] Foodman-

Packaged household food items

ufacturing arose during the industrial revolution in the19th century.[42] This development took advantage ofnew mass markets and emerging new technology, such asmilling, preservation, packaging and labeling, and trans-portation. It brought the advantages of pre-preparedtime-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who didnot employ domestic servants.[43]

At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structurehas arisen, with a few international food processinggiants controlling a wide range of well-known foodbrands. There also exists a wide array of small lo-cal or national food processing companies.[44] Advancedtechnologies have also come to change food manufac-ture. Computer-based control systems, sophisticatedprocessing and packaging methods, and logistics anddistribution advances can enhance product quality, im-prove food safety, and reduce costs.[43]

1.5 Commercial trade

SeaWiFS image for the global biosphere

1.5.1 International food imports and ex-ports

The World Bank reported that the European Union wasthe top food importer in 2005, followed at a distance bythe USA and Japan. Britain's need for food was especially

8 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

Global average daily calorie consumption in 1995

Food imports in 2005

Population density of world regions

well illustrated in World War II. Despite the implemen-tation of food rationing, Britain remained dependent onfood imports and the result was a long term engagementin the Battle of the Atlantic.Food is traded and marketed on a global basis. The vari-ety and availability of food is no longer restricted by thediversity of locally grown food or the limitations of thelocal growing season.[45] Between 1961 and 1999, therewas a 400% increase in worldwide food exports.[46] Somecountries are now economically dependent on food ex-ports, which in some cases account for over 80% of allexports.[47]

In 1994, over 100 countries became signatories to theUruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade in a dramatic increase in trade liberalization. Thisincluded an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farm-ers, underpinned by theWTO enforcement of agriculturalsubsidy, tariffs, import quotas, and settlement of tradedisputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved.[48] Wheretrade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of pub-lic health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to theCodex Alimentarius Commission, which was founded in1962 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Orga-nization and the World Health Organization. Trade lib-

eralization has greatly affected world food trade.[49]

See also: population density

1.5.2 Marketing and retailing

Packaged food aisles of supermarket in Portland, Oregon, UnitedStates of America

Main article: Food marketing

Food marketing brings together the producer and theconsumer. It is the chain of activities that brings foodfrom “farm gate to plate”.[50] The marketing of even asingle food product can be a complicated process in-volving many producers and companies. For example,fifty-six companies are involved in making one can ofchicken noodle soup. These businesses include not onlychicken and vegetable processors but also the companiesthat transport the ingredients and those who print labelsand manufacture cans.[51] The food marketing system isthe largest direct and indirect non-government employerin the United States.In the pre-modern era, the sale of surplus food took placeonce a week when farmers took their wares onmarket dayinto the local village marketplace. Here food was sold togrocers for sale in their local shops for purchase by lo-cal consumers.[27][43] With the onset of industrializationand the development of the food processing industry, awider range of food could be sold and distributed in dis-tant locations. Typically early grocery shops would becounter-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper couldget it for them.[27][52]

In the 20th century, supermarkets were born. Supermar-kets brought with them a self service approach to shop-ping using shopping carts, and were able to offer qual-ity food at lower cost through economies of scale and re-duced staffing costs. In the latter part of the 20th century,this has been further revolutionized by the developmentof vast warehouse-sized, out-of-town supermarkets, sell-ing a wide range of food from around the world.[53]

Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market

1.5. COMMERCIAL TRADE 9

in which a small number of very large companies controla large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket gi-ants wield great purchasing power over farmers and pro-cessors, and strong influence over consumers. Neverthe-less, less than 10% of consumer spending on food goesto farmers, with larger percentages going to advertising,transportation, and intermediate corporations.[54]

1.5.3 Prices

Some essential food products including bread, rice and pasta

Main articles: 2007–2008 world food price crisis andFood vs. fuel

It was reported on March 24, 2008, that consumersworldwide faced rising food prices.[55] Reasons for thisdevelopment include changes in the weather and dra-matic changes in the global economy, including higheroil prices, lower food reserves, and growing consumer de-mand in China and India.[55] In the long term, prices areexpected to stabilize.[55] Farmers will growmore grain forboth fuel and food and eventually bring prices down.[55]Already this is happening with wheat,[56][57] with morecrops to be planted in the United States, Canada, andEurope in 2009. However, the Food and Agriculture Or-ganization projects that consumers still have to deal withmore expensive food until at least 2018.[55]

It is rare for the spikes to hit all major foods in most coun-

Annual real food price indices (2002–2004 = 100)

0

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Food price index

Meat price index

Dairy price index

Cereals price index

Vegetable oils price index

Sugar price index

Food, meat, dairy, cereals, vegetable oil, and sugar price indices,deflated using the World Bank Manufactures Unit Value Index(MUV).[58]

tries at once. Food prices rose 4% in the United States in2007, the highest increase since 1990, and are expectedto climb as much again in 2008. As of December 2007,37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed somesort of food-price controls. In China, the price of porkjumped 58% in 2007. In the 1980s and 1990s, farmsubsidies and support programs allowed major grain ex-porting countries to hold large surpluses, which could betapped during food shortages to keep prices down. How-ever, new trade policies have made agricultural produc-tion much more responsive to market demands, puttingglobal food reserves at their lowest since 1983.[55]

Food prices are rising, wealthier Asian consumers arewesternizing their diets, and farmers and nations of thethird world are struggling to keep up the pace. The pastfive years have seen rapid growth in the contribution ofAsian nations to the global fluid and powdered milk man-ufacturing industry, which in 2008 accounted for morethan 30% of production, while China alone accounts formore than 10% of both production and consumption inthe global fruit and vegetable processing and preservingindustry. The trend is similarly evident in industries suchas soft drink and bottled water manufacturing, as well asglobal cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery manu-facturing, forecast to grow by 5.7% and 10.0% respec-tively during 2008 in response to soaring demand in Chi-nese and Southeast Asian markets.[59]

Rising food prices over recent years have been linkedwith social unrest around the world, including rioting inBangladesh and Mexico,[60] and the Arab Spring.In 2013 Overseas Development Institute researchersshowed that rice has more than doubled in price since2000, rising by 120% in real terms. This was as a re-sult of shifts in trade policy and restocking by major pro-ducers. More fundamental drivers of increased prices arethe higher costs of fertiliser, diesel and labour. Parts ofAsia see rural wages rise with potential large benefits forthe 1.3 billion (2008 estimate) of Asia’s poor in reducingthe poverty they face. However, this negatively impactsmore vulnerable groups who don't share in the economicboom, especially in Asian and African coastal cities. Theresearchers said the threat means social-protection poli-cies are needed to guard against price shocks. The re-

10 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

search proposed that in the longer run, the rises presentopportunities to export for Western African farmers withhigh potential for rice production to replace imports withdomestic production.[61]

1.5.4 As investment

Institutions such as hedge funds, pension funds andinvestment banks like Barclays Capital, Goldman Sachsand Morgan Stanley[60] have been instrumental in push-ing up prices in the last five years, with investment infood commodities rising from $65bn to $126bn (£41bn to£79bn) between 2007 and 2012, contributing to 30-yearhighs. This has caused price fluctuations which are notstrongly related to the actual supply of food, according tothe United Nations.[60] Financial institutions now makeup 61% of all investment in wheat futures. According toOlivier De Schutter, the UN special rapporteur on food,there was a rush by institutions to enter the food marketfollowing George W Bush's Commodities Futures Mod-ernization Act of 2000.[60] De Schutter told the Indepen-dent in March 2012: “What we are seeing now is thatthese financial markets have developedmassively with thearrival of these new financial investors, who are purely in-terested in the short-termmonetary gain and are not reallyinterested in the physical thing – they never actually buythe ton of wheat or maize; they only buy a promise to buyor to sell. The result of this financialisation of the com-modities market is that the prices of the products respondincreasingly to a purely speculative logic. This explainswhy in very short periods of time we see prices spiking orbubbles exploding, because prices are less and less deter-mined by the real match between supply and demand.”[60]In 2011, 450 economists from around the world called onthe G20 to regulate the commodities market more.[60]

Some experts have said that speculation has merely aggra-vated other factors, such as climate change, competitionwith bio-fuels and overall rising demand.[60] However,some such as Jayati Ghosh, professor of economics atJawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi, have pointedout that prices have increased irrespective of supply anddemand issues: Ghosh points to world wheat prices,which doubled in the period from June to December2010, despite there being no fall in global supply.[60]

1.6 Famine and hunger

Food deprivation leads to malnutrition and ultimatelystarvation. This is often connected with famine, whichinvolves the absence of food in entire communities. Thiscan have a devastating and widespread effect on humanhealth and mortality. Rationing is sometimes used to dis-tribute food in times of shortage, most notably duringtimes of war.[11]

Starvation is a significant international problem. Ap-

proximately 815 million people are undernourished, andover 16,000 children die per day from hunger-relatedcauses.[62] Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit needin Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and is measured usingfamine scales.[63]

1.6.1 Food aid

Main article: Food aid

Food aid can benefit people suffering from a shortage offood. It can be used to improve peoples’ lives in the shortterm, so that a society can increase its standard of livingto the point that food aid is no longer required.[64] Con-versely, badly managed food aid can create problems bydisrupting local markets, depressing crop prices, and dis-couraging food production. Sometimes a cycle of foodaid dependence can develop.[65] Its provision, or threat-ened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool toinfluence the policies of the destination country, a strat-egy known as food politics. Sometimes, food aid provi-sions will require certain types of food be purchased fromcertain sellers, and food aid can be misused to enhancethe markets of donor countries.[66] International effortsto distribute food to the neediest countries are often co-ordinated by the World Food Programme.[67]

1.7 Safety

Main article: Food safetyFoodborne illness, commonly called “food poisoning”, is

Salmonella bacteria is a common cause of foodborne illness, par-ticularly in undercooked chicken and chicken eggs

caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions.Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning eachyear, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version.[68] The two most common factors lead-ing to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-

1.7. SAFETY 11

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) Flowchart

contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncookedfoods and improper temperature control. Less com-monly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chem-ical contamination of food occurs, for example from im-proper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and dis-infectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very widerange of articles (known as “foreign bodies”) during farm-ing, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution, orsale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their drop-pings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all mannerof other contaminants. It is possible for certain types offood to become contaminated if stored or presented in anunsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-basedglaze.[68]

Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease sinceas early as Hippocrates.[69] The sale of rancid, contami-nated, or adulterated food was commonplace until the in-troduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controlsin the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killingbacteria using heat, and other microbiological studiesby scientists such as Louis Pasteur, contributed to themodern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in de-veloped nations today. This was further underpinned bythe work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the devel-opment of modern food storage and food preservationmethods.[70] In more recent years, a greater understand-ing of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to thedevelopment of more systematic approaches such as theHazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP),which can identify and eliminate many risks.[71]

Recommended measures for ensuring food safety includemaintaining a clean preparation area with foods of dif-ferent types kept separate, ensuring an adequate cook-ing temperature, and refrigerating foods promptly aftercooking.[72]

Foods that spoil easily, such as meats, dairy, and seafood,

must be prepared a certain way to avoid contaminating thepeople for whom they are prepared. As such, the rule ofthumb is that cold foods (such as dairy products) shouldbe kept cold and hot foods (such as soup) should be kepthot until storage. Cold meats, such as chicken, that are tobe cooked should not be placed at room temperature forthawing, at the risk of dangerous bacterial growth, suchas Salmonella or E. coli.[73]

1.7.1 Allergies

Main article: Food allergy

Some people have allergies or sensitivities to foods whichare not problematic to most people. This occurs whena person’s immune system mistakes a certain food pro-tein for a harmful foreign agent and attacks it. About2% of adults and 8% of children have a food allergy.[74]The amount of the food substance required to provokea reaction in a particularly susceptible individual canbe quite small. In some instances, traces of food inthe air, too minute to be perceived through smell, havebeen known to provoke lethal reactions in extremely sen-sitive individuals. Common food allergens are gluten,corn, shellfish (mollusks), peanuts, and soy.[74] Allergensfrequently produce symptoms such as diarrhea, rashes,bloating, vomiting, and regurgitation. The digestive com-plaints usually develop within half an hour of ingestingthe allergen.[74]

Rarely, food allergies can lead to a medical emergency,such as anaphylactic shock, hypotension (low blood pres-sure), and loss of consciousness. An allergen associatedwith this type of reaction is peanut, although latex prod-ucts can induce similar reactions.[74] Initial treatment iswith epinephrine (adrenaline), often carried by knownpatients in the form of an Epi-pen or Twinject.[75][76]

1.7.2 Other health issues

Human diet was estimated to cause perhaps around35% of cancers in a human epidemiological analysisby Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981.[77] Thesecancer may be caused by carcinogens that are presentin food naturally or as contaminants. Food contami-nated with fungal growth may contain mycotoxins suchas aflatoxins which may be found in contaminated cornand peanuts. Other carcinogens identified in food includeheterocyclic amines generated in meat when cooked athigh temperature, polyaromatic hydrocarbons in charredmeat and smoked fish, and nitrosamines generated fromnitrites used as food preservatives in cured meat such asbacon.[78]

Anticarcinogens that may help prevent cancer can alsobe found in many food especially fruits and vegetable.Antioxidants are important groups of compounds that

12 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

may help remove potentially harmful chemicals. It ishowever often difficult to identify the specific compo-nents in diet that serve to increase or decrease can-cer risk since many food, such as beef steak and broc-coli, contain low concentrations of both carcinogens andanticarcinogens.[78]

1.8 Diet

Changes of Food Supply (by energy)[79][80]

Other area (Yr 2010)[81] * Africa, sub-Sahara - 2170kcal/capita/day * N.E. and N. Africa - 3120 kcal/capita/day* South Asia - 2450 kcal/capita/day * East Asia - 3040kcal/capita/day * Latin America / Caribbean - 2950kcal/capita/day * Developed countries - 3470 kcal/capita/day

Main article: Diet (nutrition)

1.8.1 Cultural and religious diets

Dietary habits are the habitual decisions a person or cul-ture makes when choosing what foods to eat.[82] Manycultures hold some food preferences and some foodtaboos. Dietary choices can also define cultures and playa role in religion. For example, only kosher foods are per-mitted by Judaism, halal foods by Islam, and in Hinduismbeef is restricted.[83] In addition, the dietary choices ofdifferent countries or regions have different characteris-tics. This is highly related to a culture’s cuisine.

1.8.2 Diet deficiencies

Main article: Avitaminosis

Dietary habits play a significant role in the health andmortality of all humans. Imbalances between the con-sumed fuels and expended energy results in either star-vation or excessive reserves of adipose tissue, known asbody fat.[84] Poor intake of various vitamins and mineralscan lead to diseases that can have far-reaching effects on

health. For instance, 30% of the world’s population ei-ther has, or is at risk for developing, iodine deficiency.[85]It is estimated that at least 3 million children are blinddue to vitamin A deficiency.[86] Vitamin C deficiency re-sults in scurvy.[87] Calcium, Vitamin D, and phosphorusare inter-related; the consumption of each may affect theabsorption of the others. Kwashiorkor and marasmus arechildhood disorders caused by lack of dietary protein.[88]

1.8.3 Moral, ethical, and health-consciousdiets

Many individuals limit what foods they eat for reasonsof morality, or other habit. For instance, vegetarianschoose to forgo food from animal sources to varyingdegrees. Others choose a healthier diet, avoiding sug-ars or animal fats and increasing consumption of dietaryfiber and antioxidants.[89] Obesity, a serious problem inthe western world, leads to higher chances of develop-ing heart disease, diabetes, and many other diseases.[90]More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by theconcerns that some people have about possible impactson health or the environment from genetically modifiedfood.[91] Further concerns about the impact of industrialfarming (grains) on animal welfare, human health, andthe environment are also having an effect on contempo-rary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergenceof a movement with a preference for organic and localfood.[92]

1.9 Nutrition and dietary problems

MyPlate replaced MyPyramid as the USDA nutrition guide

Between the extremes of optimal health and death fromstarvation or malnutrition, there is an array of diseasestates that can be caused or alleviated by changes indiet. Deficiencies, excesses, and imbalances in diet can

1.13. NOTES 13

produce negative impacts on health, which may leadto various health problems such as scurvy, obesity, orosteoporosis, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases as well aspsychological and behavioral problems. The science ofnutrition attempts to understand how and why specific di-etary aspects influence health.Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories.Macronutrients are fat, protein, and carbohydrates. Mi-cronutrients are the minerals and vitamins. Additionally,food contains water and dietary fiber.As previously discussed, the body is designed by naturalselection to enjoy sweet and fattening foods for evolution-ary diets, ideal for hunters and gatherers. Thus, sweetand fattening foods in nature are typically rare and arevery pleasurable to eat. In modern times, with advancedtechnology, enjoyable foods are easily available to con-sumers. Unfortunately, this promotes obesity in adultsand children alike.

