folio biology a+
TRANSCRIPT
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-MoVeMeNt oF-
-SuBsTaNcEs-
-ThRoUgH pLaSmA-
-MeMbRaNe-
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-MiNd MaP-
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-SiMpLe DiFUs!oN-
-P"asma Memb#a$e-
A semi-pe#meab"e ce""
memb#a$e that a""o%s
%ate# a$d ce#tai$
substa$ces to mo&e i$
a$d out o the ce""
The ce""s ca$ obtai$
$ut#ie$ts a$d gases'
The ce""s $eed to
e(c#ete metabo"ic
%astes'
The t)pes a$d the
amou$t o
substa$ces ca$ be
co$t#o""ed'
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oMolecules move randomly from a region of higher concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
oMolecules have kinetic energy and collide with each other.
oDiffusion will occur until a dynamic equilibrium is reached, that is the
concentration is the same in all regions.
oExample: Diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide
-Ac!"!tAtEd DiFUs!oN-
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ohe transport of molecules across the outer membrane of living cell
by a process that involves carrier protein or channel protein within
the cell membrane.
o!ubstances such as glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids
pass through the membrane by facilitated diffusion.
oExample: "bsorption of digested food in the villus
-*sMoSiS-
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o#smosis is the passage of water molecules from a dilute solution to a
more concentrated solution across a semi$permeable membrane.
o%ater continues to pass through the semi$permeable membrane until
the solute concentration is the same in both regions.
oExample: "bsorption of water by root hairs through osmosis process
-AcTiVe T#A$Sp*#T-
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o&eeds carrier proteins and energy.
o"gainst concentration gradient.
o'arrier molecules in and out of a cell.
oExamples: (ons intake by root hairs of a plant
-DiFE#E$+es-
-aPpLi+aTi*$ iN eVeR)Da, LiFe-
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Isotonic
Animal Cell RED BLOODCELL)Water diffuses into and out of the
cell at equal rates.
The cell retains its normal size and
shape.
Plant Cell epidermiscell)The flow of water intoand out of the
cell is balanced.
Cell does not change shape or size
Vacuole maintains the normal size.
Hypotonic
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-+oNcE$T#At!oN #Ad!eNt-
Animal Cell red bloodcell)Water enters the cell by osmosisThe cell expands and burst
Haemolysis takes place
Plant Cell epidermiscell)Water diffuses into the acuole byosmosis
Vacuole expand and swell upThe cell does not burst because of
the rigid cell wall
The cell becomes turgid
The swelling of a plant cell createsturgor pressure within the cell.
Turgor pressure is important to
plant cells in supporting andmaintaining the shape of the cells
Hypertonic
Animal Cell red bloodcell)Water leaes the cell by osmosis
The cell shrinks upCrenation takes place
Plant Cell epidermiscell)Water diffuses out of acuole by
osmosisVacuole and cytoplasm shrink
!lasma membrane pulls away from
the cell wallThe cell becomes flaccid
The process is called plasmolysis
" plasmolysed plant cell canbecome turgid again by immersingthe cell in a hypotonic solution
The cell hae undergone
deplasmolysis
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-+#E$At!oN-
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o 'renation is the contraction or formation of abnormal nokta
around the edges of the cells after inserted into hypertonic
solution.
o 'renation occurs because of hypertonic environment )the cellhas a solution with a lower concentration than the solutionaround the outside of the cells*, osmosis)diffusion of water*
causing movement of water out of cells, causing reduced
cytoplasmic volume. "s a result, the cells shrink.o !ame process that occurs in plant cell plasmolysis which is also
shrinking due to put in a hypertonic solution
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-eN.,mEs-
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E&+ME!
'haracteristics
Biological catalyststhat accelerate therate of biochemical
reactions
"ll en-ymes areproteins.
&eeded in smallquantities.
!peed upbiochemical
reactions.
'atalyse specificreactions.
Re/ui#e coacto#s to
u$ctio$ optimum")'
Catalyse both the
forward and reversedirections of specific
metabolic reactions.
"ctivities sloweddown by inhibitors.
