fit executive

The Fit Executive: Exercise and Diet Guidelines for Enhancing PerformanceAuthor(s): Christopher P. Neck and Kenneth H. CooperSource: The Academy of Management Executive (1993), Vol. 14, No. 2, Executive Health (May,2000), pp. 72-83Published by: Academy of ManagementStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4165636Accessed: 17/04/2010 14:58

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Academy of Management Executive, 2000, Vol. 14, No. 2

The fit executive: Exercise and

diet guidelines for enhancing

performance

Christopher P. Neck and Kenneth H. Cooper

Executive Overview Why is fitness so important? A good word to describe the job of executives today is

intense. Many demands confront them-including physical ones. The international economic thrust of many businesses today has increased the amount of travel required by CEOs to develop and maintain a global presence for their companies. Another major physical demand is created by the stress related to being responsible for many people, their welfare, and the success of the company. Endless meetings, and extremely long working hours are par for the course for executives. We provide evidence that those executives who enjoy optimal fitness can handle these demands more effectively and thus perform better in their daily tasks.

While many executives do take fitness seriously, what exactly constitutes optimal fitness behaviors is confusing. Given the numerous diet and exercise books on the bestseller lists today, it is easy to understand why such a quandary exists. We will attempt to provide clarity as we discuss prescriptions related to two primary components that are key to an executive's optimal fitness level-exercise and diet.

There's no question that people who are fit are more productive; they enjoy their work more and accomplish more.'

-Dr. Jerome Zuckerman, exercise physiologist

The job of the executive has become more intense over the last decade. A profusion of demands confront them-including physical ones. The global economic thrust of many businesses today has increased the amount of travel required by CEOs to develop and maintain an international presence for their companies. An- other major physical demand is created by the stress related to being responsible for many people, their welfare, and the success of the company. Endless meetings and extremely long working hours are par for the course for executives. Executives who enjoy optimal physical fitness-that is, "the ability to perform routine physical activity without undue fatigue"2-will be able to handle these demands more construc- tively and thus perform better in their daily tasks.

Anecdotal data gathered by the first author in personal interviews and related research support the relationship between fitness and performance.3 For example, Michael Mangum, president of the Man- gum Group, a construction firm, states:

I do believe fitness impacts my job. I usually exercise during the middle of the day-say, 1 to 4 p.m. or so. I find that my energy level is much enhanced when I return from a workout. Further, I find that because I choose to go during the day, my thoughts tend toward work while exercising. I have some of my most creative thoughts when working out.

Judith Kaplan had a similar perspective while she served as CEO of Action Products International, an educational toy manufacturer:

I never felt better, physically and mentally, than when I was exercising regularly three times a week. I could still work harder, and instead of collapsing at the end of the day, I'd still feel good.

72

2000 Neck and Cooper 73

Likewise, Tom Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza and current chairman of the Mater Christi Foundation, says:

Since I have been exercising regularly and eating right, I have had more energy and a better self-image. Fitness and exercise also have helped me develop good disciplinary habits, which carries over to good business habits.

James Harris, director of pro personnel for the NFL's Baltimore Ravens has a similar perspective:

I believe fitness can enhance your concentra- tion and endurance to perform the task at hand. Physical conditioning gives you confi- dence and energy to achieve.

Carol Cone, president of Cone Communications, also believes that fitness can enhance executive performance:

I must make 50 to 100 decisions a day, and it's important to have the same clarity of thinking at 7 or 8 o'clock at night as at 7 or 8 o'clock in the morning.