1.10 Legal definition

Some countries list a legal definition of food, often refer-ring them with the word foodstuff. These countries listfood as any item that is to be processed, partially pro-cessed, or unprocessed for consumption. The listing ofitems included as food include any substance intended tobe, or reasonably expected to be, ingested by humans. Inaddition to these foodstuffs, drink, chewing gum, water,or other items processed into said food items are part ofthe legal definition of food. Items not included in the le-gal definition of food include animal feed, live animals(unless being prepared for sale in a market), plants priorto harvesting, medicinal products, cosmetics, tobacco andtobacco products, narcotic or psychotropic substances,and residues and contaminants.[93]

1.11 Types of food

• Comfort food

• Fast food

• Junk food

• Natural food

• Organic food

• Slow food

• Whole food

1.12 See also

• Bulk foods

• Beverages

• Food and Bioprocess Technology

• Category:Lists of foods

• Food engineering

• Food Inc., a 2009 documentary

• Food science

• Food security

• List of foods

• Lists of prepared foods

• Non-food crop

• Nutrition facts label

• Optimal foraging theory

• Outline of cooking

• Outline of nutrition

• Packaging and labeling

• Traditional food

• Urban farming

1.13 Notes[1] “food”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 May

2015.

[2] “ProdSTAT”. FAOSTAT. Retrieved 2008.

[3] McGee, 333–334.

[4] McGee, 253.

[5] McGee, Chapter 9.

[6] “Are apple cores poisonous?". The Naked Scientists, Uni-versity of Cambridge. 26 Sep 2010. Retrieved 12 May2014.

[7] McGee, Chapter 7.

[8] McGee, Chapter 6.

[9] Davidson, 81–82.

[10] Mason

[11] Messer, 53–91.

[12] “Popular Culture, Food and”. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[13] Boelee, E. (Ed) Ecosystems for water and food security,2011, IWMI, UNEP

[14] “Evolution of taste receptor may have shaped human sen-sitivity to toxic compounds”. Medical News Today. Re-trieved 29 May 2015.

14 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

[15] “Why does pure water have no taste or colour?". TheTimes Of India. 2004-04-03.

[16] New Oxford American Dictionary

[17] The sweetness multiplier “300 times” comes fromsubjective evaluations by a panel of test subjects tast-ing various dilutions compared to a standard dilution ofsucrose. Sources referenced in this article say steviosideshave up to 250 times the sweetness of sucrose, but oth-ers, including stevioside brands such as SweetLeaf, claim300 times. 1/3 to 1/2 teaspoon (1.6–2.5 ml) of steviosidepowder is claimed to have equivalent sweetening power to1 cup (237 ml) of sugar.

[18] States “having an acid taste like lemon or vinegar: shesampled the wine and found it was sour. (of food,esp. milk) spoiled because of fermentation.” New OxfordAmerican Dictionary

[19] “Food Preservatives”. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[20] “You first eat with your eyes”. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[21] Food Texture, Andrew J. Rosenthal

[22] Rosenthal, Andrew J (1999-02-28). “Food Texture: Mea-surement and Perception”. ISBN 978-0-8342-1238-1.

[23] Mead, 11–19

[24] McGee, 142–143.

[25] McGee, 202–206

[26] McGee Chapter 14.

[27] Mead, 11–19.

[28] McGee

[29] Campbell, 312.

[30] McGee, 784.

[31] Davidson, 782–783

[32] McGee, 539,784.

[33] McGee, 771–791

[34] Davidson, 356.

[35] Asado Argentina

[36] Davidson, 786–787.

[37] Robuchon, 224.

[38] Davidson, 656

[39] Davidson, 660–661.

[40] United States Department of Agriculture

[41] Aguilera, 1–3.

[42] Miguel, 3.

[43] Jango-Cohen

[44] Hannaford

[45] The Economic Research Service of the USDA

[46] Regmi

[47] CIA World Factbook

[48] World Trade Organization, The Uruguay Round

[49] Van den Bossche

[50] Wansink, Marketing Nutrition, 501–3.

[51] Smith, 501–3.

[52] Benson

[53] Humphery

[54] Magdoff, Fred (Ed.) "[T]he farmer’s share of the fooddollar (after paying for input costs) has steadily declinedfrom about 40 percent in 1910 to less than 10 percent in1990.”

[55] “Food prices rising across the world”, CNN. 24 March2008

[56] “World food prices stabilize, no drop in sight: WFP”.Reuters. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[57] “Inflation slows in Feb. as food prices stabilize”. GMANews Online. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[58] “Annual real food price indices”. Retrieved 19 March2014.

[59] May 2008, Global Trends: – Food Production and Con-sumption: The China Effect, IBISWorld

[60] “The real hunger games: How banks gamble on foodprices – and the poor lose out”. The Independent. Re-trieved April 1, 2012.

[61] Steve Wiggins and Sharada Keats, August 2013, The endof cheap rice: a cause for celebration? ODI Briefings 82

[62] World Health Organization

[63] Howe, 353–372

[64] World Food Programme

[65] Shah

[66] Kripke

[67] United Nations World Food program

[68] National Institute of Health, MedlinePlus Medical Ency-clopedia

[69] Hippocrates, On Acute Diseases.

[70] Magner, 243–498

[71] USDA

[72] “Check Your Steps”. Retrieved 29 May 2015.

[73] “Fact sheets - Poultry Preparation - Focus on Chicken”.Archived from the original on 2004-05-19.

[74] National Institute of Health

1.14. REFERENCES 15

[75] About Epipen, Epipen.com Archived August 16, 2014 atthe Wayback Machine

[76] About Twinject, Twinject.com

[77] Doll, R.; Peto, R. (1981). “The causes of cancer: Quanti-tative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the UnitedStates today”. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 66(6): 1191–1308. PMID 7017215.

[78] Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. Na-tional Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 0-309-05391-9.

[79] FAO FAOSTAT

[80] These are supplied energy, intake energy are about 60-80% of supply.

[81] FAO Food Security

[82] Wansink, Mindless Eating: Why We Eat More Than WeThink

[83] Simoons

[84] Nicklas

[85] Merson, 245

[86] Merson, 231.

[87] Merson, 464.

[88] Merson, 224.

[89] Carpenter

[90] Merson, 266–268.

[91] Parekh, 187–206.

[92] Schor

[93] United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Information

1.14 References

• Aguilera, Jose Miguel and David W. Stanley. Mi-crostructural Principles of Food Processing and En-gineering. Springer, 1999. ISBN 0-8342-1256-0.

• Asado Argentina. About Asado Argentina. Re-trieved from http://www.asadoargentina.com/about-asado-argentina/ on 2007-05-28.

• Campbell, Bernard Grant. Human Evolution: AnIntroduction to Man’s Adaptations. Aldine Transac-tion: 1998. ISBN 0-202-02042-8.

• Carpenter, Ruth Ann; Finley, Carrie E.Healthy Eat-ing Every Day. Human Kinetics, 2005. ISBN 0-7360-5186-4.

• Davidson, Alan. The Oxford Companion to Food.2nd ed. UK: Oxford University Press, 2006.

• Food and Agriculture Organization of the UnitedNations. The State of Food Insecurity in the World2005. . Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/a0200e/a0200e00.htm on 2006-09-29.

• Hannaford, Steve. Oligopoly Watch: Top 20world food companies. Retrieved from http://www.oligopolywatch.com/2005/10/06.html on 2006-09-23.

• Howe, P. and S. Devereux. Famine Intensity andMagnitude Scales: A Proposal for an InstrumentalDefinition of Famine. 2004.

• Humphery, Kim. Shelf Life: Supermarkets and theChanging Cultures of Consumption. Cambridge Uni-versity Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-62630-7.

• Jango-Cohen, Judith. The History Of Food.Twenty-First Century Books, 2005. ISBN 0-8225-2484-8.

• Jurgens, Marshall H. Animal Feeding and Nutrition.Kendall Hunt, 2001. ISBN 0-7872-7839-4.

• Kripke, Gawain. Food aid or hidden dumping?.Oxfam International, March 2005. Retrieved fromhttp://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/briefingpapers/bp71_food_aid_240305 on 2007-05-26.

• Lawrie, Stephen; R A Lawrie. Lawrie’s Meat Sci-ence. Woodhead Publishing: 1998. ISBN 1-85573-395-1.

• Magdoff, Fred; Foster, John Bellamy; and Buttel,Frederick H. Hungry for Profit: The AgribusinessThreat to Farmers, Food, and the Environment.September 2000. ISBN 1-58367-016-5.

• Mason, John. Sustainable Agriculture. LandlinksPress: 2003. ISBN 0-643-06876-7.

• Merson, Michael H.; Black, Robert E.; Mills, AnneJ. International Public Health: Disease, Programs,Systems, and Policies. Jones and Bartlett Publishers,2005.

• McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Sci-ence and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Simonand Schuster, 2004. ISBN 0-684-80001-2.

• Mead, Margaret. The Changing Significance ofFood. In Carole Counihan and Penny Van Esterik(Ed.), Food and Culture: A Reader. UK: Routledge,1997. ISBN 0-415-91710-7.

• Messer, Ellen; Derose, Laurie Fields and Sara Mill-man. Who’s Hungry? andHowDoWeKnow?: FoodShortage, Poverty, and Deprivation. United NationsUniversity Press, 1998. ISBN 92-808-0985-7.

16 CHAPTER 1. FOOD

• National Institute of Health. Food poisoning.MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia F. May 11,2006. Retrieved from http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/pdf/foodallergy.pdf on 2006-09-29.

• Nicklas, Barbara J. Endurance Exercise and AdiposeTissue. CRC Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8493-0460-1.

• Parekh, Sarad R. The Gmo Handbook: GeneticallyModified Animals, Microbes, and Plants in Biotech-nology. Humana Press,2004. ISBN 1-58829-307-6.

• Regmi, Anita (editor).Changing Structure of GlobalFood Consumption and Trade. Market and TradeEconomics Division, Economic Research Service,USDA, May 30, 2001. stock #ERSWRS01-1.

• Schor, Juliet; Taylor, Betsy (editors). SustainablePlanet: Roadmaps for the Twenty-First Century.Beacon Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8070-0455-3.

• Shah, Anup. Food Dumping (Aid) MaintainsPoverty. Causes of Poverty. Retrieved fromhttp://www.globalissues.org/TradeRelated/Poverty/FoodDumping.asp on 2006-09-29.

• Simoons, Frederick J. Eat Not This Flesh: FoodAvoidances from Prehistory to the Present. ISBN 0-299-14250-7.

• Smith, Andrew (Editor). “Food Marketing,” in Ox-ford Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink,New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.

• The Economic Research Service of the USDA.Global Food Markets: Briefing Rooms. Re-trieved from http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/international-markets-trade/global-food-markets.aspx on 2006-09-29.

• United Kingdom Office of Public Sector Informa-tion. Food Safety Act 1990 (c. 16). Retrieved fromhttp://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900016_en_2.htm#mdiv1 on 2006-11-08.

• United States Department of Agriculture, USDAEconomic Research Service: The Economics ofFood, Farming, Natural Resources, and RuralAmerica. “Briefing Rooms, Food CPI, Prices andExpenditures: Food Expenditure Tables”. Retrievedfrom http://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-price-outlook.aspx on 2007-06-06.

• Van den Bossche, Peter. The Law and Policy of thebosanac Trade Organization: Text, Cases and Mate-rials. UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN0-521-82290-4.

• World Food Programme. Breaking out of thePoverty Trap: How We Use Food Aid. Retrievedfrom http://www.wfp.org/food_aid/introduction/index.asp?section=12&sub_section=1 on 2006-09-29.

• World Health Organization. WHO Global Databaseon Child Growth and Malnutrition. Retrieved fromhttp://www.who.int/nutgrowthdb/en/ on 2006-09-29.

• World Trade Organization. The UruguayRound. Retrieved from http://www.wto.org/trade_resources/history/wto/urug_round.htm on2006-09-29.

1.15 Further reading• Collingham, E.M. (2011). The Taste ofWar: World

War Two and the Battle for Food

• Katz, Solomon (2003). The Encyclopedia of Foodand Culture, Scribner

• Nestle, Marion (2007). Food Politics: How the FoodIndustry Influences Nutrition and Health, UniversityPresses of California, revised and expanded edition,ISBN 0-520-25403-1

• Mobbs, Michael (2012). Sustainable Food Sydney:NewSouth Publishing, ISBN 9781920705541

• The Future of Food (2015). A panel discussion atthe 2015 Digital Life Design (DLD) Annual Confer-ence. “How can we grow and enjoy food, closerto home, further into the future? MIT Media Lab’sKevin Slavin hosts a conversation with food artist,educator, and entrepreneur Emilie Baltz, profes-sor Caleb Harper from MIT Media Lab’s CityFarmproject, the Barbarian Group’s Benjamin Palmer,and Andras Forgacs, the co-founder and CEO ofModern Meadow, who is growing 'victimless’ meatin a lab. The discussion addresses issues of sustain-able urban farming, ecosystems, technology, foodsupply chains and their broad environmental and hu-manitarian implications, and how these changes infood production may change what people may finddelicious ... and the other way around.” Posted onthe official YouTube Channel of DLD

1.16 External links• The dictionary definition of food at Wiktionary

• Media related to food at Wikimedia Commons

• Food Timeline

• Wikibooks Cookbook

Chapter 2

Food manufacturing

See also: Food processingFood manufacturing is the process by which food is

A rice cracker factory

manufactured.

2.1 History

Early food processing techniques were limited bythe available food preservation, packaging andtransportation. Early food processing mainly in-volved salting, curing, curdling, drying, pickling andsmoking. An example of an early processed food productis cheese.During the industrialisation era in the 19th century, foodmanufacturing arose. This development took advan-tage of new mass markets and emerging new technology,such as milling, preservation, packaging and labelling andtransportation. It brought the advantages of preparedtime-saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who didnot employ domestic servants.

2.2 Industry organization

At the start of the 21st century, a two-tier structure hasarisen, with a few international food processing giantscontrolling a wide range of well-known food brands, and

a populous number of small local or national food pro-cessing companies.

2.3 See also• Best before

• Brewery

• Canning

• Food coloring

• Food extrusion

• Food quality

• Snap freezing

• Food additive

• Flavoring

• Enzyme

• Genetically modified food

• Pasteurization

• Shelf-life

• Ultra-high temperature processing

2.4 External links• Media related to Manufacture of food at WikimediaCommons

17

Chapter 3

Food processing

Not to be confused with Food processor.See also: Food manufacturingFood processing is the transformation of raw

Industrial cheese production

Michael Foods egg-processing plant in Wakefield, Nebraska

ingredients, by physical or chemical means into food, orof food into other forms. Food processing combines rawfood ingredients to produce marketable food productsthat can be easily prepared and served by the consumer.Food processing typically involves activities such asmincing and macerating, liquefaction, emulsification,and cooking (such as boiling, broiling, frying, orgrilling); pickling, pasteurization, and many otherkinds of preservation; and canning or other packaging.(Primary-processing such as dicing or slicing, freezingor drying when leading to secondary products are alsoincluded.)[1][2]

3.1 History

Grain silos in Ardrossan, Scotland

Food processing dates back to the prehistoric ages whencrude processing incorporated fermenting, sun drying,preserving with salt, and various types of cooking (such asroasting, smoking, steaming, and oven baking), Such ba-sic food processing involved chemical enzymatic changesto the basic structure of food in its natural form, as wellserved to build a barrier against surface microbial activitythat caused rapid decay. Salt-preservation was especiallycommon for foods that constituted warrior and sailors’ di-ets until the introduction of canning methods. Evidencefor the existence of these methods can be found in thewritings of the ancient Greek, Chaldean, Egyptian andRoman civilizations as well as archaeological evidencefrom Europe, North and South America and Asia. Thesetried and tested processing techniques remained essen-tially the same until the advent of the industrial revolu-tion. Examples of ready-meals also date back to beforethe preindustrial revolution, and include dishes such asCornish pasty and Haggis. Both during ancient times andtoday in modern society these are considered processedfoods.Modern food processing technology developed in the19th and 20th centuries was developed in a large part toserve military needs. In 1809 Nicolas Appert inventeda hermetic bottling technique that would preserve foodfor French troops which ultimately contributed to the de-

18

3.2. BENEFITS AND DRAWBACKS 19

velopment of tinning, and subsequently canning by Pe-ter Durand in 1810. Although initially expensive andsomewhat hazardous due to the lead used in cans, cannedgoods would later become a staple around the world.Pasteurization, discovered by Louis Pasteur in 1864, im-proved the quality of preserved foods and introduced thewine, beer, and milk preservation.