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-ThE 0Lo+1 aNd 1E)2 h,p*tHeSiS oF E$3)Me AcTi*$-
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-Fa+t*#S AFe+t!$ E$3)Me AcTiViT)-
p
$/ow p )acidic*$
En-yme$substratecomplex does not
form
-igh p )alkaline*$
En-yme$substratecomplex does not
form
!uitable p )&ormal*
En-yme$substratecomplex forms
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EM0E1"21E
/ow emperature$En-yme catalysedreaction is slow.
$he movement ofsubstrate molecules
isinactive.
igh emperature
$1eaction stops.$3ecause the
chemical bonds thathold molecules will
break at high
temperature.
#ptimum$Maximum reaction
$'auses rapidmovement and
collision betweenthe substrate and
en-yme.
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E&+ME'#&'E&1"(#&
(f the concentration ofan en-yme increases,
more en-ymes areavailable.
he en-yme$catalysed
reaction will increase ifthere is more substrate
supplied.
"t low en-ymeconcentration, the
en-yme catalysedreaction is slow.
his is because moreactive sites are available.
(f the substrates are
catalysed totally byen-ymes, the reaction
will stop.
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!23!1"E'#&'E&1"(#&
"t 4.56 en-ymeconcentration
"t 4.76 en-ymeconcentration
More substrates will collide
with the en-yme.
he high concentration ofsubstrates will raise the
reaction to maximum rateuntil not enough en-yme
supply.
%hen the substrate
concentration increases, theen-ymes$catalysed reactionincreases.
he concentration of en-yme
becomes limiting factor to theconcentration of substrate.
1eaction of 4.76 en-ymeconcentration is lower than
4.56 en-yme concentration.
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-gRaPh-
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-tHe UsEs oF eN.,mEs-
(ndustry 2ses
8ish and Meat
(ndustry
0rotease
$1emoval of fish skin.
$Meat tenderi-ation.
Dairy (ndustry 1ennin
$Milk protein coagulant in cheese production.
/ipase
$2sed in cheese ripening.
/actase
$9ives lactose$free milk products through hydrolysis
of lactose.
3aking (ndustry "mylase
$3reaks down starch into maltose.
0rotease
$3reaks down and decrease proteins in biscuit
manufacture.
9lucose #xidase
$Maintains dough stability.
3rewing
(ndustry
"mylase
$3reaks down starch into glucose.
0rotease
$3reaks down protein into amino acids.
'ellulose
$0revents cloudiness during the storage of beers.
Bio"ogica"
Dete#ge$ts
P#otease4 Lipase a$d Am)"ase
-Remo&a" o o#ga$ic stai$s a$d #esista$t sta#ch #esidues'extile (ndustry "mylase
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$1emoval of starch that is applied to threads of
fabrics to prevent damage.
/eather anning
(ndustry
0rotease
$1emoval of hairs from animal hides and softens
leather.
0aper (ndustry "mylase and /igninase
$0roduce smoother paper by filling in the gaps
between fibres with partial breakdown of starch.
$1emove lignins from pulp.
0rocessing 8ood rypsin and "mylase
$o pre$digest a few baby foods and convert starch
to glucose syrup.Medical "nalysis rypsin
$1emoves blood clots and cleans the wound.
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-+eLL d!&!s!oN-
-+eLL c,cLe-
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-MiToSiS-
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-Me!oSis-
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-MiToSiS-
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'#(&E!(!
$Meaning$he process of
cytoplasm divisionin a parent cell to
form two daughtercells at the end of
mitosis.
'ytokinesis willstart before
nuclear division is
completed.
he organelles and
other contents ofthe parent cell will
distribute betweentwo daughter cells.