Fitness Promotes Job Performance

Various studies show that fitness promotes job performance. Commercial real estate stock brokers who participated in an aerobics training program (walking and/or running three times a week, for 12 weeks) earned greater sales commissions during and after the training program than brokers who did not participate. Workers from a hospital equip- ment firm who participated in a similar aerobics training program (walking, running, swimming, and/or bicycling four times a week, for 24 weeks) enjoyed greater productivity and job satisfaction than workers who did not participate in the fitness program.4

In addition, a variety of studies support the relationship between fitness and mental performance, especially for individuals within the age ranges of many executives. One study of 56 college profes- sors revealed that physically active people process data faster and experience a slower decline in information-processing speed than inactive people as they age. A study of postal workers ranging from 18 to 62 suggested that older (43-62), less fit individuals consistently underperformed older, fitter people and younger people (18-30) on mental tasks involving information processing.5

There are other benefits to being fit. Individuals who are fit are less likely to become obese, possess

higher levels of energy, and enjoy enhanced feelings of well-being.6 Fit individuals who participate in aerobic activity tend to enjoy various psychological outcomes, including a reduction in anxiety, depression, tension, and stress.7 In fact, Ken Resse, former executive vice president at Tenneco Inc., used exercise to help him cope with the pressures of being a top executive:

[There's] no question my exercise program has helped me cope with stress. If it starts to build up, I just go out and run like hell. I'm a morning runner, and that sets the tone for the whole day. By the time I get to the office, I'm relaxed.8

Physiological benefits to individuals engaged in fitness programs have also been documented. The findings in one study revealed improvements in cardiovascular function and strength, as well as reductions in body fat and weight, for 66 men engaged in a two-year exercise program located within the corporate headquarters. Another study showed that lifestyle changes that include diet and exercise can reverse the atherosclerotic changes of coronary heart disease and unblock arteries enough to avoid surgery. Finally, it has been estimated that 35 percent of cancers, the second leading cause of death in the U.S., are related to diet.9 In fact, there is a growing body of epide- miological evidence correlating diet with the inci- dence of cancer, particularly cancers of the esoph- agus, breast, prostate, and colon.'0

Individuals who are fit are less likely to become obese, possess higher levels of energy, and enjoy enhanced feelings of well-being.

There is also solid evidence that physically fit people live longer. A recent study published in the New England Journal of Medicine of over one million adults during a 14-year period confirmed that being overweight shortened a person's life. Several landmark studies at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research in Dallas have investigated this association between fitness and death. One of these investigated the relationship between fitness levels and risk of dying in more than 10,000 men and 3,000 women. It revealed that men and women with low levels of physical fitness had more than twice the mortality rate of people with even a moderate level of physical fitness. Fitness in this case helped over-

74 Academy of Management Executive May

come all causes of mortality, including diabetes, cancer, and heart disease.'1

The major finding from this study and others- that physical fitness can prolong life-has tremen- dous significance for organizations and executives. An illness or death of a top executive could have far-reaching consequences for an organization. Dr. Jerrold Post, co-author of When Illness Strikes The Leader, states:

In a company where you have an entrepre- neurial leader who is so identified with the company, that kind of event [death or serious illness of a key executive] will strike at the core of its corporate identity.'2

Executive fitness is thus important not only to executives themselves, but also to all the constitu- ents of the executive's organization. Economic effects from cardiovascular disease (which research shows can be related to poor fitness habits) amounted to an estimated $286.5 billion in 1999.13 According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, such losses affect employers and employees alike "in lost work days and wages, lost productivity, increased health care costs and low- ered morale."'4 Richard E. Snyder, former Chairman and CEO of Simon & Schuster Publishing, once remarked: "The healthier and stronger I am, the more relaxed I am, the better it is for the company."'5

Executive Fitness Behaviors At a Glance

If fitness is so important, how many executives are actually doing something about it? A survey of executives from the top 3,000 U.S. companies (identified from Fortune 500, the Inc. 100, the Venture Fast Track 100, and Dun's List of Large and Small Companies) revealed that two-thirds of the executives surveyed exercised at least three times weekly, with more than 90 percent of them using aerobic exercise as the cornerstone of their workouts. This survey also indicated that 90 percent of the executives wanted to improve their physical condition within the next five years. Finally, more than 90 percent reported being careful about their diet, 81 percent had had a complete physical exam within the previous two years, and only 10 percent smoked (compared with the national average of more than 25 percent).'6

The following are brief descriptions of how executives use fitness to enhance their abilities to lead their organizations.'7

. Tom Monaghan, the founder of Domino's Pizza and current chairman of the Mater Christi Foun- dation, runs about four miles every day or uses a

Stairmaster; he uses a Nautilus machine for 30 minutes, alternating upper and lower body every other day; and when traveling does push- ups and crunches along with running. He con- sumes about 2,000 calories a day, does not eat any desserts or sweets, and fasts on bread and water for half a day twice a week.

