fitness foundations

Fitness Foundations

© Australian Institute of Fitness 1 / 36

MUSCLES IN ACTIONWe have already looked at bones, joints and the movements that occur at joints. Although bonesprovide leverage and form the framework of the body, they cannot move body parts bythemselves. Movement results from the alternating contraction and relaxation of muscles, whichcomprise 40-50% of the total body weight of an adult. Muscular strength reflects the primaryfunction of muscle – the transformation of chemical energy into mechanical energy to generateforce and produce joint movement. Muscles do a lot more than just produce movement though,so let’s take a closer look. Cool stuff!


CONTRACTING SKELETAL MUSCLEMuscle tissue is ‘cool’ – there are three ways in which a muscle can contract (or generate tensionin the muscle). These contractions are referred to as isometric, concentric and eccentric.

Isometric contractionWith an isometric contraction, there is tensiongenerated in the muscle but no change in the length ofthe muscle. This can be likened to a crane not movingas it holds a load steady and still.

Concentric contractionWhen a muscle undergoes a concentric contraction,the muscle shortens under tension. An example of howthis works is when a crane shortens its cable to lift aload.

Here is a tip to help you analyse resistance exercises.The concentric contractions occur in the movementphase when the load moves towards the ceiling - thinkc for concentric, c for ceiling.

Eccentric contractionWith an eccentric contraction, the muscle lengthensunder tension. This is the same as a crane lengtheningits cable to gently lower a load it has lifted.

In resistance exercises, the eccencentric contractions occur in the movement phase when theload moves towards the earth - think e for eccencentric, e for earth.

The load could be your body weight, free weights and in the case of machines weights, theweight stack.

Everyday movements that occur in our body are a combination of these contractions. Forexample, lifting up a shopping bag full of groceries is a concentric contraction of the bicepsmuscle in the upper arm; walking while holding the bag still would involve isometric contractionsof many arm muscles; putting the shopping bag down would be an eccentric contraction of thebiceps. In strength training, we tend to ‘fail’ or reach muscular exhaustion during the concentricphase (think ‘c’ for ‘concentric’, think ‘c’ for ‘can’t do another rep’!).

Did you know that we are stronger eccentrically than concentrically? This explains why you can lower yourself down in a push-up but may not be able to lift yourselfup! Eccentric contractions create high levels of tension on the fibres of the muscle, thus are morelikely to cause muscle soreness.

you can experience next day soreness and/or stiffness which usually goes away quite quickly. Amore serious type of soreness tends to peak around two days post-training and is termedDelayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS).

DOMS can last up to seven days after high intensity training. DOMS is the result of eccentriccontractions recruiting less muscle fibres than concentric contractions whilst lifting a set load


(fewer workmen at the worksite doing the same amount of work!). More load and tension isplaced on each muscle fibre (workman) during the eccentric phase. This places more tension onthe muscle, which causes microscopic disruption of the muscle fibres, leading to musclesoreness.

Have a go! After a brief warm up, perform 10 pushups. Have a brief rest then perform another setof 10 repetitions. Notice that the more repetitions you do, the harder it is to “push” yourself backup? That’s because the pectorals (muscles of the chest) and triceps are failing concentrically.Notice that you can still lower yourself down? That is because we are stronger eccentrically (asthe muscles are lengthening).

Find out more about muscle contractions with this cool animation:


Quiz - The Squat

1. What type of muscle contraction is occurring on the up phase of a squat?2. What type of muscle contraction is occurring on the down phase of a squat?

Hover your cursor over the questions to reveal the answers.


OVERCOMING RESISTANCEResistance training is when your muscles have to work harder (i.e., produce force) to overcome aresistance. Most people think of weights when discussing resistance but there are many types ofresistance, for example, body weight, machine weights, free weights (dumbbells and barbells),and even resistance bands or tubes made of rubber.

When we perform resistance training such as weight training, our muscles change! They can getstronger (they gain strength) and they can get bigger (referred to as hypertrophy). To enjoy thesebenefits, there are two main types of resistance exercises you can do:


Quiz - Testing your MSE

Ok Champion, let's see what your MSE (muscular strength and endurance) is like. We have twotests for you.