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-+)To5iNeSiS !$ A$ aNiMaL +eLL-
-c,t*1!$Es!s iN pLaNt +eLL-
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-TeT#Ad +hRoMoSoMe-
-BiVaLeNt +hRoMoSoMe-
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-cLoNi$ * aNiMaLs-
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-+oMpA#!s*$ BeT%EeN MiToSis aNd Me!oSis-
Mitosis Similarities Meosis
;. " cell division process
5. &uclear division happenMitosis Difference
Aspects/ItemsMeiosis
!omatic cells Place of occurrence 9onadic cells
0roduce cells for growthand tissue repair
Role 0roduce gamete
#ne Number of divisions wo
Does not occur Synapsis ofhomologue
chromosomes
#ccurs during 0rophaseof Meiosis 7 to form
tetrads
Does not occur rossing over
!hiasma formation"
#ccurs during 0rophase
of Meiosis 7wo Number of daughter
cells formed at theend of division
8our
Diploid)5n*, samenumber of
chromosomes in parentcell
Number ofchromosomes in
daughter cell
aploid)n*, half thenumber of
chromosomes of theparent cell
(dentical to parent cell #enetic compositionin daughter cell
&on identical to theparent cell and to each
other
&o variation produced #enetic $ariation 0roduces geneticvariation
1emain5n
5n
5n
Ploidy %evel 1educe n n
n
5n n n
n
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-$UtRiTi*$-
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-BaLaNcEd DiEt-
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-ThE HuMaN DieSt!&E S)StEm-
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-Fo*d DieSt!oN-
!ite of
digestion
Digestive
$
=.?
starch@water maltose
!tomach 9astric
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-DieSt!oN oF +eL"uLoSe !$ RoDeNtS-
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-AbSoRpTi*$ aNd AsSiMiLaTi*$ oF NuT#!eNtS-
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9/2'#!E "M( "'(D! 8" "'(D!,
9/'E1#/, C("M(&!
",D,E,
o "bsorbed into blood
capillaries,
transported to liver
via hepatic portal
vein.
o 2sed for cellular
respiration.
oExcess converted
into glycogen and
stored in liver.
o (n cell, used for
cellular respiration.
o "bsorbed into blood
capillaries,
transported to liver
via hepatic portal
vein.
o 2sed in the
synthesis of plasma
membrane.
o Excess is
delaminated, and
urea excreted.
o (n cell, used to
make en-ymes and
hormones.
o "bsorbed into
lacteal, transported
in the bloodstream
to body cells.
o Ma
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&'P(S )*
N+&RI&I)N
A+&)&R)P,I,(&(R)&R)P,I
P,)&)S'N&,(&I(-AP%( &R((
,()S'N&,(&I
(-AP%(BA&(RIA
,)%)0)I SAPR)P,'&I(-AP%( *+N#I
PARASI&I
(-AP%(RA**%(SIA
,(RBI$)R)+S
ARNI$)+R)+S
)NI$)+R)+S
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-Ph*t*s,$ThEs!s-
-LeA StRu+tU#E-
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-FuNcTi*$-
0arts 8unctions
2pper
Epidermis
$0revents loss of water.
$0rotects the underlying cells from in
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External 8eatures:
o he wide, flat and thin lamina provides a large surface area for the
maximum absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
o he leaf is positioned at right angle to sunlight and arranged in amosaic pattern to absorb maximum sunlight.
o 2pper epidermis is translucent to allow sunlight to pass through it
easily.
(nternal 8eatures:
o 0alisade Mesophyll cells contain a lot of chloroplasts and closely
packed for maximum absorption of sunlight.
o ylem and phloem are long and continuous tubes that can transport
water and products of photosynthesis efficiently.
o !pongy Mesophyll cells are arranged loosely for diffusion of carbon
dioxide and oxygen between the leaf and environment.
o Many stomata at lower epidermis to allow the exchange of gases
-DaR1 A$D LihT ReAcTi*$-
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-DiFE#E$+eS bEt6eE$ LihT ReAcTi*$ aNd DaR1 ReAcTi*$-
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/ight 1eaction Differences Dark 1eaction
0hotolysis reaction
which requires light
energy
ype of reaction 3iochemical reaction
which does not
require light energy
9rana of chloroplast /ocation of process !troma of chloroplasts0hotolysis of water 0rocess involved 1eduction of carbon
dioxide
%ater and sunlight 1aw materials
required
'arbon dioxide,
hydrogen ions,
electron, "0 and
&"D0
8orms "0 Energy 2ses "0
es "bsorption of light &o(n the presence of
light only
ime of occurring "fter the light reaction
0roduces water and
oxygen
0roduct output 0roduces glucose and
water
-Fa+t*#S AFe+t!$ Ph*t*S)NtHeSiS-
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-Te+hNoLoi+aL DeVeLoPmE$T iN Fo*d P#*cEsSiNg-
0rocessing Methods 0rinciples
'ooking o igh temperature can kill the
microorganisms in the food which
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can cause food spoilage.