* James Harris, director of pro personnel for the NFL's Baltimore Ravens, exercises three to four days a week. His regimen consists of 20 to 30 minutes on a treadmill or a brisk walk, some weight work, stretching, and bike riding. He avoids fried foods, red meat, and eating late.

* Dr. Thomas Frist Jr., chairman and CEO of Co- lumbia/HCA Healthcare, uses time between business flights to jog along airport roads or neighboring streets.

* Michael Mangum, president of the Mangum Group, performs aerobic exercises two hours a week and lifts weights two to three times a week. He also tries to minimize fat and cholesterol while maximizing fruit intake.

* Charles 0. Rossotti, commissioner of the Inter- nal Revenue Service, jogs five miles a day.

* Julian C. Day, chief financial officer for Sears, Roebuck & Company, runs half-marathons and surf s.

Despite such statistics and anecdotes, there is room for improvement in the effectiveness of executive fitness. Executives dedicated to fitness may be basing their exercise and diet routines on obsolete or incomplete data, and may be following the fitness fad of the month or outdated training and nutritional folklore.'8 We will attempt to rectify this misinformation as we discuss prescriptions related to two primary components that are key to an executive's optimal fitness level-exercise and diet.'9 (Other elements playing a key role in fitness are attitudes and emotions.) The importance of exercise and diet is evidenced in the health history of Al Hirsch, president of G+A Communications. Hir- sch, who was diagnosed in 1991 with a heart fibril- lation, remarked:

Maybe it was stress, maybe it was poor diet. I don't know the exact cause-the doctors don't either-but I knew I had to start eating right, exercising right, and somehow handle the anxiety that comes with managing a business.20

Lean foods and a 20-minute run four times a week remedied Hirsch's heart problem. A fitness program focusing on exercise and diet helped him gain optimal health. We suggest that the exercise and diet-related prescriptions that follow will help


achieve optimal levels of fitness necessary for superior job performance.

The First Key to Fitness: Exercise

If exercise could be packed into a pill, it would be the single most widely prescribed- and beneficial-medicine in the nation.

Dr. Robert Butler, former director of National Institute on Aging

The three components of an effective executive exercise program are endurance, strength, and flexibility.21

Endurance

The second author's testing of more than 100,000 people via treadmill tests shows that a significant decline in endurance or aerobic capacity does not have to occur for people over 40. In fact, people 40 and older can maintain an extremely high level of aerobic capacity if they pursue a regular endurance exercise program. Without exercise, the heart's ability to pump efficiently will drop approximately 30 percent between age 30 and 70, and the decline will increase after age 70.22 Exercise can minimize this drop in aerobic capacity or endurance as people grow older.

Indeed, various scientific studies on the aerobic capacities of older people support these observa- tions about endurance. To illustrate:

* Eight women and four men averaging over 71 years of age participated in a bicycle ergometer training program. They worked out about three times a week for 12 weeks at 60 percent of their maximum work capacity. The participants began with two 10-minute sessions for each workout and worked up to two 20-minute sessions after six weeks. On completion of the program, the subjects were able to increase their maximum workload (intensity and duration of bicycling exercise) by 16 percent and their maximum oxygen uptake (a measure of aerobic capacity) by 11 percent as compared with measurements taken prior to beginning the training program.