The push-up test (to max):

1. Start in the standard 'down' push up position, males on toes, females on knees, neutralspine, maintain good alignment throughout

2. Raise the body and return until the chin touches the mat, the abdomen does not touch3. Perform the maximal number of push-ups without rest4. The test is stopped when the client is unable to maintain technique for two repetitions

Compare your score to the table below

Have a rest then perform the abdominal curl test (1 minute). Do as many repetitions as possiblein 1 minute whilst maintaining good technique.

1. Lie on your back (supine) on a mat with knees at 90 degrees. The arms are at the side,palms facing down.

2. Doing controlled curl ups, lift the shoulder blades off the mat.3. Perform as many as you can in 1 minute with good technique and without pausing.

Compare your score to the table below


In addition to having a reasonable score for these two exercises (good or higher), the Instituterecommends that you have experience at the following exercises as a start. If you are new tothese exercises, get some assistance at the gym and always start with a light weight. Return toyour eBook 'Know Your Muscles' for pictures of these exercises.

Bench Press - try this laying on a bench with a barbellSeated Row - try the machine versionSquat - try it with a barbell or dumbbellsDeadlift with a barbell


Quiz - Movement Analysis

You need to analyse movement to truly understand the joints involved, the joint movements andthe muscles involved in exercises.

As a general rule of thumb, we analyse the working phase of the exercise; that is, when the targetmuscle/s is shortening and undergoing a concentric contraction. It is the hardest phase of theexercise, where the muscles squeeze tight and likely to fatigue. Did you know that you shouldbreathe out on this phase?

Isolated exercises are easier to analyse because there is only one joint moving. Compoundexercises are more challenging as there is two or more joints moving but if you remember toanaylse every moving joint one at a time, it gets easier.

So let's start with some easier examples. Remember that there are pictures of all these exercisesin the eBook Know Your Muscles.

1. In the biceps curl,a. what joint is moving?b. what is the movement at that joint during the concentric contraction?c. what is the target muscle that creates this movement?

2. In the lateral raise,a. what joint is moving?b. what is the movement at that joint during the concentric contraction?c. what is the target muscle that creates this movement?

3. In the calf raise,

a. what joint is moving?b. what is the movement at that joint during the concentric contraction?c. what is the target muscle that creates this movement?

4. In the leg press, the pushing action is the working phase (concentric contraction),

a. what is the movement at the knee?b. what is the target muscle that creates this movement?c. what other joint/s would be moving but not completing a full range of motion?



HEART IN ACTIONThe heart is the most important muscle in the body! It has to pump the blood containing oxygen,nutrients and other goodies to every cell in the body and, remove waste products of metabolismsuch as carbon dioxide. Big job!

It is also the hardest working muscle in the body because it contracts continuously all day longand all night long.

Click here to see how the heart works.

Let's now learn about some important features such as heart rate, cardiac output and whathappens to our heart as we get fitter. Plus, we introduce you to blood pressure.


HEART RATE (HR)Heart rate (HR) is the number of contractions performed by the heart per minute and isexpressed as beats per minute (bpm). HR can be measured directly using an electro cardiograph(ECG). Predictions of HR can also be made using a heart rate monitor such as a Polar HeartRate Monitor. The pulse rate can also be measured to predict HR (carotid or radial sites) - this isknown as the palpation technique and is shown in the pictures below.

Resting Heart Rate (RHR)

RHR is the heart rate at rest and ranges from 60-90 bpm which is considered normal. Instructorsneed to know what factors affect it. You will learn how to measure heart rate in the fitness testingsession of your course but two main sites are the radial pulse at the wrist and the carotid pulse inthe neck.

Have a go at finding your radial pulse now as shown in the picture. Measure the number ofpulses in 15 secs then multiply by 4 and that is your RHR.

The following factors are known to increase RHR:

fevernicotinecaffeine, andhot, humid weather.

Heart rate often increases just before exercise starts, in anticipation of the effort needed to copewith an increase in workload.