0ickling with sugar, salt and
vinegar
o Makes the food becomes
hypertonic causing microorganisms
to lose water by osmosis and die of
dehydration.
o "cetic acid of vinegar )low p* can
kill the microorganisms.
2ltra eat reatment)2* o ugh temperature will kill all the
bacteria and their spores in the
food.
0asteurisation o igh temperature will kill most of
the bacteria )except lactic acid and
bacteria* and maintain the taste of
milk.
o 0asteurisation can preserve the
nutrients and taste of milk.
Drying o 'ausing dehydration in food so that
the microorganisms cannot survive.
o %ithout water, microorganisms will
be killed or become spores which
are inactive.
8ermentation o 8ermentation produces ethanol
which will kill the microorganisms.
o %ater will be absorbed by the
concentrated ethanol from food
and microorganisms through
osmosis.
'anning o igh temperature kills the
microorganisms.
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o he vacuum created in the sealed
can may prevent the food in the
can from contamination.
1efrigeration o 'old storage causes
microorganisms become inactive
and keeps the food fresh.
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-ReSp!#At!oN-
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0E #8
1E!0(1"(#&0E #8
1E!0(1"(#&
"E1#3('(s the breakdown of
glucose in the presenceof oxygen with the
release of a largeamount of chemical
energy.
"E1#3('(s the breakdown of
glucose in the presence
of oxygen with therelease of a large
amount of chemicalenergy.
"&"E1#3('(s the breakdown of
glucose in the absence
of oxygen with therelease of a smallamount of chemical
energy.
"&"E1#3('(s the breakdown of
glucose in the absence
of oxygen with therelease of a smallamount of chemical
energy.
'omplete oxidation of
glucose in the presenceof oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, water andenergy.
'omplete oxidation of
glucose in the presenceof oxygen to form carbon
dioxide, water andenergy.
>? molecules "0 areproduced.
5?? kF energy is released.#ccurs in the mitochondria.
>? molecules "0 areproduced.
5?? kF energy is released.#ccurs in the mitochondria.
(ncomplete oxidation ofglucose in the absence of
oxygen to form lactic acidand energy )in muscle
cells* or ethanol, carbondioxide and energy )in
yeast*.
(ncomplete oxidation ofglucose in the absence of
oxygen to form lactic acidand energy )in muscle
cells* or ethanol, carbondioxide and energy )in
yeast*.
5 molecules of "0 areproduced.
574 kF energy is released)during fermentation* and
7A4kF )during anaerobicrespiration in the muscle
cells*.
5 molecules of "0 areproduced.
574 kF energy is released)during fermentation* and
7A4kF )during anaerobicrespiration in the muscle
cells*.
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-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-
-+hEm!cA" E/UaTi*$ FoR AeRoBi+ ReSp!#At!oN-
C6H
12O
6 + 6O
2 6CO
2 + 6H
2O +
Energy (ATP molecules)
C6H12O6 2C3O6O3 + Energy (150
kJ or 2 ATP)
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-FeRmE$TaTi*$-
-E/UaTi*$ !$VoL&Ed-
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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es iN P#*t*.*a-
o he proto-oa, for example 0aramecium and "moeba are unicellular
organisms.
o hese inactive small organisms have no respiratory structure.
o he whole external surface of these organisms acts as an efficient
respiratory surface.
o #xygen diffuses into the cell and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
cell through the plasma membrane down the concentration
gradient.
o "s the external surface of these organisms is fully permeable to thegases, these organisms have a large surface area to volume ratio.
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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#Es !$ !$Se+t-
o he muscles in the abdomen contract and relax to force air in and
out of the trachea rhythmically.
o his is because the volume and the pressure in the abdomen are
different.
o During (nhalation:
$he abdominal muscles relax.
$he valves of spiracles open.
$0ressure in trachea decrease.
$"ir goes into the body of insect.
o During exhalation:
$he abdominal muscles contract.