* Forty-nine veterans over age 64 with such chronic illnesses as arthritis, hypertension, and heart disease were in an exercise program over a four- month period. The regimen consisted of a warm- up, stationary cycling, stretching, weight training, walking on a treadmill, and a cool-down. The results showed that the participants were able to walk an a1verage of three minutes longer on the

treadmill than when they began the exercise program. Their resting heart rates decreased by an average of nearly five beats per minute, an indi- cation of improved aerobic fitness.23

Healthy people of any age can improve their aerobic capacity with regular endurance activity. Dr. William J. Evans, director of the Noll Laboratory for Human Performance Research at Penn State Uni- versity, remarks: "With regular exercise programs, the gains we see in V02 max [endurance capacity] between the old and young are similar."24

What aerobic capacity should people expect as they age?25 In their 40s, they can expect to approach the maximum endurance capacity that they attained earlier in life, particularly if they were never ath- letes. In their 50s, they can expect some loss of endurance capacity, but not a rapid decline. A regular endurance exercise program will delay significantly this part of the aging process. In their 60s and 70s, they will continue to experience a gradual decline in endurance. But with a regular endurance exercise program, they can still perform at optimal levels- even better than many younger individuals. As they approach their 80s, the decline in endurance will be more noticeable, but an exercise program can still maximize natural capacities.

Measuring endurance: The one-mile walking test

To evaluate endurance, a simple one-mile walking test is all that is required.26 In this test, you must walk the entire distance (no running or jogging is allowed). In other words, one foot must always be on the ground. A warm-up for three to five minutes by stretching or walking briskly is recommended. Then you should walk for one mile as fast as you can without straining, trying to maintain a con- stant pace. On finishing the one-mile course, record the time it took to cover the distance in minutes and seconds. The one-mile walk should be immediately followed by a cool-down, a slow walk for at least five minutes to allow the heart rate and blood pressure to return to normal.

To determine your endurance level, refer to the appendix, which is designed to allow the walker to compare chronological age to real age. Real age refers to the functional or physiologic age at which your physical and mental capabilities are currently operating. For example, if a man walked the mile in 11:50, his functional endurance would be comparable to someone 20 to 29 years of age. To determine the specific endurance score, figure the approximate fraction or percentage that walking time has cut into the particular time category and then apply that same fraction or percentage to the


age group. For example, for men, a mile in 11:30 would equate to an age of 21. For women, a mile in 12:30 would be equal to an endurance age of 25.

A blueprint to enhance endurance

Specific programs to enhance endurance include walking, treadmill walking, running/jogging, outdoor cycling, stationary cycling, and swimming.27 Following are guidelines for the minimum and maximum amount of walking exercise adults need for optimal functioning:28

Specific programs to enhance endurance include walking, treadmill walking, running/jogging, outdoor cycling, stationary cycling, and swimming.

* Minimum for women: walk two miles in less than 30 minutes three days per week. Or walk two miles in 40 minutes, five days per week.

* Minimum for men: walk two miles in less than 27 minutes three days per week. Or walk two miles in 35 minutes, five times per week.

* Maximum for women: walk two miles in less than 30 minutes six days per week. Or run two miles in less than 24 minutes, four days per week.

* Maximum for men: walk three miles in less than 45 minutes, five days per week. Or run two miles in less than 20 minutes four days per week.

These walking guidelines are consistent with the public health statement regarding physical activity produced by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Med- icine: "Every U.S. adult should accumulate 30 minutes or more of moderate-intensity physical activity on most, preferably all, days of the week."29

The above recommendations parallel the guidelines provided by Dr. Steven Blair, director of epi- demiology at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Re- search, based on his study of approximately 13,400 men and women. These subjects were monitored for four years before any testing to ascertain that they were healthy. The participants were then asked to exercise to exhaustion on a treadmill. Based on their treadmill times, they were divided into fitness categories of five groups (20 percent of subjects were placed into each group), and were then monitored for an average of 8.2 years to determine the cause of death of any of the participants. At the conclusion of the study, the totally sedentary men, who made up the bottom 20 per-

cent fitness category, had a death rate from heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and stroke that was 65 percent higher than the most active men in the top 20 percent category. Blair concluded from this study that 30 minutes of sustained activity, three to four times a week, would have a significant impact on reducing mortality from all causes.30

Moderate exercise means exercising at one's target heart rate, a scientifically established, higher- than-normal, but less-than-maximum rate that al- lows an executive to improve endurance. To determine your personal target heart rate, subtract your age from 220 to get your predicted maximal heart rate. Then take 65-80 percent of that figure to obtain your target heart rate. For example, a 40-year old would have a predicted maximal heart rate of 220 minus 40, or 180. Multiplying that figure by 0.65 and by 0.80 produces a target heart rate range for endurance exercise of 117 to 144 heartbeats per minute.