A form of pre-made split-pea soup that has become traditional

In the 20th century, World War II, the space race and therising consumer society in developed countries (includ-ing the United States) contributed to the growth of foodprocessing with such advances as spray drying, juice con-centrates, freeze drying and the introduction of artificialsweeteners, colouring agents, and such preservatives assodium benzoate. In the late 20th century, products suchas dried instant soups, reconstituted fruits and juices, andself cooking meals such as MRE food ration were devel-oped.In western Europe and North America, the second half ofthe 20th century witnessed a rise in the pursuit of conve-nience. Food processing companies marketed their prod-ucts especially towards middle-class working wives andmothers. Frozen foods (often credited to Clarence Birds-eye) found their success in sales of juice concentrates and"TV dinners".[3] Processors utilised the perceived valueof time to appeal to the postwar population, and this sameappeal contributes to the success of convenience foods to-day.

3.2 Benefits and drawbacks

3.2.1 Benefits

Benefits of food processing include toxin removal, preser-vation, easing marketing and distribution tasks, and in-creasing food consistency. In addition, it increases yearlyavailability of many foods, enables transportation of del-icate perishable foods across long distances and makesmany kinds of foods safe to eat by de-activating spoilageand pathogenic micro-organisms. Modern supermarketswould not exist without modern food processing tech-niques, and long voyages would not be possible.Processed foods are usually less susceptible to early

Processed seafood - fish, squid, prawn balls and simulated crabsticks (surimi)

spoilage than fresh foods and are better suited for longdistance transportation from the source to the consumer.When they were first introduced, some processed foodshelped to alleviate food shortages and improved the over-all nutrition of populations as it made many new foodsavailable to the masses.[4]

Processing can also reduce the incidence of food bornedisease. Fresh materials, such as fresh produce andraw meats, are more likely to harbour pathogenic micro-organisms (e.g. Salmonella) capable of causing seriousillnesses.The extremely variedmodern diet is only truly possible ona wide scale because of food processing. Transportationof more exotic foods, as well as the elimination of muchhard labour gives the modern eater easy access to a widevariety of food unimaginable to their ancestors.[5]

The act of processing can often improve the taste of foodsignificantly.[6]

Mass production of food is much cheaper overall thanindividual production of meals from raw ingredients.Therefore, a large profit potential exists for the manu-facturers and suppliers of processed food products. In-dividuals may see a benefit in convenience, but rarely seeany direct financial cost benefit in using processed foodas compared to home preparation.

20 CHAPTER 3. FOOD PROCESSING

Libby’s brand 'Potted Meat Food Product'

Processed food freed people from the large amount oftime involved in preparing and cooking “natural” unpro-cessed foods.[7] The increase in free time allows peoplemuch more choice in life style than previously allowed.In many families the adults are working away from homeand therefore there is little time for the preparation offood based on fresh ingredients. The food industry offersproducts that fulfill many different needs: e.g. fully pre-pared ready meals that can be heated up in the microwaveoven within a few minutes.Modern food processing also improves the quality of lifefor people with allergies, diabetics, and other people whocannot consume some common food elements. Food pro-cessing can also add extra nutrients such as vitamins.

3.2.2 Drawbacks

Meat packages in a Roman supermarket

Any processing of food can affect its nutritional density.The amount of nutrients lost depends on the food andprocessing method. For example the heat destroys thevitamin C. Therefore, canned fruits possess less vitaminC than their fresh alternatives. The USDA conducted astudy in 2004, creating a nutrient retention table for sev-eral foods.

New research highlighting the importance to humanhealth of a rich microbial environment in the intestine in-dicates that abundant food processing (not fermentationof foods) endangers that environment.[8]

Using food additives represents another safety concern.The health risks of any given additive vary greatly fromperson to person; for example using sugar as an addi-tive endangers diabetics. In the European Union, onlyEuropean Food Safety Authority (EFSA) approved foodadditives (e.g., sweeteners, preservatives, stabilizers) arepermitted at specified levels for use in food products.Approved additives receive an E number (E for Eu-rope), simplifying communication about food additivesincluded in the ingredients’ list for all the different lan-guages spoken in the EU. Certain additives can also re-sult in an addiction to a particular food item. As effectsof chemical additives are learnt, changes to laws and reg-ulatory practices are made to make such processed foodsmore safe.Food processing is typically a mechanical process thatutilizes large mixing, grinding, chopping and emulsifyingequipment in the production process. These processes in-herently introduce a number of contamination risks. Asa mixing bowl or grinder is used over time the food con-tact parts will tend to fail and fracture. This type of failurewill introduce into the product stream small to large metalcontaminants. Further processing of these metal frag-ments will result in downstream equipment failure andthe risk of ingestion by the consumer. Food manufactur-ers utilize industrial metal detectors to detect and rejectautomatically any metal fragment. Large food processorswill utilize many metal detectors within the processingstream to reduce both damage to processing machineryas well as risk to consumer health.

3.3 Performance parameters forfood processing

Factory automation - robotics palettizing bread

When designing processes for the food industry the fol-

3.5. TRENDS IN MODERN FOOD PROCESSING 21

lowing performance parameters may be taken into ac-count:

• Hygiene, e.g. measured by number of micro-organisms per mL of finished product

• Energy efficiency measured e.g. by “ton of steamper ton of sugar produced”

• Minimization of waste, measured e.g. by “percent-age of peeling loss during the peeling of potatoes”

• Labour used, measured e.g. by “number of workinghours per ton of finished product”

• Minimization of cleaning stops measured e.g. by“number of hours between cleaning stops”

3.4 De-agglomerating batter mixesin food processing

Problems often occur during preparation of batter mixesbecause flour and other powdered ingredients tend toform lumps or agglomerates as they are being mixed dur-ing production. A conventional mixer/agitator cannotbreak down these agglomerates, resulting in a lumpy bat-ter. If lumpy batter is used to enrobe products, it causesan unsatisfactory appearance with misshapen or oversizeproducts that do not fit properly into packaging. This canforce production to a standstill. Furthermore batter mixis generally recirculated from an enrobing system back toa holding vessel; lumps then have a tendency to build up,reducing the flow of material and raising potential sani-tation issues.Using a high shear in-line mixer in place of a conven-tional agitator or mixer can quickly solve problems of ag-glomeration with dry ingredients. A single pass througha self-pumping, in-line mixer adds high shear to batter,which de-agglomerates the mix, resulting in a homoge-neous, smooth batter. With a consistent, smooth batter,finished product appearance is improved; the effective-ness and hygiene of the recirculation system is increased;and a better yield of raw materials is achieved. By in-creasing overall product quality, the amount of raw ma-terials needed is decreased, thereby lowering manufactur-ing costs and increasing shelf life. Increased shelf life isachieved by creating and maintaining an emulsion, oftenby adding a food stabilizer.[10]

High shear in-line mixers process food to be made fasterand cheaper while increasing consistency of the finishedfood. Powder and liquid mixing systems are capable ofrapidly incorporating large quantities of powders at highconcentrations – agglomerate free and fully hydrated.Advances in technology have made processing equipmenteasy to clean, leading to a much safer processed food. [11]

3.5 Trends inmodern food process-ing

Women working in a cannery

Dried bananas packaged in Ban Bang Krathum, Bang Krathum,Phitsanulok, Thailand

3.5.1 Health

• Reduction of fat content in final product by usingbaking instead of deep-frying in the production ofpotato chips, another processed food.

• Maintaining the natural taste of the product by usingless artificial sweetener than was used before.

3.5.2 Hygiene

The rigorous application of industry and government en-dorsed standards to minimise possible risk and hazards.The international standard adopted is HACCP.

~

3.5.3 Efficiency

• Rising energy costs lead to increasing usage ofenergy-saving technologies,[12] e.g. frequency con-verters on electrical drives, heat insulation of factory

22 CHAPTER 3. FOOD PROCESSING

buildings and heated vessels, energy recovery sys-tems, keeping a single fish frozen all the way fromChina to Switzerland.

• Factory automation systems (often Distributed con-trol systems) reduce personnel costs and may lead tomore stable production results.

3.6 Industries

Food processing industries and practices include the fol-lowing:

• Cannery

• Fish processing

• Food packaging plant

• Industrial rendering

• Meat packing plant

• Slaughterhouse

• Sugar industry

3.7 See also

• Dietary supplement

• Food and Bioprocess Technology

• Food fortification

• Food rheology

• Food science

• Food storage

• List of cooking techniques

• Material handling

• Nutraceutical

• Pink slime

3.8 Notes and references[1] Common Methods Of Processing And Preserving Food

Streetdirectory.com. April 7, 2015

[2] Food Processing Lesson Plan Johns Hopkins BloombergSchool of Public Health. April 7, 2015

[3] Levenstein, H: “Paradox of Plenty”, pages 106-107. Uni-versity of California Press, 2003

[4] Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). “In Praiseof Fast Food”. UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24.Where modern food became available, people grew tallerand stronger and lived longer.

[5] Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). “In Praiseof Fast Food”. UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24.If we fail to understand how scant and monotonous mosttraditional diets were, we can misunderstand the “ethnicfoods” we encounter in cookbooks, at restaurants, or onour travels.

[6] Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). “In Praise ofFast Food”. UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24. Forour ancestors, natural was something quite nasty. Naturaloften tasted bad. Fresh meat was rank and tough, freshfruits inedibly sour, fresh vegetables bitter.

[7] Laudan, Rachel (September–October 2010). “In Praiseof Fast Food”. UTNE Reader. Retrieved 2010-09-24.

[8] Michael Pollan, 'Some of my Best Friends areGerms’, New York Times Magazine, 15 May 2013,http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/19/magazine/say-hello-to-the-100-trillion-bacteria-that-make-up-your-microbiome.html?hp

[9] “USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6”(PDF). USDA. USDA. Dec 2007.

[10] Payne, Stephanie. “Food processing”. www.ikausa.com.Retrieved 14 November 2014.

[11] “Solutions for Your Toughest Mixing Applications inFood De-agglomerating” (PDF). Silverson Machines Ap-plication Report. Retrieved 2012-02-29.

[12] STAC - Project Information Center - 03-STAC-01 -Western U. S. Food Processing Efficiency Initiative

3.9 Bibliography• Fábricas de alimentos, 9th edition (in Spanish)

• Nutritional evaluation of food processing,

• Food preservation 2nd edition, by Normal W.Desrosier

3.10 External links

Chapter 4

Food technology

The food technology room at Marling School in Stroud, Glouces-tershire

Food Technology is a branch of food science that dealswith the production processes that make foods.Early scientific research into food technology concen-trated on food preservation. Nicolas Appert’s devel-opment in 1810 of the canning process was a decisiveevent. The process wasn’t called canning then and Ap-pert did not really know the principle on which his pro-cess worked, but canning has had a major impact on foodpreservation techniques.Louis Pasteur's research on the spoilage of wine and hisdescription of how to avoid spoilage in 1864 was an earlyattempt to apply scientific knowledge to food handling.Besides research into wine spoilage, Pasteur researchedthe production of alcohol, vinegar, wines and beer, andthe souring of milk. He developed pasteurization—theprocess of heating milk and milk products to destroyfood spoilage and disease-producing organisms. In his re-search into food technology, Pasteur became the pioneerinto bacteriology and of modern preventive medicine.

4.1 Developments

Developments in food technology have contributedgreatly to the food supply and have changed our world.Some of these developments are:

Freeze-dried coffee, a form of instant coffee

• InstantizedMilk Powder - D.D. Peebles (U.S. patent2,835,586) developed the first instant milk powder,which has become the basis for a variety of newproducts that are rehydratable. This process in-creases the surface area of the powdered product bypartially rehydrating spray-dried milk powder.

• Freeze-drying - The first application of freeze dry-ing was most likely in the pharmaceutical industry;however, a successful large-scale industrial applica-tion of the process was the development of continu-ous freeze drying of coffee.

• High-Temperature Short Time Processing - Theseprocesses for the most part are characterized byrapid heating and cooling, holding for a short timeat a relatively high temperature and filling asepticallyinto sterile containers.

• Decaffeination of Coffee and Tea - Decaffeinatedcoffee and tea was first developed on a commercialbasis in Europe around 1900. The process is de-scribed in U.S. patent 897,763. Green coffee beansare treated with water, heat and solvents to removethe caffeine from the beans.

• Process optimization - Food Technology now allowsproduction of foods to be more efficient, Oil savingtechnologies are now available on different forms.Production methods and methodology have also be-come increasingly sophisticated.

23

24 CHAPTER 4. FOOD TECHNOLOGY

4.2 Consumer acceptance

In the past, consumer attitude towards food technologieswas not common talk and was not important in food de-velopment. Nowadays the food chain is long and com-plicated, foods and food technologies are diverse; conse-quently the consumers are uncertain about the food qual-ity and safety and find it difficult to orient themselves tothe subject. That is why consumer acceptance of foodtechnologies is an important question. However, in thesedays acceptance of food products very often depends onpotential benefits and risks associated with the food. Thisalso includes the technology the food is processed with.Attributes like “uncertain”, “unknown” or “unfamiliar”are associated with consumers’ risk perception and con-sumer very likely will reject products linked to these at-tributes. Especially innovative food processing technolo-gies are connected to these characteristics and are per-ceived as risky by consumers [1]

Acceptance of the different food technologies is very dif-ferent. Whereas pasteurisation is well recognised, highpresseure treatment or even microwaves are perceived asrisky very often. In studies done within Hightech Europeproject, it was found that traditional technologies werewell accepted in contrast to innovative technologies.[2]

Consumers form their attitude towards innovative foodtechnologies by three main factors mechanisms. First,knowledge or beliefs about risks and benefits which arecorrelated with the technology. Second, attitudes arebased on their own experience and third, based on higherorder values and beliefs.[3]

Acceptance of innovative technologies can be improvedby providing non-emotional and consice informationabout these new technological processes methods. Ac-cording to a study made by HighTech project also writ-ten information seems to have higher impact than audio-visual information on the consumer in case of sensoryacceptance of products processed with innovative foodtechnologies.[4]

4.3 Publications

• Food and Bioprocess Technology

• Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft & Technologie

4.4 See also

• Food biotechnology

• Food packaging

• Food grading

• Optical sorting

• Standard components (food processing)

4.5 Notes and references• Hans-Jürgen Bässler und Frank Lehmann : Con-

tainment Technology: Progress in the Pharmaceuti-cal and Food Processing Industry. Springer, Berlin2013, ISBN 978-3642392917

[1] Ueland Ö, G. H., Holm, F., Kalogeras, N., Leino, O.,Luteijn, J., Magnusson, S.(2011). State of the art inbenefit-risk analysis: Consumer perception. Food andChemical Toxicology, 52(1)

[2] “Documents”. Hightecheurope.eu. Retrieved 2014-02-01.

[3] Olsen, N. V., Grunert, K.G., & Anne-Mette, S. (2010).Consumer acceptance of high-pressure processing andpulsed-electric field: a review. Trends in Food Science& Technology, 21(446-472)

[4] “Documents”. Hightecheurope.eu. Retrieved 2014-02-01.

Chapter 5

Food preservation

Food preservation involves preventing the growth ofbacteria, fungi (such as yeasts), or other micro-organisms(although some methods work by introducing benignbacteria or fungi to the food), as well as retarding theoxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservationmay also include processes that inhibit visual deteriora-tion, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in applesafter they are cut during food preparation.Many processes designed to preserve food will involve anumber of food preservation methods. Preserving fruitby turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (toreduce the fruit’s moisture content and to kill bacteria,etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealingwithin an airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). Sometraditional methods of preserving food have been shownto have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, whencompared to modern methods.[1]

Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture andflavor is an important aspect of food preservation, al-though, historically, some methods drastically altered thecharacter of the food being preserved. In many casesthese changes have come to be seen as desirable quali-ties – cheese, yogurt and pickled onions being commonexamples.

5.1 Traditional techniques

New techniques of food preservation became availableto the home chef from the dawn of agriculture until theIndustrial Revolution.

5.1.1 Drying

Main article: Drying (food)

Drying is one of the oldest techniques used to hamperthe decomposition of food products. As early as 12,000B.C., Middle Eastern and Oriental cultures were dryingfoods using the power of the sun. Vegetables and fruitare naturally dried by the sun and wind, but “still houses”were built in areas that did not have enough sunlight to

dry things. A fire would be built inside the building toprovide the heat to dry the various fruits, vegetables, andherbs.