Maximal Heart Rate (HR max or MHR) and Target Heart Rate (THR)

This is the fastest your heart can contract! We predict the MHR as 220 minus our age. From thispredicted MHR, we can then set an exercise or target heart rate (THR) that tells us how hard weshould exercise to get fit.

The term how hard is known as intensity in fitness. We represent intensity as a percentage ofmaximal heart rate (MHR). The following guide is used to determine the intensity.

• 50-60% is considered a low training intensity and would be appropriate for unfit individuals tostart with


• 60-70% is a moderate intensity training range suitable for those with some fitness• 70-85% is high and recommended for improvements in fitness for the fitter individual

We then multiply the MHR by the training intensity to determine the target heart rate (THR)

THR = intensity % x MHR

Example - Susie, 20 years of age and already quite fit Susie wants to further improve her cardiovascular fitness.First of all,we have to calculate Susie’s predicted MHR as follows:

MHR = 220 – age = 220 – 20 = 200 bpm

Susie needs to work at an intensity range of 70-85% of her maximal heart rateLet’s choose 80% and calculate Susie’s target heart rate (THR).

THR = intensity % x MHR = 80% x 200 = 160 bpm

If Susie trained at a THR of 160 bpm, she is likely to improve cardiovascular fitness.

Heart rate and exercise

As workload increases, the heart rate will increase linearly due to an increasing demand foroxygen. This relationship applies to both trained and untrained individuals. However, at a givenwork load, the heart rate of the trained person will be lower than that of the untrained person. Thisis due to the trained person having a higher stroke volume.

There is no difference in reference to maximum heart rate nor is there a specific decrease inmaximum heart rate with fitness level. What does decrease with training is the heart rate at aspecific sub-maximal workload due to improved stroke volume.

Go to the next page for stroke volume and cardiac output.


Quiz - Your THR and Cardio Fitness

Using the following guide,Â determine the intensity % you should use for cardiovascualr training.

â€¢Â 50-60% is considered a low training intensity and would be appropriate for unfit individualsto start with â€¢Â 60-70% is a moderate intensity training range suitable for those with some fitness â€¢Â 70-85% is high and recommended for improvements in fitness for the fitter individual

Then work out yourÂ target heart rate (THR) using the following calculations

MHR = 220 â€“ ageÂ Â Â Â Â Â Â Â Â THRÂ = intensity % x MHR (from above)

Now, go for a run or cycle for at least 20 minutes and measure your heart rate at around the half-way mark to see if you are above or below your THR.Â Use the radial pulse as describedÂ onthe previous page.

The Institute expects that you have the fitness to perform at least 20 minutes of continuouscariovascular activity at a reasonable pace.


CARDIAC OUTPUTLet's imagine that you wanted to purchase a car with a large output - you would ask to see thespecifications and choose the car with the greatest power output (or something like that!). Youwould then expect that the car can go really fast.

Well, consider your heart as the engine. Your heart has an output which is known as cardiacoutput, and the greater your cardiac output, the faster and harder you can exercise. That isbecause the heart is able to pump out large amounts of blood and hence can supply the bodywith the oxygen and fuel that it needs.

Cardiac Output (Q)Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped from the heart per minute. the symbol for cardiacoutput is Q and it is expressed as litres per minute (l/min).

The formula for cardiac output follows however, only scientists actually use this. For fitnessprofessionals, this is a concept that you need to understand - you will never measure cardiacoutput, but it helps to understand fitness.

Q = SV X HR

Hang on a minute - I know what HR (heart rate) is, but what is SV?

SV stands for stroke volume and is the amount of blood pumped by the heart (left ventricle) everytime it contracts. It is expressed as mls and at rest, science tells us that it is on average, about70ml. During exercise, stroke volume is greater to accommodate the increased need for oxygenby the muscles. That makes sense because your heart is pumping faster and more forcibly duringexercise.

QuizAn average value for stroke volume at rest is 70ml, so work out the average cardiac output of aperson with a resting heart rate of 65 beats per minute.

Q =____________ x_____________

= ________________

Remember to convert your answer from ml/min to l/min by dividing by 1,000 (1,000ml in 1 litre).

