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A Child’s World:A Child’s World:How We Discover How We Discover ItIt

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Little Miss Sunshine (2006)

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1. The purpose of theory in understanding child development1. The purpose of theory in understanding child development

2. Basic theoretical issues on which developmental scientists 2. Basic theoretical issues on which developmental scientists

differdiffer

3. Five theoretical perspectives on child development3. Five theoretical perspectives on child development

4. 4. Research methods used to study children’s Research methods used to study children’s

developmentdevelopment

5. Ethical problems that might arise in research on children.5. Ethical problems that might arise in research on children.

Chapter main pointsChapter main points

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What purposes do theories What purposes do theories serve?serve?

Theory:Theory: set of logically related concepts seeking to set of logically related concepts seeking to

describe or explain development and predict future describe or explain development and predict future

behaviorsbehaviors

A valid theory:A valid theory: Is sensible and consistent.Is sensible and consistent. Organizes, integrates, and makes sense of a body of research Organizes, integrates, and makes sense of a body of research

findings.findings. Must be testable.Must be testable.

Hypotheses:Hypotheses: tentative explanations or predictions that can be tentative explanations or predictions that can be

tested by researchtested by research

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Basic Theoretical Basic Theoretical IssuesIssues

Issue 1: Issue 1: How Do Heredity and How Do Heredity and Environment Affect Development?Environment Affect Development?

Issue 2: Issue 2: Are Children Active or Are Children Active or Passive in Their Development?Passive in Their Development?

Issue 3: Issue 3: Is Development Continuous, or Is Development Continuous, or Does It Occur in Stages?Does It Occur in Stages?

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An emerging consensus of An emerging consensus of theory of child developmenttheory of child development

An Emerging ConsensusAn Emerging Consensus Developmentalists are coming to a more balanced Developmentalists are coming to a more balanced

view of active versus passive developmentview of active versus passive development

Influence is bidirectional: children change their Influence is bidirectional: children change their world even as it changes themworld even as it changes them

Development as a combination of the 3 types of Development as a combination of the 3 types of theoretical issues. theoretical issues.

E.g., innate temperament will affect the envirornmental E.g., innate temperament will affect the envirornmental reaction helping to advance the child through reaction helping to advance the child through psychosocial stagespsychosocial stages

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Perspective Important Theories

Psychoanalytic

Freud’s psychosexual theory, Erikson’s psychosocial theory

Learning Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson),Bandura’s social-learning theory

Cognitive Piaget’s cognitive-stage theory,Information-processing theory

Evolutionary/ Sociobiological

Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s attachment theory

Contextual Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Five Perspectives on Human Development

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Theoretical Perspectives: Theoretical Perspectives: Psychoanalytic (Freud and Erikson)Psychoanalytic (Freud and Erikson)

Freud: Psychosexual development in five stages Fixation occurs when children receive too little or too

much gratification in any of these stages Three parts to personality: id, ego, and superego

Id: Pleasure Principle--demands immediate satisfaction

Ego: Reality Principle--can delay gratification Superego: development of conscience

Erikson: modified Freud’s theory to emphasize social influences on development

Psychosocial development occurs in eight stages across the life span

Each stage requires balance of positive trait vs. corresponding negative one through the resolution of conflict

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Theoretical Perspectives: Theoretical Perspectives: Learning (Behaviorism, Social Learning (Behaviorism, Social

Learning)Learning) Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov and Watson Association of an unconditioned stimulus, (meat) with a

neutral stimulus (bell) to form a conditioned response (salivation)

Operant Conditioning: Skinner Reinforced behaviors tend to be repeated Punished behaviors tend to be decreased

Social Learning (Social-Cognitive) Theory Albert Bandura: observational learning People learn from imitating others: modeling or observational

learning Imitation is involved in learning language, dealing with

aggression, developing a moral sense, and learning gender-appropriate behaviors

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Theoretical Perspectives: Theoretical Perspectives: Cognition (Piaget, Info. Cognition (Piaget, Info.

Processing)Processing) Piaget’s Cognitive-Stage Theory

Qualitative changes in the way children think Individuals organize information into schemes Adaptation of new information by assimilation,

accommodation and equillibration Progression of skills through 4 qualitatively different

stages

Information-Processing Approach Compares the brain to a computer People are active thinkers about their world, not

‘passive’ computers Psychologists can use information-processing models

to test, diagnose, and treat learning problems

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Is development continuous, or does it occur in Is development continuous, or does it occur in stages? Piaget’s theory of cognitive development stages? Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and an information processing view of cognitionand an information processing view of cognition

Fig. 2.1

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Theoretical Perspectives: Cognition (Neuroscience)

Cognitive Neuroscience Approach Cognitive functioning is linked to what

happens in brain Seeks to explain how cognitive growth

results from the brain-environment interaction

Social cognitive neuroscience: links brain, mind, and behavior

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Theoretical Perspectives: Theoretical Perspectives: Evolutionary/SociobiologicalEvolutionary/Sociobiological

Focuses on biology and evolution Focuses on biology and evolution People unconsciously strive to People unconsciously strive to

perpetuate their genetic legacyperpetuate their genetic legacy Seek to identify universal behaviors and Seek to identify universal behaviors and

those which are modified by one’s those which are modified by one’s cultureculture