5.1.2 Cooling

Main article: Refrigeration

Cooling preserves foods by slowing down the growth andreproduction of micro-organisms and the action of en-zymes that cause food to rot. The introduction of com-mercial and domestic refrigerators drastically improvedthe diets of many in the Western world by allowingfoods such as fresh fruit, salads and dairy products to bestored safely for longer periods, particularly during warmweather.

5.1.3 Freezing

Main article: Frozen food

Freezing is also one of the most commonly used pro-cesses, both commercially and domestically, for preserv-ing a very wide range of foods, including prepared foodsthat would not have required freezing in their unpre-pared state. For example, potato waffles are stored in thefreezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool darkplace to ensure many months’ storage. Cold stores pro-vide large-volume, long-term storage for strategic foodstocks held in case of national emergency in many coun-tries.

5.1.4 Heating

Heating to temperatures which are sufficient to kill mi-croorganisms inside the food is a method used withperpetual stews. Milk is also boiled before storing to killmany microorganisms.

25

26 CHAPTER 5. FOOD PRESERVATION

Bag of Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or “pinksalt.” It is typically a combination of salt and sodium nitrite, withthe pink color added to distinguish it from ordinary salt.

5.1.5 Salting

Main article: Curing (food preservation)

Salting or curing draws moisture from the meat througha process of osmosis. Meat is cured with salt or sugar, ora combination of the two. Nitrates and nitrites are alsooften used to cure meat and contribute the characteristicpink color, as well as inhibition of Clostridium botulinum.It was a main method of preservation in medieval timesand around the 1700s.

5.1.6 Sugaring

The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative,and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar topickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe throughthe trade routes. In northern climates without sufficientsun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruitwith sugar.[2] “Sugar tends to draw water from the mi-crobes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbialcells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the foodwill remain safe frommicrobial spoilage.”[3] Sugar is usedto preserve fruits, either in an anti-microbial syrup withfruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots and plums,or in crystallized form where the preserved material iscooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the re-sultant product is then stored dry. This method is usedfor the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica andginger.

5.1.7 Smoking

Main article: Smoking (cooking)See also: List of smoked foodsSmoking is used to lengthen the shelf life of perishablefood items. This effect is achieved by exposing thefood to smoke from burning plant materials such aswood. Smoke deposits a number of pyrolysis productsonto the food, including the phenols syringol, guaiacoland catechol.[3] These compounds aid in the drying and

Smoked ham in a smokehouse in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany

preservation of meats and other foods. Most commonlysubjected to this method of food preservation are meatsand fish that have undergone curing. Fruits and vegetableslike paprika, cheeses, spices, and ingredients for makingdrinks such as malt and tea leaves are also smoked, butmainly for cooking or flavoring them. It is one of theoldest food preservation methods, which probably aroseafter the development of cooking with fire.

5.1.8 Pickling

Main article: Pickling

Pickling is a method of preserving food in an edible anti-microbial liquid. Pickling can be broadly classified intotwo categories: chemical pickling and fermentation pick-ling.In chemical pickling, the food is placed in an edibleliquid that inhibits or kills bacteria and other micro-organisms. Typical pickling agents include brine (high insalt), vinegar, alcohol, and vegetable oil, especially oliveoil but also many other oils. Many chemical pickling pro-cesses also involve heating or boiling so that the food be-ing preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.Common chemically pickled foods include cucumbers,peppers, corned beef, herring, and eggs, as well as mixedvegetables such as piccalilli.In fermentation pickling, the food itself produces thepreservation agent, typically by a process that pro-duces lactic acid. Fermented pickles include sauerkraut,nukazuke, kimchi, surströmming, and curtido. Somepickled cucumbers are also fermented.

5.1.9 Lye

Sodium hydroxide (lye) makes food too alkaline for bac-terial growth. Lye will saponify fats in the food, whichwill change its flavor and texture. Lutefisk uses lye in itspreparation, as do some olive recipes. Modern recipesfor century eggs also call for lye.

5.1. TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES 27

5.1.10 Canning

Preserved food

Main article: CanningSee also: Home canning

Canning involves cooking food, sealing it in sterile cansor jars, and boiling the containers to kill or weaken anyremaining bacteria as a form of sterilization. It was in-vented by the French confectioner Nicolas Appert.[4] By1806, this process was used by the French Navy to pre-serve meat, fruit, vegetables, and even milk. AlthoughAppert had discovered a new way of preservation, itwasn't understood until 1864 when Louis Pasteur foundthe relationship between microorganisms, food spoilage,and illness.[2]

Foods have varying degrees of natural protection againstspoilage and may require that the final step occur in apressure cooker. High-acid fruits like strawberries re-quire no preservatives to can and only a short boilingcycle, whereas marginal vegetables such as carrots re-quire longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements.Low-acid foods, such as vegetables and meats, requirepressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottlingis at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle hasbeen opened.Lack of quality control in the canning process may al-low ingress of water or micro-organisms. Most such fail-ures are rapidly detected as decomposition within the cancauses gas production and the can will swell or burst.However, there have been examples of poor manufacture

(underprocessing) and poor hygiene allowing contamina-tion of canned food by the obligate anaerobe Clostridiumbotulinum, which produces an acute toxin within the food,leading to severe illness or death. This organism producesno gas or obvious taste and remains undetected by tasteor smell. Its toxin is denatured by cooking, however.Cooked mushrooms, handled poorly and then canned,can support the growth of Staphylococcus aureus, whichproduces a toxin that is not destroyed by canning or sub-sequent reheating.

5.1.11 Jellying

Main article: Aspic

Food may be preserved by cooking in a material thatsolidifies to form a gel. Such materials include gelatin,agar, maize flour, and arrowroot flour. Some foods natu-rally form a protein gel when cooked, such as eels andelvers, and sipunculid worms, which are a delicacy inXiamen, in the Fujian province of the People’s Repub-lic of China. Jellied eels are a delicacy in the East End ofLondon, where they are eaten with mashed potatoes. Pot-ted meats in aspic (a gel made from gelatine and clarifiedmeat broth) were a common way of serving meat off-cutsin the UK until the 1950s. Many jugged meats are alsojellied.See also: Potted shrimps

A traditional British way of preserving meat (particularlyshrimp) is by setting it in a pot and sealing it with a layerof fat. Also common is potted chicken liver; comparepâté.See also: Confit

5.1.12 Jugging

Main article: Jugging

Meat can be preserved by jugging. Jugging is the processof stewing the meat (commonly game or fish) in a coveredearthenware jug or casserole. The animal to be jugged isusually cut into pieces, placed into a tightly-sealed jugwith brine or gravy, and stewed. Red wine and/or theanimal’s own blood is sometimes added to the cookingliquid. Jugging was a popular method of preserving meatup until the middle of the 20th century.

5.1.13 Burial

Burial of food can preserve it due to a variety of fac-tors: lack of light, lack of oxygen, cool temperatures, pHlevel, or desiccants in the soil. Burial may be combined

28 CHAPTER 5. FOOD PRESERVATION

with other methods such as salting or fermentation. Mostfoods can be preserved in soil that is very dry and salty(thus a desiccant) such as sand, or soil that is frozen.Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage andrequire no other preservation than storage in cool darkconditions, for example by burial in the ground, such asin a storage clamp. Century eggs are created by placingeggs in alkaline mud (or other alkaline substance), result-ing in their “inorganic” fermentation through raised pHinstead of spoiling. The fermentation preserves them andbreaks down some of the complex, less flavorful proteinsand fats into simpler, more flavorful ones. Cabbage wastraditionally buried in the fall in northern farms in theUSA for preservation. Somemethods keep it crispy whileother methods produce sauerkraut. A similar process isused in the traditional production of kimchi. Sometimesmeat is buried under conditions that cause preservation.If buried on hot coals or ashes, the heat can kill pathogens,the dry ash can desiccate, and the earth can block oxygenand further contamination. If buried where the earth isvery cold, the earth acts like a refrigerator.In Orissa, India, it is practical to store rice by burying itunderground. This method helps to store for three to sixmonths during the dry season.

5.2 Curing

The earliest form of curing was dehydration. To accel-erate this process, salt is usually added. In the culinaryworld, it was common to choose raw salts from varioussources (rock salt, sea salt, etc.).[2] More modern “exam-ples of salts that are used as preservatives include sodiumchloride (NaCl), sodium nitrate (NaNO3) and sodium ni-trite (NaNO2). Even at mild concentrations (up to 2%),sodium chloride, found in many food products, is capa-ble of neutralizing the antimicrobial character of naturalcompounds.”[3]

5.2.1 Fermentation

See also: Fermentation (food)

Some foods, such as many cheeses, wines, and beers,use specific micro-organisms that combat spoilage fromother less-benign organisms. These micro-organismskeep pathogens in check by creating an environment toxicfor themselves and other micro-organisms by producingacid or alcohol. Methods of fermentation include, but arenot limited to, starter micro-organisms, salt, hops, con-trolled (usually cool) temperatures and controlled (usu-ally low) levels of oxygen. These methods are used tocreate the specific controlled conditions that will supportthe desirable organisms that produce food fit for humanconsumption.

Fermentation is the microbial conversion of starch andsugars into alcohol. Not only can fermentation producealcohol, but it can also be a valuable preservation tech-nique. Fermentation can also make foods more nutritiousand palatable. For example, drinking water in the MiddleAges was dangerous because it often contained pathogensthat could spread disease. When the water is made intobeer, the resulting alcohol kills any bacteria in the wa-ter that could make people sick. Additionally, the waternow has the nutrients from the barley and other ingredi-ents, and the microorganisms can also produce vitaminsas they ferment.[2]

5.3 Industrial/modern techniques

Techniques of food preservation were developed in re-search laboratories for commercial applications.

5.3.1 Pasteurization

Main article: Pasteurization

Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food.It was originally applied to combat the souring of younglocal wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairyproducts. In this method, milk is heated at about 70 °Cfor 15 to 30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it andcooling it quickly to 10 °C to prevent the remaining bac-teria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilizedbottles or pouches in cold places. This method was in-vented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.

5.3.2 Vacuum packing

Main article: Vacuum packing

Vacuum-packing stores food in a vacuum environment,usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The vacuum envi-ronment strips bacteria of oxygen needed for survival.Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing nuts to re-duce loss of flavor from oxidization. A major drawbackto vacuum packaging, at the consumer level, is that vac-uum sealing can deform contents and rob certain foods,such as cheese, of its flavor.

5.3.3 Artificial food additives

Main article: Preservatives

Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial, whichinhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold,or antioxidant, such as oxygen absorbers, which in-hibit the oxidation of food constituents. Common

5.3. INDUSTRIAL/MODERN TECHNIQUES 29

antimicrobial preservatives include calcium propionate,sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, sulfites (sulfur diox-ide, sodium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfite, etc.)and disodium EDTA. Antioxidants include BHA andBHT. Other preservatives include formaldehyde (usuallyin solution), glutaraldehyde (kills insects), ethanol, andmethylchloroisothiazolinone.

5.3.4 Irradiation

Main article: Food irradiation

Irradiation of food[5] is the exposure of food to ionizingradiation. The two types of ionizing radiation used arebeta particles (high-energy electrons) and gamma rays(emitted from radioactive sources as cobalt-60 or cesium-137). Treatment effects include killing bacteria, molds,and insect pests, reducing the ripening and spoiling offruits, and at higher doses inducing sterility. The technol-ogy may be compared to pasteurization; it is sometimescalled “cold pasteurization”, as the product is not heated.The irradiation process is not directly related to nuclearenergy, but does use radioactive isotopes produced innuclear reactors. Cobalt-60, for example does not oc-cur naturally and can only be produced through neutronbombardment of cobalt-59. Ionizing radiation at high en-ergy levels is hazardous to life (hence its usefulness insterilisation); for this reason, irradiation facilities have aheavily shielded irradiation room where the process takesplace. Radiation safety procedures are used to ensurethat neither the workers in such facilities nor the envi-ronment receives any radiation dose above administra-tive limits. Irradiated food does not and cannot becomeradioactive, and national and international expert bodieshave declared food irradiation as wholesome.[6][7] How-ever, the wholesomeness of consuming such food is dis-puted by opponents[8] and consumer organizations.[9] Na-tional and international expert bodies have declared foodirradiation as “wholesome"; organizations of the UnitedNations, such as theWorld Health Organization and Foodand Agriculture Organization, endorse food irradiation.International legislation on whether food may be irradi-ated or not varies worldwide from no regulation to fullbanning.[10] Irradiation may allow lower-quality or con-taminated foods to be rendered marketable.Approximately 500,000 tons of food items are irradi-ated per year worldwide in over 40 countries. These aremainly spices and condiments with an increasing segmentof fresh fruit irradiated for fruit fly quarantine.[11][12]

5.3.5 Pulsed electric field electroporation

Main article: Electroporation

Pulsed electric field (PEF) electroporation is a method

for processing cells by means of brief pulses of a strongelectric field. PEF holds potential as a type of low-temperature alternative pasteurization process for steril-izing food products. In PEF processing, a substance isplaced between two electrodes, then the pulsed electricfield is applied. The electric field enlarges the pores ofthe cell membranes, which kills the cells and releases theircontents. PEF for food processing is a developing tech-nology still being researched. There have been limitedindustrial applications of PEF processing for the pasteur-ization of fruit juices. To date, several PEF treated juicesare available on the market in Europe. Furthermore, forseveral years a juice pasteurization application in the UShas used PEF. For cell disintegration purposes especiallypotato processors show great interest in PEF technologyas an efficient alternative for their preheaters. Potato ap-plications are already operational in the US and Canada.There are also commercial PEF potato applications invarious countries in Europe, as well as in Australia, In-dia and China.

5.3.6 Modified atmosphere

Main article: Modified atmosphere

Modifying atmosphere is a way to preserve food by op-erating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops that arenotoriously difficult to preserve are now being packagedin sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reducethe oxygen (O2) concentration and increase the carbondioxide (CO2) concentration. There is concern that, al-though salad vegetables retain their appearance and tex-ture in such conditions, this method of preservation maynot retain nutrients, especially vitamins. There are twomethods for preserving grains with carbon dioxide. Onemethod is placing a block of dry ice in the bottom andfilling the can with the grain. Another method is purgingthe container from the bottom by gaseous carbon dioxidefrom a cylinder or bulk supply vessel.Carbon dioxide prevents insects and, depending on con-centration, mold and oxidation from damaging the grain.Grain stored in this way can remain edible for approxi-mately five years.Nitrogen gas (N2) at concentrations of 98% or higher isalso used effectively to kill insects in the grain throughhypoxia.[13] However, carbon dioxide has an advantagein this respect, as it kills organisms through hypercarbiaand hypoxia (depending on concentration), but it requiresconcentrations of above 35%,[14] or so. This makes car-bon dioxide preferable for fumigation in situations wherea hermetic seal cannot be maintained.Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA): “CA storage is anon-chemical process. Oxygen levels in the sealed roomsare reduced, usually by the infusion of nitrogen gas, fromthe approximate 21 percent in the air we breathe to 1 per-cent or 2 percent. Temperatures are kept at a constant 0 to

30 CHAPTER 5. FOOD PRESERVATION

2 °C (32 to 36 °F). Humidity is maintained at 95 percentand carbon dioxide levels are also controlled. Exact con-ditions in the rooms are set according to the apple variety.Researchers develop specific regimens for each variety toachieve the best quality. Computers help keep conditionsconstant.” “EasternWashington, where most ofWashing-ton’s apples are grown, has enough warehouse storage for181 million boxes of fruit, according to a report done in1997 by managers for the Washington State Departmentof Agriculture Plant Services Division. The storage ca-pacity study shows that 67 percent of that space—enoughfor 121,008,000 boxes of apples — is CA storage.” [15]

Air-tight storage of grains (sometimes called hermeticstorage) relies on the respiration of grain, insects, andfungi that can modify the enclosed atmosphere suffi-ciently to control insect pests. This is a method of greatantiquity,[16] as well as having modern equivalents. Thesuccess of the method relies on having the correct mix ofsealing, grain moisture, and temperature.[17]

A patented process uses fuel cells to exhaust and auto-matically maintain the exhaustion of oxygen in a shippingcontainer, containing, for example, fresh fish.[18]

5.3.7 Nonthermal plasma

Main article: Nonthermal plasma

This process subjects the surface of food to a “flame” ofionized gas molecules, such as helium or nitrogen. Thiscauses micro-organisms to die off on the surface.[19]

5.3.8 High-pressure food preservation

Main article: Pascalization

High-pressure food preservation or pascalization refersto the use of a food preservation technique that makesuse of high pressure. “Pressed inside a vessel exerting70,000 pounds per square inch (480 MPa) or more, foodcan be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance,flavor, texture and nutrients while disabling harmful mi-croorganisms and slowing spoilage.” By 2005, the processwas being used for products ranging from orange juice toguacamole to deli meats and widely sold.[20]