Scroll your cursor here to check your answer.

The increased cardiac output that accompanies exercise is brought about by an increase instroke volume early on in the exercise session (up to 150ml), and an increase in heart rate.


http://ecampus.nsw.fitness.edu.au/

Training Adaptations in the Heart

What happens to heart rate, stroke volume and cardiac output as a resultof cardiovascular training?

With training, the heart becomes stronger and more efficient and can pump more blood with eachcontraction, hence the stroke volume increases as fitness improves. So, if the heart can pump outmore blood with each contraction, it does not have to pump as often and hence, heart ratedecreases. This occurs at submaximal workloads and at rest and explains why one of thetraining effects of a cardiovascular training program is a lower resting heart rate (RHR).

In other words, as you get fitter, stroke volume goes up and heart rate goes down. Another bonusis that you can exercise at a higher level.

With an increase in stroke volume, the heart now has the ability to pump larger amounts of bloodwhen it is beating at a higher rate. Remember that blood carries oxygen and nutrients and if wecan increase the amount of blood circulating each minute, we will be able to produce moreenergy and work at a higher level before fatigue sets in.

Let's check out an example using running:

At a heart rate of 150 bpm and a stroke volume increase of 10 ml we can now pump an extra 1.5l/min of blood around the body. Over a 30 minute workout, this equates to 45 litres more bloodwhich contains oxygen for energy, hence you will be running faster!

Another outcome – working at the same workload with a lower HR.Prior to beginning a period of cardiovascular training a trainer's heart rate measures 150 bpmwhen running at a speed of 10 km/h. At the conclusion of an 8-week training program the trainer’sheart rate now reads 130 bpm when running at 10 km/h. When the trainer runs at the sameworkload (10 km/h) their heart now beats at a lower rate.

Working at the same HR but able to perform a higher intensity of exercise. Prior to commencing a period of cardiovascular training, a trainer's heart rate measures 150 bpm


when running at a speed of 10 km/h. At the conclusion of an 8-week training program, when thetrainer raises their heart rate to 150 bpm, the speed they run at has now increased to 12 km/h.When the trainer works at the same heart rate they are now able to perform more work (covermore distance) per unit of time.


BLOOD PRESSUREA lot of people confuse heart rate and blood pressure so let's get it right from the start.

Imagine you have blown up a balloon to the size of your fist. Now imagine it is your heart. Withyour hands, squeeze the balloon to replicate the contractions of the heart. Great, it is nowpumping blood around the body. The number of times you squeeze the balloon in a minute isheart rate. Now, the amount of force that your hands use to squeeze the balloon is creating theblood pressure. Think of blood pressure as the pushing power, and it is now pushing the bloodthrough the blood vessels. Think of the blood vessels as hoses. Hence, blood pressure is ‘thepressure in the hose’.

Blood pressure is the push or force of blood in theblood vessels. It is highest in arteries and lowestin veins; in fact, the blood moves from a high-pressure area (arteries) to a low-pressure area(smaller vessels and veins) enabling the blood toflow around the body.

Blood pressure can be defined as the pressureexerted on the artery wall and is measured assystolic/diastolic blood pressure using aninstrument called a sphygmomanometer.

Systolic blood pressure is a measure of thepressure exerted on the artery wall when the heartcontracts (this is expressed as the top figure – think s for systolic, s for superior value)

Diastolic blood pressure is a measure of the pressure exerted on the artery wall when the heartrelaxes the aorta between heart contractions (this is expressed as the bottom figure – think d fordiastolic or d for down under value)

Blood pressure varies within normal range from time to time and is elevated when exercising.

Analogy: Think of blood pressure as the pressure in the garden hose when you are watering thegarden. When you turn up the tap this is like exercising; you increase blood flow and pressurewithin the hose (artery). If you get a blockage or a kink in your hose, you will notice the pressurebuild up within the hose pushing back against the fitting on the tap . This can be likened to thepressure build up when there is a thickening in an artery (imagine cholesterol being like mudcollecting in the hose).