Strength

A particularly destructive tendency of aging is the loss of muscle tissue. Without a regular program of strength exercises-or at least consistent involve- ment in rigorous, muscle-conditioning activities, such as heavy labor-a steady loss of muscle mass will occur after about the age of 30. According to some estimates, a three to five percent loss of muscle mass happens every 10 years, beginning between ages 30 and 40. Some experts argue that the total loss of muscle mass between ages 30 and 70 may be as high as 30 to 40 percent, or an average of 10 percent every 10 years during this period.3'

What's the significance of losing muscle mass? First, less strength means a reduced ability to function physically. An average 90-year-old woman must contract her thigh muscles at their maximum capacity just to stand up from a sitting position in a low chair, or to get out of a car. Second, an individual's strength can indirectly extend one's life. A 1988 Danish study indicated that gait disturbances and vision impairment were the two objective health measurements most strongly associated with death during a three-year follow-up among patients 75 to 85 years of age. Strength exercises can thus perhaps extend a person's life because such exercises can enhance one's ability to walk efficiently. Third, it is estimated that 80 percent of all lower back pain is the result of poorly conditioned muscles.32

The good news is that strength exercises can help reverse this very destructive aging tendency, the loss of muscle tissue. Research suggests that one is never too old to reverse the loss of muscle tissue. One study in particular showed that even


those over 90 years of age can become stronger and increase the size of their muscles with a su- pervised weight-training program.33

Research suggests that one is never too old to reverse the loss of muscle tissue.

Another important facet of strength exercising re- lates to bone loss. In brief, an individual's bones reach their maximum density between ages 25 and 40. After age 40, total bone mass declines at a rate of up to one-half of one percent per year. Women who go through menopause may begin to lose bone density at an even higher rate of two to three percent per year. Losing bone density can be dangerous because it results in an increased risk of broken bones and the development of osteoporosis, a disease charac- terized by brittle, porous bones that fracture easily. Approximately one-third of all women and one-sixth of all men suffer a hip fracture by the time they reach 70. Strength training, however, can serve as a barrier or impediment to bone loss. It has been shown that weight-bearing exercises can help individuals reach the highest possible peak bone mass by age 40 and then can retard this gradual loss of bone mass after age 40. In short, people who fail to exercise their muscles can expect to lose more bone mass than those who don't.34

An effective method to gauge current strength level is to perform a two-part strength test designed by the second author. This test involves performing as many sit-ups as possible within 60 seconds and executing as many push-ups as possible within a separate one-minute time period. An adult who performs 30-34 (men) or 25-29 (women) sit-ups would have a real age of 30 to 39. Similarly, a man or woman who performs 25-29 push-ups would have a real age of between 30 to 39.35

Guidelines to enhance strength

Strength exercises can be classified into three types of activities: calisthenics, light circuit weight training, and aqua-aerobics training. Activity type en- compasses exercises designed to condition three basic muscle groups: arms, shoulders, and chest; abdomen and trunk; and legs and lower back. To benefit from strength exercises, do a minimum of 20 minutes of such exercises three times a week.36

Flexibility

Research suggests that as individuals age, their tendons (which connect muscles to bones) and lig-

aments (which connect bones to bones) tighten up, resulting in loss of flexibility. A regular program of flexibility exercises can help keep this inflexibility at a minimum. The benefits of flexibility are a wider range of body motion, decrease in risk of injury, increase in relaxation and energy, and reduction in stiffness and aches related to one's normal work routine.37