5.3.9 Biopreservation

Main article: Biopreservation

Biopreservation is the use of natural or controlledmicrobiota or antimicrobials as a way of preserving foodand extending its shelf life.[21] Beneficial bacteria or thefermentation products produced by these bacteria areused in biopreservation to control spoilage and render

3D stick model of nisin. Some lactic acid bacteria manufacturenisin. It is a particularly effective preservative.

pathogens inactive in food.[22] It is a benign ecologicalapproach which is gaining increasing attention.[21]

Of special interest are lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Lacticacid bacteria have antagonistic properties that make themparticularly useful as biopreservatives. When LABs com-pete for nutrients, their metabolites often include activeantimicrobials such as lactic acid, acetic acid, hydrogenperoxide, and peptide bacteriocins. Some LABs producethe antimicrobial nisin, which is a particularly effectivepreservative.[23][24]

These days, LAB bacteriocins are used as an integralpart of hurdle technology. Using them in combinationwith other preservative techniques can effectively controlspoilage bacteria and other pathogens, and can inhibit theactivities of a wide spectrum of organisms, including in-herently resistant Gram-negative bacteria.[21]

5.3.10 Hurdle technology

Main article: Hurdle technology

Hurdle technology is a method of ensuring that pathogensin food products can be eliminated or controlled by com-bining more than one approach. These approaches canbe thought of as “hurdles” the pathogen has to overcomeif it is to remain active in the food. The right combina-tion of hurdles can ensure all pathogens are eliminated orrendered harmless in the final product.[25]

Hurdle technology has been defined by Leistner (2000)as an intelligent combination of hurdles that secures themicrobial safety and stability as well as the organolepticand nutritional quality and the economic viability of foodproducts.[26] The organoleptic quality of the food refersto its sensory properties, that is its look, taste, smell, andtexture.Examples of hurdles in a food system are high temper-ature during processing, low temperature during stor-age, increasing the acidity, lowering the water activityor redox potential, and the presence of preservatives orbiopreservatives. According to the type of pathogens andhow risky they are, the intensity of the hurdles can beadjusted individually to meet consumer preferences inan economical way, without sacrificing the safety of the

5.5. NOTES 31

product.[25]

5.4 See also• Blast chilling

• Food engineering

• Food microbiology

• Food packaging

• Food rheology

• Food science

• Food spoilage

• Freeze-drying

• Fresherized

• List of dried foods

• List of pickled foods

• List of smoked foods

• Refrigerate after opening

• Shelf life

5.5 Notes[1] “Preserving Food without Freezing or Canning, Chelsea

Green Publishing, 1999”

[2] Nummer, B. (2002). “Historical Origins of FoodPreservation” http://nchfp.uga.edu/publications/nchfp/factsheets/food_pres_hist.html. (Accessed on May 5,2014)

[3] Msagati, T. (2012). “The Chemistry of Food Additivesand Preservatives”

[4] Nicolas Appert inventeur et humaniste by Jean-Paul Bar-bier, Paris, 1994 and http://www.appert-aina.com

[5] anon., Food Irradation – A technique for preserving andimproving the safety of food, WHO, Geneva, 1991

[6] World Health Organization. Wholesomeness of irradiatedfood. Geneva, Technical Report Series No. 659, 1981

[7] World Health Organization. High-Dose Irradiation:Wholesomeness of Food IrradiatedWith Doses Above 10kGy. Report of a Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group.Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1999.WHO Technical Report Series No. 890

[8] Hauther,W. & Worth, M., Zapped! Irradiation and theDeath of Food, Food & Water Watch Press, Washington,DC, 2008

[9] Consumers International – Home

[10] NUCLEUS – Food Irradiation Clearances

[11] Food irradiation – Position of ADA J Am Diet Assoc.2000;100:246-253

[12] C.M. Deeley, M. Gao, R. Hunter, D.A.E. Ehlermann,The development of food irradiation in the Asia Pa-cific, the Americas and Europe; tutorial presented tothe International Meeting on Radiation Processing, KualaLumpur, 2006. http://www.doubleia.org/index.php?sectionid=43&parentid=13&contentid=494

[13] Annis, P.C. and Dowsett, H.A. 1993. Low oxygen disin-festation of grain: exposure periods needed for high mor-tality. Proc. International Conference on Controlled At-mosphere and Fumigation. Winnipeg, June 1992, CaspitPress, Jerusalem, pp 71-83.

[14] Annis, P.C. andMorton, R. 1997. The acute mortality ef-fects of carbon dioxide on various life stages of Sitophilusoryzae. J. Stored Prod.Res. 33. 115-124

[15] Controlled Atmospheric Storage (CA) :: WashingtonState Apple Commission

[16] Various authors, Session 1: Natural Air-Tight Storage In:Shejbal, J., ed., Controlled Atmosphere Storage of Grains,Elsevier: Amsterdam, 1-33

[17] Annis P.C. and Banks H.J. 1993. Is hermetic storage ofgrains feasible in modern agricultural systems? In “Pestcontrol and sustainable agriculture” Eds S.A. Corey, D.J.Dall and W.M. Milne. CSIRO, Australia. 479-482

[18] Laine Welch (May 18, 2013). “Laine Welch: Fuel celltechnology boosts long-distance fish shipping”. Anchor-age Daily News. Retrieved May 19, 2013.

[19] NWT magazine, December 2012

[20] “High-Pressure Processing Keeps Food Safe”.Military.com. Archived from the original on 2008-02-02. Retrieved 2008-12-16. Pressed inside a vesselexerting 70,000 pounds per square inch or more, foodcan be processed so that it retains its fresh appearance,flavor, texture and nutrients while disabling harmfulmicroorganisms and slowing spoilage.

[21] Ananou S, Maqueda M, Martínez-Bueno M and ValdiviaE (2007) “Biopreservation, an ecological approach to im-prove the safety and shelf-life of foods” In: A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.) Communicating Current Research and Educa-tional Topics and Trends in Applied Microbiology, Forma-tex. ISBN 978-84-611-9423-0.

[22] Yousef AE and Carolyn Carlstrom C (2003) Food micro-biology: a laboratory manual Wiley, Page 226. ISBN978-0-471-39105-0.

[23] FAO: Preservation techniques Fisheries and aquaculturedepartment, Rome. Updated 27 May 2005. Retrieved 14March 2011.

[24] Alzamora SM, Tapia MS and López-Malo A (2000)Minimally processed fruits and vegetables: fundamentalaspects and applications Springer, Page 266. ISBN 978-0-8342-1672-3.

32 CHAPTER 5. FOOD PRESERVATION

[25] Alasalvar C (2010) SeafoodQuality, Safety andHealth Ap-plications John Wiley and Sons, Page 203. ISBN 978-1-4051-8070-2.

[26] Leistner I (2000) “Basic aspects of food preservation byhurdle technology” International Journal of Food Micro-biology, 55:181–186.

[27] Leistner L (1995) “Principles and applications of hurdletechnology” In Gould GW (Ed.) New Methods of FoodPreservation, Springer, pp. 1-21. ISBN 978-0-8342-1341-8.

[28] Lee S (2004) “Microbial Safety of Pickled Fruits and Veg-etables and Hurdle Technology” Internet Journal of FoodSafety, 4: 21–32.

5.6 References• Riddervold, Astri. Food Conservation. ISBN 978-0-907325-40-6.

• Abakarov, Nunes. “Thermal food processing op-timization: algorithms and software” (PDF). FoodEngineering.

• Abakarov, Sushkov, Mascheroni. “Multi-criteriaoptimization and decision-making approach for im-proving of food engineering processes” (PDF). In-ternational Journal of Food Studies.

5.7 External links• A ca. 1894 Gustav Hammer & Co. commercialcooking machinery catalogue.

• Dehydrating Food

• Preserving foods ~ from the Clemson ExtensionHome and Garden Information Center

• National Center for Home Food Preservation

• BBC News Online – US army food... just add urine

• Home Economics Archive: Tradition, Research,History (HEARTH)An e-book collection of over 1,000 classic books onhome economics spanning 1850 to 1950, created byCornell University’s Mann Library.

• Survival guide – Refrigerate food without electricalpower

• Pulsed electric field processing for the food and bev-erage industry and scientific sectors

Chapter 6

Food safety

Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling,preparation, and storage of food in ways that preventfoodborne illness. This includes a number of routines thatshould be followed to avoid potentially severe health haz-ards. In this way Food Safety often overlaps with FoodDefense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks withinthis line of thought are safety between industry and themarket and then between the market and the consumer.In considering industry to market practices, food safetyconsiderations include the origins of food including thepractices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, foodadditives and pesticide residues, as well as policies onbiotechnology and food and guidelines for the manage-ment of governmental import and export inspection andcertification systems for foods. In considering market toconsumer practices, the usual thought is that food oughtto be safe in the market and the concern is safe deliveryand preparation of the food for the consumer.Food can transmit disease from person to person as wellas serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can causefood poisoning. In developed countries there are intricatestandards for food preparation, whereas in lesser devel-oped countries the main issue is simply the availability ofadequate safe water, which is usually a critical item.[1] Intheory, food poisoning is 100% preventable. The five keyprinciples of food hygiene, according to WHO, are:[2]

1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spread-ing from people, pets, and pests.

2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contami-nating the cooked foods.

3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and atthe appropriate temperature to kill pathogens.

4. Store food at the proper temperature.

5. Do use safe water and raw materials.

6.1 ISO 22000

ISO 22000 is a standard developed by the Interna-tional Organization for Standardization dealing with food

safety. This is a general derivative of ISO 9000. ISO22000 standard: The ISO 22000 international standardspecifies the requirements for a food safety managementsystem that involves interactive communication, sys-tem management, prerequisite programs, HACCPprinciples.

6.2 Incidence

A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report con-cluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning out-breaks in the WHO European Region occur in privatehomes.[3] According to the WHO and CDC, in the USAalone, annually, there are 76 million cases of foodborneillness leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000deaths.[4]

6.3 Regulatory agencies

6.3.1 WHO and FAO

In 2003, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Ali-mentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety.[5]

However, according to Unit 04 - Communication ofHealth & Consumers Directorate-General of the Euro-pean Commission (SANCO): “The Codex, while be-ing recommendations for voluntary application by mem-bers, Codex standards serve in many cases as a basisfor national legislation. The reference made to Codexfood safety standards in the World Trade Organizations’Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPSAgreement) means that Codex has far reaching implica-tions for resolving trade disputes. WTO members thatwish to apply stricter food safety measures than those setby Codex may be required to justify these measures sci-entifically.” So, an agreement made in 2003, signed byall member states, inclusive all EU, in the codex StanCodex 240 – 2003 for coconut milk, sulphite contain-ing additives like E223 and E 224 are allowed till 30mg/kg, doesNOTmean, they are allowed into the EU, seeRASFF entries from Denmark: 2012.0834; 2011.1848;

33

34 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

en 2011.168, “sulphite unauthorised in coconut milkfrom Thailand “. Same for polysorbate E 435: see2012.0838 from Denmark, unauthorised polysorbates incoconut milk and, 2007.AIC from France. Only forthe latter the EU amended its regulations with (EU) No583/2012 per 2 July 2012 to allow this additive, alreadyused for decades and absolutely necessary.

6.3.2 Australia

See also: Food safety in Australia

Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all foodbusinesses to implement food safety systems. These sys-tems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume andhalt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and theyinclude basic food safety training for at least one person ineach business. Food safety training is delivered in variousforms by, among other organisations, Registered Train-ing Organizations (RTOs), after which staff are issued anationally recognised unit of competency code on theircertificate. Basic food safety training includes:

• Understanding the hazards associated with the maintypes of food and the conditions to prevent thegrowth of bacteria which can cause food poisoningand to prevent illness.

• Potential problems associated with product packag-ing such as leaks in vacuum packs, damage to pack-aging or pest infestation, as well as problems and dis-eases spread by pests.

• Safe food handling. This includes safe proce-dures for each process such as receiving, re-packing,food storage, preparation and cooking, cooling andre-heating, displaying products, handling productswhen serving customers, packaging, cleaning andsanitizing, pest control, transport and delivery. Alsocovers potential causes of cross contamination.

• Catering for customers who are particularly at riskof food-borne illness, as well as those with allergiesor intolerance.

• Correct cleaning and sanitizing procedures, cleaningproducts and their correct use, and the storage ofcleaning items such as brushes, mops and cloths.

• Personal hygiene, hand washing, illness, and protec-tive clothing.

Food safety standards and requirements are set out at thenational level in the Food Standards Code, and broughtInto force in each state by state-based Acts and Regula-tions. Legislation means that people responsible for sell-ing or serving unsafe food may be liable for heavy fines.

6.3.3 China

Main article: Food safety in the People’s Republic ofChina

Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture.The Chinese government oversees agricultural produc-tion as well as the manufacture of food packaging, con-tainers, chemical additives, drug production, and businessregulation. In recent years, the Chinese government at-tempted to consolidate food regulation with the creationof the State Food and Drug Administration in 2003, andofficials have also been under increasing public and in-ternational pressure to solve food safety problems. How-ever, it appears that regulations are not well known by thetrade. Labels used for “green” food, “organic” food and“pollution-free” food are not well recognized by tradersand many are unclear about their meaning. A survey bythe World Bank found that supermarket managers haddifficulty in obtaining produce that met safety require-ments and found that a high percentage of produce didnot comply with established standards.[6]

Traditional marketing systems, whether in China or therest of Asia, presently provide little motivation or incen-tive for individual farmers to make improvements to ei-ther quality or safety as their produce tends to get groupedtogether with standard products as it progresses throughthe marketing channel. Direct linkages between farmergroups and traders or ultimate buyers, such as supermar-kets, can help avoid this problem. Governments need toimprove the condition of many markets through upgrad-ing management and reinvesting market fees in physi-cal infrastructure. Wholesale markets need to investigatethe feasibility of developing separate sections to handlefruits and vegetables that meet defined safety and qualitystandards.[7]

6.3.4 European Union

The parliament of the European Union (EU) makes leg-islation in the form of directives and regulations, many ofwhich are mandatory for member states and which there-fore must be incorporated into individual countries’ na-tional legislation. As a very large organisation that existsto remove barriers to trade between member states, andinto which individual member states have only a propor-tional influence, the outcome is often seen as an exces-sively bureaucratic 'one size fits all' approach. However,in relation to food safety the tendency to err on the side ofmaximum protection for the consumer may be seen as apositive benefit. The EU parliament is informed on foodsafety matters by the European Food Safety Authority.Individual member states may also have other legislationand controls in respect of food safety, provided that theydo not prevent trade with other states, and can differ con-siderably in their internal structures and approaches to the

6.3. REGULATORY AGENCIES 35

regulatory control of food safety.From 13 December 2014, new legislation - the EU FoodInformation for Consumers Regulation 1169/2011 - re-quire food businesses to provide allergy information onfood sold unpackaged, in for example catering outlets,deli counters, bakeries and sandwich bars.[8]

6.3.5 France

Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation,de l'environnement et du travail (anses) is a French gov-ernmental agency dealing with food safety.

6.3.6 Germany

The FederalMinistry of Food, Agriculture and ConsumerProtection (BMELV)[9] is a Federal Ministry of the Fed-eral Republic of Germany. History: Founded as FederalMinistry of Food, Agriculture and Foresting in 1949, thisname did not change until 2001. Then the name changedto Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food andAgriculture. At the 22nd of November 2005, the namegot changed again to its current state: Federal Ministryof Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. The rea-son for this last change was that all the resorts should getequal ranking which was achieved by sorting the resortsalphabetically. Vision: A balanced and healthy diet withsafe food, distinct consumer rights and consumer infor-mation for various areas of life, and a strong and sus-tainable agriculture as well as perspectives for our ru-ral areas are important goals of the Federal Ministry ofFood, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV).The Federal Office of Consumer Protection and FoodSafety is under the control of the Federal Ministry ofFood, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. It exercisesseveral duties, with which it contributes to safer food andthereby intensifies health-based consumer protection inGermany. Food can be manufactured and sold withinGermany without a special permission, as long as it doesnot cause any damage on consumers’ health and meets thegeneral standards set by the legislation. However, manu-facturers, carriers, importers and retailers are responsiblefor the food they pass into circulation. They are obliged toensure and document the safety and quality of their foodwith the use of in-house control mechanisms.

6.3.7 Hong Kong

In Hong Kong SAR, the Centre for Food Safety is incharge of ensuring food sold is safe and fit for consump-tion.

6.3.8 India

Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, establishedunder the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006, is theregulating body related to food safety and laying down ofstandards of food in India.