What is normal blood pressure?No doubt you have heard that 120/80 is normal blood pressure. Well, in fact a systolic readingfrom 101 up to 139 is normal and a diastolic reading of 61 up to 89 is normal. A blood pressurereading lower than 100/60 is considered low but may be quite healthy depending on the reasons.

For the purposes of this course, borderline hypertension (high blood pressure) is a reading of 140over 90. Lifestyle modifications that can be offered by a fitness professional are a healthier diet(less salt, sugar, alcohol and saturated fats) and regular exercise.

Does my client need a medical clearance?As a professional fitness instructor, if a client had a blood pressure reading of 140/90 or greater


(stage 1 or 2), you would ask them to obtain medical release prior to commencing an exerciseprogram with you.


ENERGY SYSTEMSEnergy is required for all kinds of bodily processes, including muscular contractions. In thissection we will take a look how energy is released in the body and the differentpathways/systems that are used to provide the energy that our bodies need.


ATPFabulous facts about ATP

When people talk about energy, they are talking about ATP (adenosine tri phosphate). It is anenergy-rich molecule and the ‘energy currency’ for everything in the body from mechanicalenergy for muscular activity (doing stuff), synthesis (making stuff) and electrical energy for nerveimpulse transmission (sending messages within the body), plus many other metabolic processes.Energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change its form (this explains why we can getfat if we eat too much 'energy'!). The energy from the food that we eat is used to generate ATPwhich is then used as energy for various processes in the body.

For now, we will discuss ATP as the energy-rich moleculeused by skeletal muscle fibres for muscle contraction duringexercise. In fact, it is the only molecule that can provideenergy directly for muscle contraction, hence it is veryimportant in exercise.

Energy is released when ATP is broken down into ADP anda free phosphate ion (P). This energy powers the cross bridges during muscular contractions.

The breakdown of ATP to ADP

Energy is released when the third phosphate bond is broken.

At rest, your muscles are using only a modest amount of ATP whereas during exercise themuscles are contracting and using ATP at a rapid pace. Not only is the ATP used by muscles, itis also used to power the metabolic reactions. We only have enough ATP stored inside themuscle fibres to last only a few seconds of exercise so ATP needs to be continually synthesisedor replenished – this is where the energy pathways and energy systems come into play!


Energy PathwaysATP can be produced via two energy pathways; the aerobic pathway and the anaerobicpathway:

Our muscles have the ability to switch into ‘anaerobic metabolism’ when the aerobic pathwaycannot ‘keep up’ with the energy demand. This depends on the capacity of the cardiorespiratorysystem to deliver oxygen to the cells. A fit person can deliver more oxygen to working muscles,so will ‘switch’ into the anaerobic pathway at a higher intensity than a less fit person.

You may have heard the terms aerobic and anaerobic exercise.

Aerobic exercise – is an activity that uses large muscle groups, can be maintained continuouslyand is rhythmical in nature (American College of Sports Medicine). It is where the body canprovide sufficient oxygen to meet demand and relies on the aerobic pathway.

Anaerobic exercise – is short lasting, high intensity activity, where the energy demand foroxygen exceeds the oxygen supply. So we use the anaerobic pathway to supply the energy.

Let’s use a car to explain the pathways. Anaerobic pathways are used for short, fast tripsaround the block, whereas aerobic pathways are used for longer, slower journeys.


Energy Systems

Here is a quick overview before we dive in and explore the systems in detail!

There are TWO anaerobic energy systems:

1. Phosphate (alactic) – ATP and creatine phosphate (CP) are broken down to releaseenergy for short, intense bursts of activity lasting between 10 to 15 seconds. The energy isproduced without the presence of oxygen.

2. Lactate (lactic) – glycogen (stored form of carbohydrate) is broken down without oxygen to

produce energy for intense activities lasting up to two minutes. A build up of hydrogen ionsdevelops acidosis in the muscle causing muscle discomfort and fatigue. For many years,lactate or lactic acid was thought to cause muscle fatigue but recent research shows thatthe accumulation of hydrogen ions is responsible. Lactate is present but not responsible formuscle fatigue.

There is only ONE aerobic energy system, our third system.