To test flexibility, tape a yardstick to the floor, with a piece of masking tape across the 15-inch mark. With shoes off, sit straddling the yardstick with the zero end closest to you, heels flush with the 15-inch mark. With legs completely straight, arms parallel to the floor, reach forward as far as possible over the yardstick. Have an observer note the point above the yardstick of your maximum reach. Adults who can reach between the 17.5 and 17.74 inch marks (men) or 18.5 and 18.74 inch marks (women) would have a real age of 30 to 39.38

A formula to improve flexibility

It is important to work on flexibility in all the major parts of the body. Stretch each of the following muscle groups at least three times a week: rear shoulders and upper back; back of upper arms, and middle and sides of the back; hamstrings and lower back; groin; and lower back and buttocks.

Regardless of the flexibility program chosen, consider several basic principles for safe and effective stretching. Dr. Rich Blake, senior podiatrist at the Center for Sports Medicine at Saint Francis Memorial Hospital in San Francisco, and former president of the American Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine, offers these stretching guidelines:39

* Stretch after your activity when muscles are warm.

* Warm up muscles before an activity. * Stretch three times a day to gain flexibility, and

one or two times a day to maintain flexibility. * Don't count, breathe. Breathing gets oxygen into

the muscles to help with flexibility. When count- ing, people often hold their breath.

* Know which muscles are tight and stretch these 50 percent more than other muscles.

. Do not bounce or jerk while stretching. Stretch slowly, gradually, and evenly. The greatest gains in the least amount of time can be expe- rienced by stretching for 30 seconds.40

. Stretch muscle groups in various positions to optimize the stretch. For example, both the in- side and the outside of the hamstrings can be stretched. Most muscle groups have three or more fairly easy variations like this to get better stretching of any particular group.


* When an injury has occurred, it is very important to heat up a muscle or tendon before stretching, and especially before activity.

The Second Key to Fitness: Diet

Doctors are always working to preserve our health and cooks to destroy it, but the latter are the more often successful.

-Denis Diderot, 18th century philosopher

Dick is a 54-year old executive who had participated in a progressive exercise program that in- volved walking for about two miles a day, three days a week; then jogging and walking; finally, running for four days a week. He typically covered two miles in 20 to 22 minutes, or 10 to 11 minutes per mile. Three days a week, he had a simple strength and flexibility program, with stretching exercises for the back, hamstring stretches, 50 sit- ups, seven to nine chin-ups, and 30 to 40 push-ups. He stayed on this program for about four years; then downsizing and other internal turmoil at his company made it necessary for him to put in ex- ceptionally long hours. As a result, he began to miss exercise sessions. At a routine physical examination, Dick's doctor noticed that Dick seemed generally depressed, and his physical condition had deteriorated noticeably. In conversation, he was less alert and articulate than he had been just a few months earlier.

The doctor identified what he thought might be the underlying cause of the executive's problem. During a conversation with Dick, the doctor asked as an aside how he was eating. "Oh, I've been so busy lately that I grab something quick whenever I'm hungry. I can't even remember when I was home at a decent hour to have a nice balanced meal with my wife." "What kind of quick things?" the doctor asked. "Hamburgers, French fries, tacos, things like that." As it turned out, Dick had not had more than a half- dozen well-balanced meals in the past six months, and he almost never had fruits or vegetables.

So the doctor arranged to have Dick meet with a nutritionist. The nutritionist's analysis of Dick's eating showed that he was eating too many calories and was not getting the necessary vitamins and min- erals. The physician immediately concluded that Dicks' depression and loss of mental functioning were most likely connected in part to the lack of good nutrition. The doctor placed Dick on a more sound diet regimen and within only a week or two, Dick's mood and mental abilities improved.

Improper nutrition is a common problem. Research

suggests that both exercise and nutrition should form important components of any regimen for prevention of chronic diseases and promotion of optimal health.4' Good nutrition, and a proper diet are abso- lute prerequisites for building up the endurance and muscle power that will enable individuals to function and perform at optimal levels.