6.3.9 New Zealand

See also: Food safety in New Zealand

TheNewZealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), or TePou Oranga Kai O Aotearoa is the New Zealand govern-ment body responsible for food safety. NZFSA is also thecontrolling authority for imports and exports of food andfood-related products. The NZFSA as of 2012 is now adivision of the Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI) andis no longer its own organization.

6.3.10 Pakistan

Pakistan does not have an integrated legal framework buthas a set of laws, which deals with various aspects of foodsafety. These laws, despite the fact that they were en-acted long time ago, have tremendous capacity to achieveat least minimum level of food safety. However, likemany other laws, these laws remain very poorly enforced.There are four laws that specifically deal with food safety.Three of these laws directly focus issues related to foodsafety, while the fourth, the Pakistan Standards and Qual-ity Control Authority Act, is indirectly relevant to foodsafety.The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 consolidates and amendsthe law in relation to the preparation and the sale of foods.All provinces and some northern areas have adopted thislaw with certain amendments. Its aim is to ensure pu-rity of food being supplied to people in the market and,therefore, provides for preventing adulteration. The PureFood Ordinance 1960 does not apply to cantonment ar-eas. There is a separate law for cantonments called “TheCantonment Pure Food Act, 1966”. There is no substan-tial difference between the Pure Food Ordinance 1960and The Cantonment Pure Food Act. Even the rules ofoperation are very much similar.Pakistan Hotels and Restaurant Act, 1976 applies to allhotels and restaurants in Pakistan and seeks to control andregulate the rates and standard of service(s) by hotels andrestaurants. In addition to other provisions, under sec-tion 22(2), the sale of food or beverages that are contam-inated, not prepared hygienically or served in utensils thatare not hygienic or clean is an offense. There are no ex-press provisions for consumer complaints in the PakistanRestaurants Act, 1976, Pakistan Penal Code, 1860 andPakistan Standards and Quality Control Authority Act,1996. The laws do not prevent citizens from lodging com-

36 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

plaints with the concerned government officials; however,the consideration and handling of complaints is a matterof discretion of the officials.[10]

6.3.11 South Korea

'Italic text' '====Korea Food & Drug Admin-istration==== Korea Food & Drug Administration(KFDA)[11] is working for food safety since 1945. It ispart of the Government of South Korea.IOAS[12]-Organic Certification Bodies Registered inKFDA: “Organic” or related claims can be labelled onfood products when organic certificates are considered asvalid by KFDA. KFDA admits organic certificates whichcan be issued by 1) IFOAM (International Federation ofOrganic Agriculture Movement) accredited certificationbodies 2) Government accredited certification bodies –328 bodies in 29 countries have been registered inKFDA.Food Import Report: According to Food ImportReport,[13] it is supposed to report or register what youimport. Competent authority is as follows:

National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evalua-tion

National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation(NIFDS)[14] is functioning as well. The National Instituteof Food and Drug Safety Evaluation is a national organi-zation for toxicological tests and research. Under the Ko-rea Food & Drug Administration, the Institute performsresearch on toxicology, pharmacology, and risk analysisof foods, drugs, and their additives. The Institute strivesprimarily to understand important biological triggeringmechanisms and improve assessment methods of humanexposure, sensitivities, and risk by (1) conducting basic,applied, and policy research that closely examines biolog-ically triggering harmful effects on the regulated productssuch as foods, food additives, and drugs, and operatingthe national toxicology program for the toxicological testdevelopment and inspection of hazardous chemical sub-stances assessments. The Institute ensures safety by in-vestigation and research on safety by its own researchers,contract research by external academicians and researchcenters.

6.3.12 Taiwan

In Taiwan Health and Welfare Ministry in charge ofFood and Drug Safety, also evaluate the Catering industryto maintenance the food product quality.[15]

6.3.13 United Kingdom

In the UK the Food Standards Agency is an independentgovernment department responsible for food safety and

hygiene across the UK.[16] They work with businessesto help them produce safe food, and with local author-ities to enforce food safety regulations. In 2006 foodhygiene legislation changed and new requirements cameinto force. The main requirement resulting from thischange is that if you own or run a food business in theUK, you must have a documented Food Safety Manage-ment System, which is based on the principles of HazardAnalysis Critical Control Point HACCP.[17]

6.3.14 United States

The US food system is regulated by numerous federal,state and local officials. It has been criticized as lackingin “organization, regulatory tools, and not addressing foodborne illness.”[18]

Federal level regulation

The Food and Drug Administration publishes the FoodCode, a model set of guidelines and procedures that as-sists food control jurisdictions by providing a scientifi-cally sound technical and legal basis for regulating theretail and food service industries, including restaurants,grocery stores and institutional foodservice providerssuch as nursing homes. Regulatory agencies at all lev-els of government in the United States use the FDA FoodCode to develop or update food safety rules in their ju-risdictions that are consistent with national food regu-latory policy. According to the FDA, 48 of 56 statesand territories, representing 79% of the U.S. popula-tion, have adopted food codes patterned after one of thefive versions of the Food Code, beginning with the 1993edition.[19]

In the United States, federal regulations governing foodsafety are fragmented and complicated, according to aFebruary 2007 report from the Government Accountabil-ity Office.[20] There are 15 agencies sharing oversight re-sponsibilities in the food safety system, although the twoprimary agencies are the U.S. Department of Agricul-ture (USDA) Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS),which is responsible for the safety of meat, poultry, andprocessed egg products, and the Food and Drug Adminis-tration (FDA), which is responsible for virtually all otherfoods.The Food Safety and Inspection Service has approxi-mately 7,800 inspection program personnel working innearly 6,200 federally inspected meat, poultry and pro-cessed egg establishments. FSIS is charged with admin-istering and enforcing the Federal Meat Inspection Act,the Poultry Products Inspection Act, the Egg ProductsInspection Act, portions of the Agricultural MarketingAct, the Humane Slaughter Act, and the regulations thatimplement these laws. FSIS inspection program person-nel inspect every animal before slaughter, and each car-cass after slaughter to ensure public health requirements

6.4. MANUFACTURING CONTROL 37

are met. In fiscal year (FY) 2008, this included about50 billion pounds of livestock carcasses, about 59 billionpounds of poultry carcasses, and about 4.3 billion poundsof processed egg products. At U.S. borders, they also in-spected 3.3 billion pounds of imported meat and poultryproducts.[21]

Industry pressure There have been concerns over theefficacy of safety practices and food industry pressure onU.S. regulators. A study reported by Reuters found that“the food industry is jeopardizing U.S. public health bywithholding information from food safety investigators orpressuring regulators to withdraw or alter policy designedto protect consumers”. A survey found that 25% of U.S.government inspectors and scientists surveyed have ex-perienced during the past year corporate interests forcingtheir food safety agency to withdraw or to modify agencypolicy or action that protects consumers. Scientists haveobserved that management undercuts field inspectors whostand up for food safety against industry pressure. Ac-cording to Dr. Dean Wyatt, a USDA veterinarian whooversees federal slaughter house inspectors, “Upper levelmanagement does not adequately support field inspectorsand the actions they take to protect the food supply. Notonly is there lack of support, but there’s outright obstruc-tion, retaliation and abuse of power.”[22] A growing num-ber of food and beverage manufacturers are improvingfood safety standards by incorporating a food safety man-agement system which automates all steps in the foodquality management process.[23]

State and local regulation

A number of U.S. states have their own meat inspectionprograms that substitute for USDA inspection for meatsthat are sold only in-state.[24] Certain state programs havebeen criticized for undue leniency to bad practices.[25]

However, other state food safety programs supplement,rather than replace, Federal inspections, generally withthe goal of increasing consumer confidence in the state’sproduce. For example, state health departments have arole in investigating outbreaks of food-borne disease bac-teria, as in the case of the 2006 outbreak of EscherichiacoliO157:H7 (a pathogenic strain of the ordinarily harm-less bacteria, E. coli ) from processed spinach.[26] Healthdepartments also promote better food processing prac-tices to eliminate these threats.[27]

In addition to the US Food and Drug Administration, sev-eral states that are major producers of fresh fruits andvegetables (including California, Arizona and Florida)have their own state programs to test produce for pesticideresidues.[28]

Restaurants and other retail food establishments fall un-der state law and are regulated by state or local healthdepartments. Typically these regulations require officialinspections of specific design features, best food-handling

practices, and certification of food handlers.[29] In someplaces a letter grade or numerical score must be promi-nently posted following each inspection.[30] In some lo-calities, inspection deficiencies and remedial action areposted on the Internet.[31]

6.4 Manufacturing control

6.4.1 HACCP guidelines

Main article: Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points

6.5 Consumer labeling

6.5.1 United Kingdom

Foodstuffs in the UK have one of two labels to indicatethe nature of the deterioration of the product and any sub-sequent health issues. EHO Food Hygiene certification isrequired to prepare and distribute food. While there is nospecified expiry date of such a qualification the changesin legislation it is suggested to update every five years.Best before indicates a future date beyond which thefood product may lose quality in terms of taste or tex-ture amongst others, but does not imply any serious healthproblems if food is consumed beyond this date (withinreasonable limits).Use by indicates a legal date beyond which it is not per-missible to sell a food product (usually one that deterio-rates fairly rapidly after production) due to the potentialserious nature of consumption of pathogens. Leeway issometimes provided by producers in stating display un-til dates so that products are not at their limit of safe con-sumption on the actual date stated (this latter is voluntaryand not subject to regulatory control). This allows for thevariability in production, storage and display methods.

6.5.2 United States

With the exception of infant formula and baby foodswhich must be withdrawn by their expiration date, Fed-eral law does not require expiration dates. For all otherfoods, except dairy products in some states, freshness dat-ing is strictly voluntary on the part of manufacturers. Inresponse to consumer demand, perishable foods are typ-ically labelled with a Sell by date.[32] It is up to the con-sumer to decide how long after the Sell by date a packageis usable. Other common dating statements are Best ifused by, Use-by date, Expiration date, Guaranteedfresh <date>, and Pack date.[33]

38 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

6.5.3 Australia and New Zealand

Guide to Food Labelling and Other Information Require-ments: This guide provides background information onthe general labelling requirements in the Code. The in-formation in this guide applies both to food for retailsale and to food for catering purposes. Foods for cater-ing purposes means those foods for use in restaurants,canteens, schools, caterers or self-catering institutions,where food is offered for immediate consumption. La-belling and information requirements in the newCode ap-ply both to food sold or prepared for sale in Australia andNew Zealand and food imported into Australia and NewZealand. Warning and Advisory Declarations, IngredientLabelling, DateMarking, Nutrition Information Require-ments, Legibility Requirements for Food Labels, Per-centage Labelling, Information Requirements for FoodsExempt from Bearing a Label.[34][35]

6.6 See also

• Adulterated food

• Aseptic processing

• Danger zone (food safety)

• Five-second rule

• Food and Bioprocess Technology

• Food chemistry

• Food engineering

• Food grading

• Food microbiology

• Food rheology

• Food spoilage

• Food technology

• International Food Safety Network

• ISO 22000

• Food sampling

• Optical sorting

6.7 References[1] Shiklomanov, I. A. (2000). “Appraisal and Assessment

of World Water Resources” (PDF). Water International25 (1). International Water Resources Association. pp.11–32.

[2] “Prevention of foodborne disease: Five keys to saferfood”. World Health Organisation. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

[3] “Several foodborne diseases are increasing in Europe”.World Health Organisation. 2003-12-16. Archived fromthe original on 2005-04-16.

[4] “Food safety and foodborne illness”. World Health Or-ganisation. Retrieved 2010-12-10.

[5] “Codex Alimentarius and Food Hygiene” (PDF). CodexAlimentarius. Food and Agriculture Organisation of theUnited Nations. Retrieved 2007-10-15.

[6] “China’s Compliance with Food Safety Requirements forFruits and Vegetables: Promoting Food Safety, Competi-tiveness, and Poverty Reduction” (PDF). World Bank andChina Agriculture Press. 2005.

[7] Shepherd, Andrew W. (2006). “Quality and safety in thetraditional horticultural marketing chains of Asia” (PDF).Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UnitedNations.

[8] http://www.food.gov.uk/business-industry/allergy-guide

[9] “German Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Con-sumer Protection”. Bundesministerium für Ernährung,Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz.

[10] Siraj, Mazhar (2004). “Food Safety Legislation in Pak-istan” (DOC). Consumer Rights Commission of Pakistan.

[11] “Ministry of Food and Drug Safety”. Korea Food andDrug Administration.

[12] “IFOAM Accredited Certification Bodies” (PDF). Inter-national Organic Accreditation Service. Korea Food andDrug Administration. 2008-02-14.

[13] “Foods Import Report Guide” (PDF). Korea Food andDrug Administration. 2010-10-22.

[14] “National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation”.Korea: National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Eval-uation.

[15] ".” Taiwan Ministry of Health and Welfare website2015.9”

[16] “About Us”. Food Standards Agency.

[17] “Food Hygiene Guidelines” (PDF). Pip.

[18] Becker, Geoffrey (2010-04-10), The Federal Food SafetySystem: A primer, Congressional Research Service

[19] “FDA Food Code”. Food and Drug Administration.2007-10-05. Retrieved 2008-09-01.

[20] “High-Risk Designation Can Bring Needed Attention toFragmented System” (PDF). Federal Oversight of FoodSafety. GAO-07-449T. Government Accountability Of-fice.

[21] “FSIS Testimony, March 11, 2009” (PDF). United StatesDepartment of Agriculture Food Safety and InspectionService.

6.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 39

[22] “Industry Has Sway Over Food Safety System: U.S.Study”. Reuters. 2010-09-14. Archived from the orig-inal on 2010-09-14.

[23] Kuchinski, Kelly. “Can Automation Reduce the Risk ofFood Recalls?". Retrieved 27 July 2015.

[24] “FSIS State Inspection Programs”. United States Depart-ment of Agriculture Food Safety and Inspection Service.

[25] “USDA Allowed State Meat Inspection Programs To Op-erate Even After Finding Cutting Boards ContaminatedWith Old Meat And Soot-Like Residues On Swine Car-casses” (PDF). Consumer Federation of America. 2006-09-28.

[26] “State Health Department announces test results matchgenetic fingerprints to E. coli outbreak”. Press releases.California Department of Health Services. 2006-10-12.Archived from the original on 2006-11-07. ben 0987,8765

[27] “CDHSEducation Training Unit”. California Departmentof Health Services.

[28] “Pesticides and food: How we test for safety” (PDF). Cal-ifornia Department of Pesticide Regulation. June 2003.

[29] “NewYork Restaurant Inspection Information”. The NewYork City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene.Archived from the original on 2005-12-15.

[30] “NYC Health Dept. Launches Restaurant CleanlinessCertificate”. HealthyLiving-NYC.

[31] “A Guide to Food Safety Practices in Virginia Restau-rants”. Fairfax Health District. HealthSpace.

[32] “Expiration, Use-by, and Sell-by Dates, Part 1: Expirationdating is not federally required on all products”. HomeCooking. About.com.

[33] “Expiration, Use-by, and Sell-by Dates, Part 2: Decipher-ing food expiration codes can be tricky”. Home Cooking.About.com.

[34] “Guide to Food Labelling and Other Information Require-ments”. Overview of Food Labelling. Food StandardsAustralia New Zealand.

[35] “Warning and Advisory Statements and Declarations UserGuide to Standard 1.2.3 – Mandatory Warning and Advi-sory Statements and Declarations” (PDF). Food StandardsAustralia New Zealand. Retrieved 2010-09-15.

6.8 Further reading

• Satin, Morton (2008). Food alert!: the ultimatesourcebook for food safety (2 ed.). New York, NY:Facts On File. ISBN 9780816069682.

• Clute, Mark (October 2008). Food Industry QualityControl Systems. [CRC Press]. ISBN 978-0-8493-8028-0.