3. Aerobic Energy System – fats, glycogen and protein (in emergencies) are broken down to


produce large amounts of energy in the presence of oxygen. Carbon-dioxide (CO2) andwater (H2O) are by-products of this process.


Energy Systems Summary

So far we have looked at how energy is released for various processes in the body, includingmuscular contractions. Next we will look at how we get that energy into the body throughconsuming fuel (i.e. food).


Quiz - Energy Systems

1. What are the three energy systems?2. Which energy system uses creatine phosphate as its fuel source?3. Hydrogen ions and lactate are by-products of using which energy system?4. Which energy system would be used when jogging at a low intensity for 30 minutes?



http://www.moodle.org/0.6743876717511446

1 A TO CAbdominals or â€˜absâ€™ The collective term used to describe the group of muscles located on your abdomen - the front ofthe torso or anterior trunk.

AerobicLiterally, "with oxygen." Aerobic exercise is the body's process of producing energy in thepresence of oxygen. The main by-product is carbon dioxide which is emoved when we exhale.Aerobic exercise is great for burning fat and strengthening your heart and lungs.

Aerobic metabolismA cellular process in which the body uses oxygen to produce energy.

AnaerobicLiterally, "without oxygen." In anaerobic exercise, energy is produced without oxygen, usuallybecause the exercise intensity is such that the heart and lungs can't get enough oxygen to themuscles. Anaerobic exercise creates a byproduct called lactate, which builds up in the musclesand causes soreness and fatigue.

Antioxidants - Substances such as Vitamins A, C and E and minerals such as copper,magnesium and zinc. Believed to destroy free radicals, which some scientists think may not onlyaccelerate aging but also contribute to the formation of cancers and cataracts.

Anaerobic threshold The physiological point during exercise when the muscles start using more oxygen than the bodycan transport, and as a result, the work of the muscles starts producing more lactic acid than thebody can process.

Anaerobic trainingTraining that improves the efficiency of the body's anaerobic systems and can increase muscularstrength and lactic acid tolerance during high-intensity efforts.

ArteryA blood vessel where the flow of blood is away from the heart. Most arteries carry oxygen-richblood from the heart to all parts of the body.

Asana The term for any of the many poses done in yoga.

AtherosclerosisA disease in which the arteries progressively narrow.

Average heart rate The heart rate (beats per minute, or bpm) that represents the average value of heart ratesmeasured over a period of time, for example, during an exercise session.

Ballistic stretchingA kind of stretching that advocates bouncing to increase the amount of stretch. This is no longerrecommended as it has been found to cause muscle tears and soreness.

Barbell Weights attached to a long bar which requires both hands to pick up.


Basal metabolic rate (BMR) The lowest rate of body metabolism (rate of energy use) that can sustain life, measured after a fullnight's sleep in a laboratory under optimal conditions of quiet, rest and relaxation.

Biomechanics The study of the mechanics of movement.

Body compositionA measure of body mass that has two components: the amount of fat mass (weight) and theamount of fat-free mass (muscle, bone, skin and organs) in the body.

Body fat The percentage of your body mass that is not composed of lean muscle, water, bones or vitalorgans.

Body mass index (BMI)A number that describes a body's relative weight to heiand strongly correlates to total body fatcontent in adults. BMIÂ is calculated weight (in kg) divided byÂ height (in metres) squared.

Burnout State of being bored or tired with exercise, frequently the result of overtraining or unvariedworkouts. Cross-training and rest are good remedies for burnout.

CarbohydrateAn energy source for the body. At rest, the body derives energy almost equally from thebreakdown of carbohydrates and fats; during exercise, the main energy source depends on theintensity of the exercise

Cardiac muscleAnother term for the heart

CardiorespiratoryAffecting the heart and respiratory system

Cardiorespiratory enduranceThe body's ability to sustain prolonged exercise

CardiovascularAffecting the heart and blood vessels

Cardiovascular trainingTraining that improves cardiorespiratory endurance by improving the efficiency of the body'saerobic capacity

Circulatory system (cardiovascular system)The body system that transports oxygen and other nutrients through the blood around the body.The heart (cardiac muscle) acts as a pump to circulate blood through the blood vessels of thebody and back to the heart

Cool downGradually reducing the intensity of exercise for several minutes at the end of a session tostabilise the cardiovascular system after a workout


Coronary artery diseaseProgressive narrowing of the coronary (heart's) arteries

Creatine A protein-like substance manufactured by your muscles (but also found in some meats) that hasbeen found to increase athletic performance and delay fatigue. Gives the muscles strength and agreater ability to do high-intensity exercise such as sprinting. Also helps buffer the lactic acid thataccumulates during high-intensity exercise.