Despite-or because of-the abundance of diet- related books on the bestseller lists, it's easy to be confused about exactly what nutritional plan is necessary for superior executive performance. In- dividuals should keep the following in mind as they consider what to eat.42

Reduce fat and cholesterol

A major objective should be to keep consumption of fats-especially saturated fats-and cholesterol as low as possible. Controlling cholesterol levels helps to avoid heart disease, stroke, and heart attacks. The more saturated fat an individual con- sumes, the higher the risk of developing elevated cholesterol, colon cancer, and other diseases.43 There are more calories in each gram of fat (nine calories) than in each gram of protein or carbohydrates (four calories). Consequently, people who eat more fat are likely to become obese. There are three types of fat: saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated. Some research suggests that monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats may help control blood cholesterol levels. Saturated fats definitely raise blood cholesterol levels and should be avoided.44

Olive oil contains a high percentage of monounsaturated fat. Butter is mostly saturated fat, while corn oil is mostly polyunsaturated fat. What bal- ance of fat, carbohydrates, and protein should one's diet have? Adults over 30 should follow these guidelines:45

* No more than 20 to 25 percent of daily calories from fat.

* About 50 to 70 percent of calories from complex carbohydrates, such as fruits, vegetables, legumes, and whole grain products-not candies, desserts, or simple sugars, which are classified as simple carbohydrates.

. About 10 to 20 percent of calories each day from protein sources such as fish, poultry or meats.

Complex carbohydrates make up the bulk of a proposed diet because they are the most readily available and powerful form of energy. A high percentage of complex carbohydrates provides the nutritional fuel needed to perform demanding daily activities in an efficient and effective manner. Complex carbohydrates are also the main


source of fiber, which has been shown to provide major health benefits.

The American Heart Association recommends that daily consumption of cholesterol in foods should be 300 milligrams or less for those without blood cholesterol problems and 200 milligrams or less for those with blood cholesterol problems. A nonproblem range would include adults with total cholesterol of less than 200 mg/dl.

A high percentage of complex carbohydrates provides the nutritional fuel needed to perform demanding daily activities in an efficient and effective manner.

In sum, for better health, it is important to lower consumption of fat, especially saturated fat, and cholesterol by following these guidelines:

* Rely on the nutritional information on food pack- ages that describes the breakdown of calories, amount of calories from fat, and the percentages of fat that are monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and saturated. Always select products that are relatively low in saturated fat.

* With foods that don't have specific nutritional information, note these points: (a) vegetables and fruits are generally safe because they are fat-free, (b) foods containing palm and coconut oil should be avoided because they are high in saturated fats, (c) beef and pork have relatively high levels of saturated fat, so eat them spar- ingly, (d) chicken, turkey, and other poultry (white meat with skin removed) is generally low in fat-as long as preparation is low fat (e.g., broiled, not fried), (e) fish (prepared in a low fat fashion) tends to be low in most fats, although shellfish tend to be high in cholesterol, (f) regular cheese and dairy products, such as whole milk, are high in saturated fat, but low-fat dairy products are widely available and can provide the same nutritional value without the extra fat.

Eat foods high in fiber

An effective strategy to ensure eating less fat and cholesterol is to increase consumption of foods that are high in fiber. Fruits, vegetables, whole-grain products, and cereals with plenty of fiber will contain a greater percentage of complex carbohydrates and a lower percentage of fat, including saturated fat.

There are two main sources of fiber-insoluble and soluble. A diet rich in insoluble fiber so

called because it does not dissolve in water-can prevent or treat colon cancer, diverticulitis, consti- pation, and obesity. Foods high in insoluble fiber include wheat bran and whole grain cereals, corn bran, nuts, seeds, and crunchy vegetables like broccoli and carrots.