Journals

• Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and FoodSafety, ISSN: 1541-4337 (electronic) 1541–4337(paper), Blackwell Publishing

• Food Control, ISSN: 0956-7135, Elsevier

• Food and Chemical Toxicology, ISSN: 0278-6915,Elsevier

• Food Policy, ISSN: 0306-9192, Elsevier

• Journal of Food Protection, ISSN 0362-028X,International Association for Food Protection

• Journal of Food Safety, ISSN: 1745-4565 (elec-tronic) ISSN: 0149-6085 (paper), Blackwell Pub-lishing

• Journal of Foodservice, ISSN: 1745-4506 (elec-tronic) ISSN: 1748-0140 (paper), Blackwell Pub-lishing

• Sensing and Instrumentation for Food Quality andSafety, ISSN: 1932-9954 (electronic) ISSN: 1932-7587 (paper), Springer

• Internet Journal of Food Safety, ISSN: 1930-0670,International Association for Food Safety/Quality

6.9 External links• U.S. Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS)

• The Food Standards Agency UK

• Safer Food Better Business – practical food safetyfor small caterers and retailers developed by the UKFood Standards Agency

• Korea Food & Drug Administration (KFDA)

• http://www.foodlink.org.uk/

• Food Safety Information Center at the USDA Na-tional Agricultural Library

• Health-EU Portal

• Food Safety MSc programme

• Food Safety Discussion Forum

40 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

6.10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.10.1 Text• Food Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food?oldid=686017616Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Carey Evans, Zundark, TheAnome,

Tarquin, Slrubenstein, Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Rmhermen, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Anthere, Ellmist, Camembert,Montrealais, Sfdan, KF, BryceHarrington, Mkmcconn, Stevertigo, Edward, Patrick, Dmd3e, JakeVortex, Fred Bauder, Dante Alighieri,Mahjongg, Tannin, Ixfd64, Eurleif, Minesweeper, CesarB, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Mac, Bluelion, Notheruser, Jebba, Ireneshusband,Julesd, Glenn, Stefan-S, Poor Yorick, Andres, Evercat, TonyClarke, Atob, Rl, Kaysov, Mxn, TheStick, Hashar, Alex S, RodC, AdamBishop, Timwi, RickK, Ike9898, David Thrale, Dysprosia, Jay, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Wik, Zoicon5, Steinsky, Haukurth, Tpbrad-bury, Marshman, Bagsc, Karukera, Joy, Johnleemk, Pollinator, Owen, Jni, Darkcore, Branddobbe, Gentgeen, Robbot, Ke4roh, RichiH,Fredrik, RedWolf, Chocolateboy, Jmabel, WormRunner, Netizen, Yelyos, Lowellian, Academic Challenger, SchmuckyTheCat, Meelar,LGagnon, Andrew Levine, Sunray, Mr-Natural-Health, Hadal, Conrad Leviston~enwiki, Kd4ttc, Tsavage, Black Jack~enwiki, Diberri,Dbroadwell, Cyrius, Wayland, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Marnanel, Wolf530, Nunh-huh, Cobaltbluetony, Lethe, Popup~enwiki, Tom har-rison, Aphaia, Zigger, Everyking, Moyogo, Maha ts, Curps, Michael Devore, Henry Flower, Darkfelin, Guanaco, Macrakis, Brockert,Spe88, SWAdair, Golbez, MSTCrow, Mu, Ben Arnold, Andycjp, Toytoy, Geni, Slowking Man, Quadell, Antandrus, Williamb, Jossi,Billposer, Rdsmith4, Kesac, Sebbe, CBDroege, AndrewKeenanRichardson, Kevin B12, PFHLai, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Gscshoyru, Raylu,Neutrality, Burschik, Joyous!, Jh51681, Trilobite, Picapica, Zondor, Trevor MacInnis, Squash, Intrigue, Canterbury Tail, Dryazan, MikeRosoft, Ornil, Kmccoy, Freakofnurture, Heegoop, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Arcuras, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Pak21, Wkmuriithi, Kenwarren, Chowells, Xezbeth, Goochelaar, ESkog, JJJJust, Jaberwocky6669, Calamarain, FrankCostanza, Ground, Meamemg,RJHall, CanisRufus, Mr. Billion, Livajo, El C, Szyslak, Rgdboer, Sez me, Shanes, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, EurekaLott, Mairi, Riyehn,Thunderbrand, Nigelj, Vervin, Circeus, Fir0002, Hurricane111, Func, John Vandenberg, BrokenSegue, NightDragon, Adrian~enwiki,Jung dalglish, J-o-s-h, Nesnad, SpeedyGonsales, Man vyi, Sasquatch, Jojit fb, Nk, Doozer, Sam Korn, Jonathunder, Stephen G. Brown,Ryan-D, Danski14, Alansohn, Mo0, MrB, Babajobu, Andrewpmk, Sl, RobertStar20, Riana, AzaToth, Lectonar, Goldom, SlimVirgin,Ciceronl, Kurieeto, Walkerma, Gaurav1146, CJ, Eukesh, Malo, Schapel, DRJacobson, Fordan, Erik, Almafeta, Yuckfoo, Lapinmies,Scott Gall, Wikipedia111, HiFlyer, HenryLi, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Ceyockey, Kenyon, Mahanga, Feezo, Stemonitis, Weyes, KellyMartin, Pekinensis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Jannex, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, Anilocra, Beanluc, Daniel Case, Joels341, Burgher, Ac-erperi, Schzmo, Grika, Bbatsell, Ppk01, Ailric, Terence, Bluemoose, Zzyzx11, MarkusHagenlocher, Wayward, Prashanthns, Gimboid13,Karam.Anthony.K, Stevey7788, Paxsimius, Jibbles, Graham87, BD2412, FreplySpang, Yurik, Grammarbot, BorgHunter, Josh Parris, Can-derson7, Djanvk, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Tizio, Angusmclellan, Coemgenus, Koavf, Astropithicus, Mikepjones, Vary, PinchasC, Bruce1ee,Tawker, SpNeo, Oxydo~enwiki, HappyCamper, Krash, The wub, Dar-Ape, MikeJ9919, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Bbullot~enwiki,FlaBot, SchuminWeb, RobertG, Mishuletz, A scientist, El Cid, Who, Nivix, Flowerparty, RexNL, Gurch, XanaX, AdamantlyMike, Otets,Nige111, AndriuZ, Brendan Moody, Terrx, EronMain, Alphachimp, McDogm, Mojoismog, BradBeattie, Le Anh-Huy, Cereal Box Con-spiracy, Chobot, Bornhj, Mhking, Giraffe~enwiki, Digitalme, Peterl, Gwernol, EamonnPKeane, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wave-length, TexasAndroid, Marginoferror, Drdisque, RobotE, Sceptre, Deeptrivia, Chavash, StuffOfInterest, RussBot, Jeffhoy, Crazytales,Jtkiefer, Epolk, JabberWok, Aaron Walden, Stephenb, Lord Voldemort, Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Uberwoo, Wimt, PaulGarner,Shanel, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, BigCow, Bachrach44, Nirvana2013, Veledan, Grafen, Bloodofox, Dforest, NickBush24, Welsh, R0x0R,Amazinms90, Rjensen, Irishguy, THB, Rmky87, Haoie, Stevenwmccrary58, DGJM, Aaron Schulz, Deckiller, Antoshi, Ejl, Psy guy,Supspirit, Empty2005, Tachyon01, Essexmutant, Wolfling, Elkman, Thebrisk, Wknight94, Avraham, Searchme, WAS 4.250, FF2010,Getcrunk, Zzuuzz, Epiq, Theda, Jwissick, Pb30, Americanus, Redgolpe, Bingo99, GraemeL, JoanneB, Alias Flood, Cjwright79, Gi-naDana, Jaranda, Wbrameld, Whouk, Bluezy, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Appleseed, Greatal386, Protzs, Carlosguitar, SamuelBlanning, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Eenu, Katy Griffiths, That Guy, From That Show!, Arcadie, Luk, Hiddekel, CarmelitaCharm, Bradynelson, SmackBot, Aim Here, Mattarata, Ashenai, Reedy, Jeroen Stout, KnowledgeOfSelf, McGeddon, Gigs, DCDuring, Shoy, Un-yoyega, Pgk, Vald, Blue520, Bomac, Jacek Kendysz, Davewild, Chairman S., Matthuxtable, KVDP, Px010, PJM, Cessator, Frymas-ter, ProveIt, Boris Barowski, Edgar181, Jwaycuilis, HalfShadow, SmartGuy Old, Perdita, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Ppn-tori, BirdValiant, JAn Dudík, Ajsh, Vercalos, Anwar saadat, Wigren, Chris the speller, Rampart, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets,Fuzzform, Fplay, MalafayaBot, Dustimagic, Kesahun, Da Vynci, Hallenrm, Oatmeal batman, A. B., Gracenotes, MaxSem, Gsp8181,Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jorvik, The Placebo Effect, JonHarder, Wikipedia brown, Xiner, Xyzzyplugh, Zvar,Chcknwnm, GVnayR, Khoikhoi, Mayooresan, NoIdeaNick, Blowup66, Downwards, Khukri, Edwtie, Nakon, Savidan, Jiddisch~enwiki,MichaelBillington, Nick125, SnappingTurtle, Dreadstar, Dacoutts, Wiki Fox, Richard001, ShaunES, Givenez, Celardore, Lcarscad, Wisco,Mtelewicz, Minority2005, DMacks, Wizardman, Ihatetoregister, Where, Pilotguy, Kukini, Cookie90, Sarfa, Gmags2003, Ztp912, Cheez-Napkin, EMan32x, Rockvee, Nishkid64, Rory096, Valfontis, Microbiojen, Kuru, JackLumber, RangerMoose, Buchanan-Hermit, 3Jane,Kipala, SilkTork, Retype password, Sage920, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Coredesat, Pronoun, Accurizer, JohnWittle, Vanisheduser v8n3489h3tkjnsdkq30u3f, Funkolicious, KenBest, SMasters, AdAdAdAd, 041744, Csari, CyrilB, Asid12, Mr Stephen, Rev-san,Zeldamaster3, Dicklyon, Jkskater4ever, Maksim L., Bdigital, Waggers, Johnmc, Damien Vryce, Dhp1080, Whomp, Ryulong, Zapvet,Jose77, Dodo bird, Ryanjunk, ShakingSpirit, Hu12, Levineps, Hetar, Nehrams2020, Seqsea, Iridescent, K, NEMT, Clarityfiend, Mor-ritt, Kernow, Keiji~enwiki, GEhEnNa x66, J Di, SweetNeo85, Az1568, AussieDingo83, Fdp, Tawkerbot2, MarylandArtLover, PhantasyPhanatik, MightyWarrior, Switchercat, JForget, RSido, Majalo, Ale jrb, Earthlyreason, Insanephantom, Joaoluis, Lil14artist, Dycedarg,Picaroon, Xous, Dgw, Gfrankson, DanielRigal, Pajast, Outriggr (2006-2009), MarsRover, Casper2k3, ONUnicorn, MrFish, HalJor,Steel, Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, Travelbird, Corpx, Mannyjr95, GordonE, Lugnuts, Daniel J. Leivick, Eu.stefan, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT,Chrislk02, Jaerik, Josef Serf, Elitelikethat, Omicronpersei8, JodyB, Blackjack48, Think8359, UberScienceNerd, Secondtalon, KemEl-brader, Sebasbronzini, Epbr123, Daa89563, Ph.D.Nikki, Btball, Pajz, Hamdrew, Ucanlookitup, Martin Hogbin, Andyjsmith, Tidus theBlitzStar, Give me a c, Louis Waweru, Valentina06, West Brom 4ever, John254, Tapir Terrific, Neil916, SGGH, SomeStranger, Pa-perTruths, James086, Adagio, Cool Blue, JustAGal, Dmitri Lytov, CharlotteWebb, Transhumanist, Sean William, Paluga, Escarbot, PieMan 360, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, 1011ski, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Varlet16, Tewy, Luna Santin, Opelio, Nicko123, AnAj, Billscottbob,Jayron32, Doc halidai, FirefoxRocks, RobJ1981, Dylan Lake, Glacierfairy, PhJ, Credema, Qwerty Binary, Dmerrill, CJoy555, Defordj,Figma, MASTERBEYTA41, Canadian-Bacon, Matani, Rowedahelicon, JAnDbot, Neurodistortion, HyperSushi21, MER-C, Janejellyroll,Fetchcomms, Hello32020, Andonic, Bob O'FLYNN, Hut 8.5, Hoxxy, Severo, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Connormah, Pedro, VoABot II,Khaled hosny, Dannyc77, Jstubblefield, Davidjk, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Mbc362, Feeeshboy, MadMaxOwnz, Froid, Mapetite526, Spar-rowsWing, Marcica, BrianGV, Kazao, Jimjamjak, Eiyuu Kou, Animum, Logictheo, David Eppstein, Alexllew, Lewisthemusician, Glen,DerHexer, JaGa, Wdflake, Stephen12345, Khalid Mahmood, Leeakelly70, Patstuart, SwedishPsycho, Pdowling, Gjd001, FUCKNESS,Jerem43, Pauly04, Hdt83, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Alex LaPointe, Elmoroxdahouse, Chanelle.adams, MiltonT, PrometheusA1,Naohiro19, Rettetast, Mike6271, Dorvaq, Wendy Larson, Mschel, Dr-Pepper, R'n'B, Averross, CommonsDelinker, Academicsrule, Jpcray-

6.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 41

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Irrc irri, Wbm1058, EvilResident, Northamerica1000,HIDECCHI001, Jahnavisatyan, DPBT1, NotWith, TejasDiscipulus2, Lieutenant of Melkor, 4Jays1034, BattyBot, Darorcilmir, Cyber-bot II, Havelock Jones, JYBot, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Dexbot, LM103, Mogism, PinkAmpersand, Aftabbanoori, Wajidkanju, WyeatesODI,CensoredScribe, Vicky6878, Geohutt1, Achmad Fahri, Divine618, Ali Zifan, Meteor sandwich yum, BethNaught, Qwertyxp2000, Esquiv-alience, Lluquis, Cyrej, Ujimix, Mousenight, KasparBot, MB298, Hmohamed240997, Strawkipedia and Anonymous: 989

• Food manufacturing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_manufacturing?oldid=679988709 Contributors: Kku, Quadell,Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Macademe, SmackBot, Jrockley, Edgar181, Lord Vader, Outriggr (2006-2009), Meredyth, Ed Word, R'n'B,Alexbot, Erik9bot, YouAndMeBabyAintNothingButCamels, Ramon FVelasquez, KLBot2, Northamerica1000 and Anonymous: 7

• Food processing Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_processing?oldid=687756591 Contributors: SimonP, Edward, Kku, Sebas-tianHelm, Ronz, Peregrine981, Giftlite, Bradeos Graphon, MSTCrow, Utcursch, Vanished user 1234567890, Icairns, Discospinster, Lu-vcraft, La goutte de pluie, TheProject, JYolkowski, Kurieeto, Velella, Evil Monkey, Sciurinæ, Lerdsuwa, LFaraone, Woohookitty, Blue-moose, Mandarax, Kbdank71, Vary, Bhadani, Oliver Chettle, Gurch, Simishag, Wavelength, Splintercellguy, DanMS, SpuriousQ, Roda-smith, DaMenace123, NawlinWiki, Jdsully8, Emersoni, Sandstein, Zzuuzz, Pb30, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot,Eskimbot, Thenickdude, Xaosflux, Gilliam, TRosenbaum, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, Deli nk, J. Spencer, Lyojah, Pretzels, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, Jwy, Funky Monkey, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Kukini, Gobonobo, Tktktk, Pjrm, Epimorph, JoeBot, RekishiEJ, Tawker-bot2, Vanisaac, Gveret Tered, Renophaston, CmdrObot, Page Up, Tex, Pais, Gogo Dodo, Bridgecross, Richhoncho, Mattisse, Thijs!bot,Cory Liu, Kubanczyk, GentlemanGhost, Al Lemos, Miller17CU94, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Extemporaneous, Wayiran,Kennard2, Nleamy, Myanw, Leuko, MER-C, LittleOldMe, Elmschrat, Jaysweet, Bongwarrior, Father Goose, Akbeancounter, J.delanoy,Rlsheehan, Meghangol, Whitebox, DarkFalls, Meparish, Funandtrvl, DSRH, Tomer T, ColinBoylett, Oxfordwang, Littlealien182, Eatabul-let, Seed of faith, Joshmcdad, Strangerer, Brianga, Deculpep, Bob98133, Alex.muller, Hordaland, Denisarona, Dlrohrer2003, ClueBot, PhilWaite, Snigbrook, Healthwise, Arakunem, Farras Octara, Mr Accountable, Aua, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Three-quarter-ten, Telekenesis, Tally-war, Morel, Code001, Thewellman, DumZiBoT, Gardenparty, XLinkBot, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, N4AEE, Vishnava, Koppas,Jhjlj, Tide rolls, Lightbot, PutmanWebEditor, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, AnomieBOT, HairyPerry, Dareid25, Nutriveg, ThaddeusB,Jim1138, Royote, Neptune5000, Piano non troppo, Law, Xqbot, Millahnna, Le Deluge, FrescoBot, Pawanexh Kohli, Pinethicket, Wk-con, Matvay, Tgv8925, TobeBot, Tendulkarprasad, YouAndMeBabyAintNothingButCamels, Diannaa, TheMesquito, Agent Smith (TheMatrix), NerdyScienceDude, Slon02, EmausBot, John of Reading, Immunize, Tommy2010, K6ka, Tanner Swett, AnotherGTO, AlphaQuadrant (alt), Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Ready, Donner60, Bill william compton, ChuispastonBot, HandsomeFella, Spicemix, ClueBot NG,Egg Centric, Schtick1964, CopperSquare, Widr, Gcorral, Franky222, Fugyoo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Duaconn, Northamerica1000, Floret-media, Mark Arsten, IMOTC, Santoshreddyganta, Zainulth, G1956w, BattyBot, DeSnutZ55, Vwalvekar, Induster, Frosty, SFK2, Corncheese, Epicgenius, Iggy tang, Mon3oturf, SoxNox, Stephanie Payne, Au166, Bobhambrick and Anonymous: 277