Cross-training Mixing different activities into your regular workout routine to avoid overuse injuries and toprevent boredom. Cycling, running and swimming areÂ three common activities used to cross-train different muscle groups.


2 D TO KDehydrationLoss of bodily fluids.

Diabetes, Adult-onsetAlso called type II diabetes, this disease is characterised by impaired insulin secretion from thepancreas or impaired insulin action. Formerly referred to as non-insulin-dependent diabetesmellitus (NIDDM), type II diabetics can become insulin-dependent.

Dumbbell Hand weights or plates attached to a very short bar that can be held in one hand. Often used inpairs.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) A recording of the heart's electrical activity.

Endorphins Any of a group of proteins with potent analgesic properties that occur naturally in the brain. Theseare the brain chemicals that contribute to the "runner's high" or good feelings during and afterexercise.

EnduranceThe body's ability to resist fatigue; includes muscular endurance and cardiorespiratoryendurance.

Endurance trainingRepetitive, aerobic use of large muscles (as with activities like walking, running and cycling).

ExercisePlanned physical activity for recreation, leisure or fitness, with a specific objective such asimproving fitness, performance, health or social interaction.

Fartlek training (speed play)Training in which the pace is varied at will, from a fast sprint to slow jogging.

Fat-free mass The mass (weight) of the body that is not fat (muscle, bone, skin and organs).

Flexibility The range of motion around a joint. This can be increased with stretching and yoga.

Free weightsWeights not attached to a machine nor driven by cables or chains. Barbells and dumbbells areexamples of free weights.

GlucoseA sugar, the usual form in which carbohydrates are assimilated by the body.

GlycogenThe form in which carbohydrates are stored in the body, mainly in the muscles and the liver.

Health benefits


Small amounts of moderate-intensity activity accumulated over the day can contribute to healthand in turn, provide protection against many preventable â€˜lifestyleâ€™ diseases such as heartdisease and stroke, diabetes, and colorectal and breast cancer, as well as mental healthbenefits.

Heart rate A measurement of the work done by the heart, most commonly expressed as the number of heartbeats per minute (bpm).

Hyperglycemia An elevated blood glucose level usually determined as aÂ fasting blood glucose > 5.5 mmol.

HypertensionAbnormally high blood pressure, usually defined as systolic pressure higher than 140 mmHg ordiastolic pressure higher than 90 mmHg.

Interval trainingA workout session that involves repeated short, fast-paced bouts of exercise separated by shortrest intervals.

IsometricsExercise or a system of exercises in which opposing muscles are so contracted that there is littleshortening but great increase in tone of muscle fibers involved.

KinesiologyThe study of the principles of mechanics and anatomy in relation to human movement.


3 L TO SLactate thresholdThe point during increasingly intensive exercise at which blood lactate begins to accumulateabove resting levels.

Lactic acidAnaerobic exercise produces lactic acid, which quickly forms lactate in the muscles, so the termslactate and lactic acid are often used interchangeably.

Ligament A flexible, non-elastic tissue that connects bone to bone. For example, the anterior cruciateligament (ACL) of the knee connects the kneecap to the femur (thigh) and the tibia (shin).Ligament injuries can be sprains or tears.

Maximal exercise stress testA test performed in laboratory conditions, usually either on a stationary bicycle or treadmill, tomeasure a person's maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max). The test also provides a measurementof the person's maximum heart rate (HR max).