$he valves of spiracles close.
$0ressure in trachea increases.
$"ir goes out from the body of insect.
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-ReSp!#At*#, StRu+tU#E !$ AmPh!b!aNs-
'oetaneous 1espirationo Main supply of oxygen for amphibians.
o "s its skin is thin, permeable, moisted and well supplied with
blood capillaries, oxygen dissolves into the blood capillaries.
3uckle 1espiration
o "s the buckle cavity and the pharynx are covered with a thin
epithelium, the diffusion of gases is easier.
o Centilation of the buckle cavity influences the air pressure in the
buckle cavity and influences the breathing mechanism.
0ulmonary 1espiration
o 0ulmonary respiration is carried out when cutaneous respiration
and buckle respiration do not supply enough oxygen.
o Each frog has a pair of lungs which are moist and has a network
of blood capillaries on tiny alveolus.
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-ThE HuMaN ReSp!#At*#, S)StEm-
-!$HaLaTi*$ 7 E(HaLaTi*$-
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(nhalation "spects Exhalation
'ontracts External intercostals
muscle
1elaxes
1elaxes (nternal intercostals
muscle
'ontracts
2p and towards Movement of rib cage Down and inwards
'ontracts "ction of diaphragm 1elaxes
(ncreases Colume of thoracic
cavity
Decreases
/ow "ir pressure of
thoracic cavity
igh
(nhaled into the lungs 8low of air Exhaled from thelungs
/ow (nternal air pressure igh
igh External air pressure /ow
8lattens !hape of diaphragm 'urves upwards
-aSe*uS E(+hA$e !$ ThE A"Ve*LuS-
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-aSe*uS E(+hA$e-
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-ReSp!#At!oN !$ pLaNt-
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-E$DaNgE#Ed Ec*s,sTeM-
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-6aTeR p*"LuTioN-
Biologicalagents
$0olluted by bacteria, proto-oa, virus$'holera)bacteria Cibrio*, epatitis ")virus*
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hemicalfertili1ers
$0olluted by phosphates, nitrates$'aused by e2cessiveuse of chemicalfertili-ers$Encourage excessive growth of aquatic
plant
hemicalto2ins
$0olluted by 7.(norganic toxic )'u, 'r, +netc.* 5.#rganic toxic )pesticides*$'ause cancer and gene mutation, bodyorgans damage
Physicalagents
$0olluted by discharge of grease and oil,solid sediments$0revent sunlight and oxygen from
penetrate through waterRadioactive3aste
$contaminate waterways
-EuT#*pH+aTi*$-
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" process where a body of water )e.g. pond or lake*
becomes rich in dissolved nutrients )phosphates or
nitrates* either naturally or due to the human activity.
he organic and inorganic wastes that enter a river or lakeenrich the water nutrients.
0hotosynthesi-ing organisms particularly algae growrapidly.
his result in population explosion known as algal bloom.
igh density of algae reduces light intensity to penetratethrough water.
his lead to the death of other photosynthetic organisms.
he decompositionof these dead organisms by bacteriacausing severe depletion of water dissolved oxygen.
his causing the death of other aerobic organisms such asfish, prawns etc.
-Bi*"*gi+aL o8)eN DeMaNd 9BoD:-
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he total amount of oxygen used by microorganisms
such as bacteria and fungi which decompose organic
matter in such sample water.
he lo3erthe 3#D value, the higherthe amount ofoxygen dissolved in the water, vice versa.
-LeVeL oF 6aTeR p*""Uti*$-
#$%
The presences of organic
materials in water increase
the growth of
microorganisms.
&ncrease of the #$% alue.
The dissoled oxygen in
water decreases.The life of the liingorganisms is affected and in
danger.
'(
) *
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+xamples of waste materials and
pollution. Heay metal
,oils
,ediments
+xcessie fertilizer
Effects
-!ollution increase BODof
rier.
-ots of bacterial activities
decomposing the organic
waste materials that present.
-,olid sediments will clog up
the rier flow.
-/iers become shallow.
-Flash floodswill happen
when it is raining heaily.
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Se5oLaH MeNeNgAh Sa!$STuA$5u S)Ed PuT#A
;
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