• Food technology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_technology?oldid=681608459 Contributors: Edward, Michael Hardy,Ixfd64, Altenmann, Bovlb, Gadfium, Eregli bob, Icairns, Joyous!, Dr.frog, Rich Farmbrough, Saintswithin, SquidInc, Sole Soul, Virid-itas, Alansohn, Interiot, Mendaliv, Koavf, Omnieiunium, Ageo020, RobertG, Michaelschmatz, Celestianpower, YurikBot, Lenx, RussBot,

42 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Closedmouth, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Bluebot, SchfiftyThree,ERobson, Hongooi, Worrydream, Drooling Sheep, DMacks, NongBot~enwiki, Childzy, Kvng, Fvasconcellos, James pic, KnightLago,Innomad, Synergy, JustAGal, Miller17CU94, Seaphoto, KP Botany, Spencer, TuvicBot, Leuko, VoABot II, Cpl Syx, Jim.henderson,J.delanoy, Rlsheehan, Uncle Dick, Athaenara, JFBurton, Jamesontai, Funandtrvl, Seryphiel, Nikthestunned, VolkovBot, Spedona, Knorre-poes~enwiki, StAnselm, Pkgx, Escape Orbit, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Curleyisanass, Blanchardb, Jersey emt, BlowToad,Lartoven, Jacksinterweb, Thingg, Apparition11, Addbot, Pinoy7TFC, Leszek Jańczuk, Cholin35, SpBot, Jhjlj, West.andrew.g, Lightbot,Ship ship99, Yobot, Bloody voltaire, Crecy99, Ulysses elias, Sionus, Sunpal mft, Booc1025, Crzer07, Farheavena, Smallman12q, Erik9,FrescoBot, HazzaW, Kingsean11, HamburgerRadio, Pinethicket, RedBot, Nash17, LogAntiLog, Kaggelos, Billybobfranklinthe5th, Emaus-Bot, Immunize, Souviksaha05, Sarah Miner, PoeticVerse, K6ka, ZéroBot, Wingman4l7, Erianna, Revistasenfasis, L Kensington, Petrb,ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Kevin Gorman, Ntsisios, BG19bot, Northamerica1000, Sadhana gannavarapu, AvocatoBot, EditriceZeus, DPBT1, Yasinft uaf, Santoshreddyganta, Aviegante, NotWith, Ascus~enwiki, Jenniferpereira, RscprinterBot, Muhammad ShuaibNadwi, ChrisGualtieri, LucyintheSkyyye, TwoTwoHello, Corn cheese, SortingExpert, Matty.007, Mon3oturf, JaconaFrere, KasparBotand Anonymous: 166

• Food preservation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_preservation?oldid=687382671 Contributors: Kpjas, Malcolm Farmer,Rmhermen, William Avery, Heron, Edward, Fred Bauder, Delirium, Ee79, Bluelion, Angela, Aarchiba, BOARshevik, David Thrale,Wik, Taxman, Robbot, Academic Challenger, Caknuck, Danceswithzerglings, SaltyPig, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, Wayland, Ryanrs, Pretzel-paws, BenFrantzDale, Popup~enwiki, Tom harrison, Lupin, Zigger, Leflyman, Everyking, Eequor, Foobar, KitSolidor, PenguiN42, Mu,Quadell, Antandrus, Onco p53, Vina, Wikster E, Halo, Tsemii, Quasistoic, Joyous!, Bbpen, Dcandeto, D6, Discospinster, Cacycle, Vsmith,Paul August, Andrejj, CanisRufus, Sietse Snel, Aaronbrick, Stesmo, Johnkarp, Smalljim, Viriditas, Ildefonse, Reuben, Jxn, Nsaa, Jum-buck, Wendell, Alansohn, Gary, 119, Sjschen, Goldom, Kurieeto, Walkerma, Sponge, Velella, Rappo~enwiki, Lev lafayette, DV8 2XL,BerserkerBen, Brycen, Stemonitis, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Pekinensis, Firsfron, SunTzu2, Ylem, 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28bot,Cgt, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, JohnsonL623, Muon, O.Koslowski, Wikidamion, Kathleen Nire, Widr, Karaw~enwiki, Help-ful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, BG19bot, Bnkhcc, Northamerica1000, ISTB351, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Crystalraen, Yowanvista, Joydeep,Steggets, Toccata quarta, Gallagher783, Professer Edward2017, Vincent.fiestada, Riley Huntley, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, Zhaofeng Li,Shrey01, ChrisGualtieri, Ngoquangduong, Mediran, MadGuy7023, Simion kipkorir, The Peaceful Punk, Mrs;nzyioki, Lugia2453, Frosty,Jamesx12345, Cadillac000, Pickleman099, Lolipops12345, Faizan, Zachcaye2, Epicgenius, AshFR, Lsmll, Tentinator, AnthonyJ Lock,Babitaarora, Ginsuloft, Jianhui67, AddWittyNameHere, Brainiacal, UY Scuti, OccultZone, Njol, JaconaFrere, Filedelinkerbot, Vieque,SantiLak, Sherry stokes, Tunjavoo, Nikhilrajgaya, Sam Hnri, Julietdeltalima, Zombiekiller2014, Sarr Cat, Etobnmntjog, ToonLucas22,Reru florenda, KyleCMSmith, Computerbone, Storage one, Mark.deboevere, Jeyaram06, 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6.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 43

ing, Myfoodsafety, Huggi, Dabomb87, Cheshyre, Denisarona, Dmannsanco, Tatterfly, Elassint, ClueBot, Rayyung, Healthwise, Dpmuk,Der Golem, Mosatin, Doseiai2, AirdishStraus, Jed Bartlet, BlowToad, Excirial, Ouedbirdwatcher, Qwfp, Johnuniq, MasterOfHisOwnDo-main, DumZiBoT, Gardenparty, Delicious carbuncle, Jytdog, Dthomsen8, Skarebo, Noctibus, Addbot, Foodsafetytrainer, Chamal N, Jhjlj,Loupeter, Jarble, Yobot, Themfromspace, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Urishab, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Wtachi, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift,Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Rogerfrank~enwiki, Thorntst, Jü, AbigailAbernathy, Agricmarketing, RibotBOT, FrescoBot,UKPA, Aeamich, Roundtheworld, C.lowther, Allstrak, Cityboyleisure, Srisez, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Pear princess123, Elockid,RedBot, Mathiaseu, Agemoi, Cossaxx, Matvay, Outsiders111, Dmtuckwell, Phau 0010, Sos jim, Terryfirma, FarhanJaffry, Kristin Ek-ert, Sirkablaam, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Bhawani Gautam, Ericwag, EmausBot, Acather96, MrFawwaz, Zollerriia, Dewritech, Solarra,Tommy2010, ZéroBot, JennJifsan, Erianna, Tesfaye2010, Donner60, Scientific29, HACCPTraining, Aa93717, Ogrenci Germany, Clue-Bot NG, Jack Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, Bnygren40, Snotbot, Widr, MerlIwBot, Mel7828, Calabe1992, Verdrawn, BendelacBOT,Northamerica1000, Mark Arsten, OttawaAC, Bonjovi178, NotWith, Rajrman, Minsbot, Shisha-Tom, Pratyya Ghosh, The Illusive Man,Rexmaxrex, Tarakihi, Elevateseb, Robdog183, Castriel, AutomaticStrikeout, Jaiden2021, Frosty, Jamesx12345, I am One of Many,JakeWi, SortingExpert, AnthonyJ Lock, Cosmic Censor, IndustrialAutomationGuru, AnthonyW90, Routingnumber, Monkbot, Sarah-wilmcow, Dodostrez, PeppyPistachio, Lesleyd34, Composcompos12 and Anonymous: 269

6.10.2 Images• File:03_Ban_Bang_Krathum_Bananas.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/03_Ban_Bang_Krathum_

Bananas.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kborland• File:2005food_import.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/2005food_import.png License: Public do-

main Contributors: english wikipedia Original artist: en:User:Anwar saadat• File:2007feb-sushi-odaiba-manytypes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/

2007feb-sushi-odaiba-manytypes.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nesnad• File:Allyn_House_restaurant_menu_(March_5,_1859).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/

Allyn_House_restaurant_menu_%28March_5%2C_1859%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://digital.lib.uh.edu/u?/p15195coll34,117 Original artist: Hospitality Industry Archives

• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs)

• File:Annual_real_food_price_indices.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Annual_real_food_price_indices.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nigelj

• File:Apple_bitten.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Apple_bitten.svg License: CC0Contributors: http://openclipart.org/clipart//food/apple_bitten_dan_gerhard_01.svg Original artist: Dan Gerhards

• File:Ardrossan_grain_silos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Ardrossan_grain_silos.jpg License: CCBY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fairv8

• File:Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Carson_Fall_Mt_Kinabalu.jpgLi-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sze Sze SOO

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

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• File:Erbswurst-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Erbswurst-1.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0Contrib-utors: User:Rainer Zenz Original artist: User:Rainer Zenz

• File:FAO_kcal_his.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/FAO_kcal_his.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: Masaqui

• File:Factory.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Factory.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-made, taken from Image:1 9 2 9.svg Original artist: Howard Cheng

• File:Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Factory_Automation_Robotics_Palettizing_Bread.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: KUKA Roboter GmbH, Zugspitzstraße 140, D-86165Augsburg, Germany, Dep. Marketing, Mr. Andreas Bauer, http://www.kuka-robotics.com Original artist: KUKA Roboter GmbH, Bach-mann

• File:Floris_Claesz._van_Dyck_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Floris_Claesz._van_Dyck_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Floris van Dyck (circa 1575–1651)

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Food_Safety_1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Food_Safety_1.svg License: GPL Contribu-tors: Image:Gnome-applications-science.svg; Image:Gnome-appointment-soon.svg; Image:Gnome-dialog-warning.svg Original artist:GNOME icon artists; Pbroks13 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Pbroks13' title='User talk:Pbroks13'>talk</a>)

• File:Food_consumption.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Food_consumption.gif License: CC BY 3.0Contributors: Own work, Data from Atlas of World History, ISBN 9780195219210 Original artist: Interchange88

• File:Food_packages_(1).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Food_packages_%281%29.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: en:File:Packages.jpg Original artist: en:User:Rlsheehan

• File:Food_tech_room_Marling.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Food_tech_room_Marling.JPGLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

44 CHAPTER 6. FOOD SAFETY

• File:Foodlogo2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Foodlogo2.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: Original Original artist: Seahen

• File:Foods_(cropped).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Foods_%28cropped%29.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: This image was released by the Agricultural Research Service, the research agency of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture, with the ID K3839-3 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Media_created_by_the_United_States_Agricultural_Research_Service_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=K3839-3#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>. Original artist: Keith Weller, USDA ARS

• File:Fredmeyer_edit_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Fredmeyer_edit_1.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/lyza/49545547 Original artist: Original: lyzadangerDerivative work: Diliff

• File:Goblet_Glass_(Banquet).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Goblet_Glass_%28Banquet%29.svgLicense: CC0Contributors: OwnworkOriginal artist: This image is an original work by "WillMurray (Willscrlt)". Attribution is requested,but not required. It should include the author’s name, his username in parentheses as shown, and a link to either his Website at http://willmurray.name or his online gallery at http://willmurraymedia.com. The author also appreciates notification if you use his work outsideWikimedia.

• File:Good_Food_Display_-_NCI_Visuals_Online.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Good_Food_Display_-_NCI_Visuals_Online.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image was released by the National Cancer Institute, anagency part of the National Institutes of Health, with the ID 2397 (image) <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Media_from_National_Cancer_Institute_Visuals_Online_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,filefrom=2397#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>. Original artist: Unknown

• File:GrainProducts.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/GrainProducts.jpg License: Public domain Con-tributors: United States Department of Agriculture Original artist: Scott Bauer

• File:HACCP_Seven_Principles.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2a/HACCP_Seven_Principles.png License:CC-BY-SA-2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:LG_refrigerator_interior.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/LG_refrigerator_interior.jpg Li-cense: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: Milad Mosapoor

• File:Liofilizat_04_pl.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Liofilizat_04_pl.jpg License: GFDL Contrib-utors: Own work Original artist: Pleple2000

• File:Mcdonalds_Restaurant_Riyadh.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Mcdonalds_Restaurant_Riyadh.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: haitham alfalah

• File:Meat_packages_in_a_Roman_supermarket.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Meat_packages_in_a_Roman_supermarket.jpg License: CC BY-SA Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Mattes

• File:Meatfoodgroup.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Meatfoodgroup.jpg License: Public domainContributors: from File:FoodMeat.jpg, [1] Original artist: User:FriedC

• File:Nisin_1WCO.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Nisin_1WCO.png License: Public domain Con-tributors: adapted from http://www.pdb.org/pdb/files/1wco.pdb using PyMOL Original artist: own work

• File:Octopus_rice_crackers_factory_No,2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Octopus_rice_crackers_factory_No%2C2.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mti

• File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart

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• File:Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Piles_of_Salt_Salar_de_Uyuni_Bolivia_Luca_Galuzzi_2006_a.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Photo taken by (LucaGaluzzi) * http://www.galuzzi.it Original artist: Luca Galuzzi (Lucag), edit by Trialsanderrors

• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?

• File:Potted_Meat_Food_Product.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Potted_Meat_Food_Product.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Potted Meat Food Product Original artist: Tim Boyd

• File:Prague_powder_No_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Prague_powder_No_1.jpg License: CCBY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/22198928@N00/3622370290/ Original artist: thebittenword.com

• File:PreservedFood1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/PreservedFood1.jpg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Processed_seafood.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Processed_seafood.jpg License: CC BY2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Steamboat processed food close up Original artist: Wee Keat Chin

• File:Production_of_cheese_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Production_of_cheese_1.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Originalartist: No machine-readable author provided. MatthiasKabel assumed (based on copyright claims).

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

• File:Saccharose2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Saccharose2.svg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Own work Original artist: NEUROtiker

6.10. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 45

• File:SalmonellaNIAID.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Schinken5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Schinken5.jpg License: Attribution Contributors:Transferred from de.wikipedia to Commons by Matthias_M. using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Oratorat German Wikipedia

• File:Seawifs_global_biosphere_2002.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Seawifs_global_biosphere_2002.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view_rec.php?id=3435 Original artist: Yikrazuul

• File:Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors:(This image was originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here.Original artist: John Snow

• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CCBY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil

• File:Telecom-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Terrine_de_saumon_au_basilic.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Terrine_de_saumon_au_basilic.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DocteurCosmos

• File:Tom’{}s_Restaurant,_NYC.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Tom%27s_Restaurant%2C_NYC.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: by Rick Dikeman Original artist: Rick Dikeman (en:User:Rdikeman)

• File:TraditionalAsado.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/TraditionalAsado.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Hadriann at English Wikipedia

• File:USDA_MyPlate_green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/USDA_MyPlate_green.svg License:Public domain Contributors: MyPlate Graphic Resources (converted from PDF) Original artist: United States Department of Agriculture

• File:Ueberladewagen_(jha).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Ueberladewagen_%28jha%29.jpg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 2.0 de Contributors: Original Ueberladewagen.jpg: Own work (Hinrich) Original artist: Hinrich

• File:Veranotrigo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Veranotrigo.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:http://www.flickr.com/photos/soilscience/2513807337/ Original artist: Soil-Science.info

• File:Wakefield,_Nebraska_Michael_Foods_plant.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wakefield%2C_Nebraska_Michael_Foods_plant.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ammodramus

• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.

• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domainContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau

• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw

• File:Wok_cooking_and_the_heat_source_by_The_Pocket_in_Nanjing.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Wok_cooking_and_the_heat_source_by_The_Pocket_in_Nanjing.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Originalartist: The Pocket from Nanjin, China

• File:Women_working_in_a_cannery.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Women_working_in_a_cannery.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Women working in a cannery Original artist: PhotographicCollection

6.10.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0