Seek to identify age-specific adaptive Seek to identify age-specific adaptive behaviorsbehaviors

Parent-Child Attachment: John BowlbyParent-Child Attachment: John Bowlby

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Theoretical Perspectives: ContextualTheoretical Perspectives: Contextual

Development is understood in social/ environmental Development is understood in social/ environmental interactions onlyinteractions only

Brofenbrenner’s Bioecological TheoryBrofenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory microsystemmicrosystem mesosystemmesosystem exosystemexosystem macrosystemmacrosystem chronosystemchronosystem

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural TheoryLev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Child growth is collaborative processChild growth is collaborative process Zone of proximal development (ZPD)Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Scaffolding Scaffolding

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Bronfenbrenner’s Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological TheoryBioecological Theory

Fig. 2.2

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Goals of Developmental Goals of Developmental ResearchResearch

To describeTo describe To explainTo explain To predict To predict To influenceTo influence

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Research MethodsResearch Methods

Quantitative researchQuantitative research ““hard,” objectively-measurable datahard,” objectively-measurable data scientific method: 5 general stepsscientific method: 5 general steps Usually conducted in laboratories, Usually conducted in laboratories,

controlledcontrolled Qualitative researchQualitative research

““soft” data, subjective experiences, soft” data, subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefsfeelings, or beliefs

open-ended and exploratoryopen-ended and exploratory

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Research MethodsResearch Methods

SamplingSampling sample: a representative group taken from the sample: a representative group taken from the

population (random selection is best)population (random selection is best) Forms of Data CollectionForms of Data Collection

Self-Reports: Diaries, Interviews, Self-Reports: Diaries, Interviews, QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

Behavioral and Performance MeasuresBehavioral and Performance Measures Naturalistic and Laboratory ObservationNaturalistic and Laboratory Observation

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Basic Research Basic Research DesignsDesigns

Case StudiesCase Studies Ethnographic StudiesEthnographic Studies Correlational Studies (relationships Correlational Studies (relationships

not cause and effect)not cause and effect) ExperimentsExperiments

Groups and VariablesGroups and Variables Laboratory, Field, and Natural Laboratory, Field, and Natural

ExperimentsExperiments

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Studying Change Over Studying Change Over TimeTime

Longitudinal study:A study following a group of subjects over a period of time.

Longitudinal study:A study following a group of subjects over a period of time.

Cross-sectional study:A study comparing groups of people of different ages at the same time.

Cross-sectional study:A study comparing groups of people of different ages at the same time.

Accelerated longitudinal study:Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs where several age groups can be followed over time simultaneously.

Accelerated longitudinal study:Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs where several age groups can be followed over time simultaneously.

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Common developmental designsCommon developmental designs

Fig. 2.5

2004 2006 20102008

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How would you study….How would you study….

If playing video games increased 5-8 If playing video games increased 5-8 year old boys’ interest in guns?year old boys’ interest in guns?

If self esteem in girls changes from If self esteem in girls changes from 55thth grade to 8 grade to 8thth grade to 12 grade to 12thth grade? grade?

If mothers’ assessment of their If mothers’ assessment of their babies’ fussiness affects how babies’ fussiness affects how frequently they pick them up when frequently they pick them up when they are crying.they are crying.

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Ethics of ResearchEthics of Research Informed consent/Informed consent/

Parent permissionParent permission Avoidance of deceptionAvoidance of deception Protection of participants from harm Protection of participants from harm

and loss of dignityand loss of dignity Guarantees of privacy and Guarantees of privacy and

confidentialityconfidentiality Right to decline or withdraw from Right to decline or withdraw from

experimentexperiment Responsibility of investigators to Responsibility of investigators to

correct undesirable effectscorrect undesirable effects

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Social Toxicity (Garbarino Social Toxicity (Garbarino lecture)lecture)

Individual vulnerability to a poisonous Individual vulnerability to a poisonous environmentenvironment

Vulnerable kids will be as bad as the social Vulnerable kids will be as bad as the social environment offers up, models, reinforces, environment offers up, models, reinforces, instigates, and encourages them to do instigates, and encourages them to do

In assessing neighborhood quality in In assessing neighborhood quality in promoting positive youth development, promoting positive youth development, consider the consider the strength of tiesstrength of ties and and collective collective efficacy efficacy

Consider poisonous pedagogy: behavior that Consider poisonous pedagogy: behavior that is culturally normative from a larger view is is culturally normative from a larger view is seen as harmful (e.g., bullying)seen as harmful (e.g., bullying)

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Social Toxins (Garbarino Social Toxins (Garbarino lecture)lecture)

Racism, sexism, homophobism… convey Racism, sexism, homophobism… convey hatred and rejectionhatred and rejection

Violence in the mediaViolence in the media Social inequalitySocial inequality Nexus of health and lifestyle (e.g., Nexus of health and lifestyle (e.g.,

obesity)obesity) Erosion of benevolent older authority Erosion of benevolent older authority Southern Culture of HonorSouthern Culture of Honor Shallow value of materialismShallow value of materialism