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max)The maximum capacity for oxygen consumption by the body during maximum exertion. Alsoknown as aerobic power or maximal oxygen intake/consumption. VO2 max is a commonly useddescriptor of cardiovascular fitness. Cardiovascular fitness relates to how well yourcardiovascular system works to transport and utilise oxygen in your body. The better yourcardiovascular fitness the higher your VO2 max. The most accurate way to determine your VO2max is to have it clinically tested with a maximal exercise stress test in a laboratory.

Maximum heart rate (HR max or MHR)The highest number of heart beats per minute (bpm) when pushing the body as hard as possible.HR max predicts your individual maximum heart rate. The most accurate way to determine yourindividual HR max is to have it clinically tested with a maximal exercise stress test in alaboratory. It can be estimated using the calculation of 220- age. HR max is a useful tool fordetermining the intensity of exercise.

Moderate-intensity activityEnergetic activity that causes an increase in breathing and heart rate and is at a level at which aconversation can be maintained.

OsteoporosisA condition that affects especially older women and is characterized by decrease in bone masswith decreased density and enlargement of bone spaces producing porosity and fragility.

OvertrainingThe attempt to do more work than the body can physically tolerate.

Perceived rate of exertion (PRE) The level of intensity you feel your body is exerting during exercise on a scale of 0 to 10.

Physical activityAny movement of the body produced by the muscles that results in increased energyexpenditure.


Polar Fitness TestA fitness test that measures a person's aerobic/cardiovascular fitness at rest in just five minutes.The result, Polar OwnIndex, predicts the person's maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max).

Repetition or "rep" A single movement, for example, if you perform 1 squat (down and up) that equals 1 rep. If youperform 8 squats consecutively, that equals 8 reps and then we would call this a set.

Resistance trainingAlso called strength or â€˜weightâ€™ training and refers to exercises that work against someform of resistance which could be your body weight, free weights or machine weights. This typeof training can be designed to increase the body's strength, power and muscular endurance.

Resting heart rate (RHR)The number of heart beats in one minute (bpm) when a person is at complete rest. A person'sRHR decreases as they become fitter.

Resting metabolic rate (RMR)This is the body's metabolic rate (rate of energy use) at rest and is usually measured early in themorning after an overnight fast and a full eight hours' sleep.

R.I.C.E.R. One of the formulas for treating an injury such as a strain or sprain. The acronym stands for Rest,Ice, Compression, Elevation and Refer.

SedentaryA habitual lack of physical activity resulting fromÂ an inactive lifestyle.

Shin splintsThe generic term for pain in the front of the lower leg. Most often caused by inflammation of thetendons (tendinitis), which can result when the tendons are subjected to too much force orrepeatedly overstretched. Running or walking on hard surfaces can contribute.

Sprain An injury to a ligament.

StrainAn injury to the tendon or muscle.

Stretch reflex A protective, involuntary nerve reaction that causes muscles to contract. Bouncing oroverstretching can trigger the reflex in which muscles are trying to protect themselves fromdamage.


4 T TO ZTarget heart rateThe ideal intensity level at which your heart is being exercised but not overworked. Determinedby finding your maximum heart rate and taking a percentage (60% to 85%, depending on fitnesslevel) of it.

TendonA flexible, non-elastic tissue that connects muscle to bone. The Achilles tendon is the largeconnector from the heel bone into the calf muscle.

TaperingA reduction in training intensity before a major competition to give the body and mind a breakfrom the rigors of intensive training.

Vigorous activityParticipation in an aerobic activity at an intensity that can, depending on fitness level, causesweating and puffing.

VO2 maxSee maximal oxygen uptake.

Warm-upA period (usually 3 to 15 minutes) of easy exercising at the beginning of the workout to graduallyease the body into more intensive exercise.

Weight-bearing exerciseÂ Exercise in which you support your weight or lift weight. Lifting weights or doing weight-bearingexercise (such as running, skiing or walking) can help slow down the rate of bone loss andosteoporosis, and therefore reduce fractures.

YogaÂ A system of exercises for attaining bodily or mental control and well-being. Various forms of yogainclude poses (or asanas) for building strength and flexibility, breathing exercises for cleansing,and/or meditation for relaxation and stress reduction.


fitness foundations

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