Soluble fiber has been shown in some studies to help reduce the level of cholesterol in the blood. In particular, oat bran and oatmeal have been linked in various studies to a reduction of cholesterol. As a result, soluble fiber is considered an important food for lowering the risk of atherosclerosis and heart disease. Good sources of soluble fiber include oats, oatbran, oatmeal, apples, citrus fruits, dried legumes, beans, lentils, barley, peas, pota- toes, raw cabbage, strawberries, and Metamucil.

The bottom line about fiber is this: Eat at least 20 to 35 grams of fiber per day with about half coming from soluble fiber and half from insoluble fiber.46

Ensure high calcium intake

Since bone loss becomes an increasing concern as one ages, it is particularly important to preserve bone mass. Adequate levels of calcium are essential for strong bones and teeth. This mineral also plays an integral role in protecting adults from osteoporosis, the bone-weakening disease that affects an estimated 24 million Americans, and from cardiovascular disease and colon cancer.

The amount of calcium recommended for adults is 1,500 milligrams of a day. The best dairy sources of dietary calcium, with milligram amounts indicated are: skim and low-fat milk (300-325 mg per eight ounce glass); plain and low-fat yogurt (415 mg per cup); ricotta cheese (340 mg per 1/2 cup); Swiss cheese (270 mg per ounce); cheddar, Monterey, provolone cheese (200-214 mg per ounce); American cheese (150-180 mg per ounce).

Effective nondairy sources of calcium include sardines with bones (324 mg per three ounce can in oil); canned salmon with bones (180 mg per three ounce can); tofu (108 mg per 3 ounces); frozen chopped broccoli (94 mg per 1/2 cup). Adults can get the entire dose of calcium through diet. If foods do not provide the calcium requirement, the re- maining portion can be achieved through a calcium supplement. Calcium supplement amounts vary from product to product, so one should read the label to ascertain the number of milligrams in each calcium tablet.47

Consume antioxidants

Antioxidants reduce or eliminate damage caused by dangerous, out-of-control molecules that often


contain oxygen. These molecules, known as free radicals, are critical to the working of the immune system.48 When they are present in the body in excessive amounts, however, the immune system may cease to operate properly. In fact, studies suggest that there is a significant relationship between free radical damage and coronary artery disease, various forms of cancer, premature aging, early onset of Parkinson's disease, and cataracts.49

There is growing research evidence that an increase in free radicals can be caused by factors that people are exposed to every day-stress, cigarette smoke, air pollution, ultraviolet light, and even cer- tain drugs.50 While the body produces a variety of antioxidants to fight free radicals, additional antioxidants are normally necessary through a well-man- aged diet and a supplement program. Specifically, the most powerful antioxidants that can be taken in through food and supplements are vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene (the precursor to vitamin A), folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12, and selenium. Scien- tific studies support the idea that antioxidant supplements will help prevent the damage inflicted by free radicals in the body.5'

A nutritional program that includes optimal dos- ages52 of antioxidants has the potential to increase protection from many forms of cancer, strengthen defenses against heart disease, preserve eyesight via the prevention of cataracts, delay the onset of aging, develop a more powerful immune system, and decrease the risk of Parkinson's disease.

Gaining Time, Prolonging Life

We have attempted to explain the importance and benefits of fitness for executives and to offer exercise and diet prescriptions to enhance functioning and performance. We stress the importance of endurance, strength, and flexibility. We suggest that people reduce their intake of fats and cholesterol and increase the amount of fiber, calcium, and antioxidants consumed. As a case in point, consider Michael Mangum, president of the Mangum Group. At the age of 38, he had been diagnosed with early stages of arteriosclerosis. Two years later, after applying many of these principles, he has clearly benefited:

... my weight has dropped 25 pounds, my body fat dropped from 19 percent to roughly 10 percent, and my cholesterol from 225 to 110.... My ultrafast CT scan showed no spread of heart-related calcifications, and my time on the treadmill stress test went up by three minutes or so. It has made a big differ- ence for me. On a related point, I find that I

miss less time from work due to illness. Since I started on a pretty rigorous wellness program (including antioxidants and other supplements) I have seen a marked drop in my sick days. I virtually don't get sick any more.53

Finally, we offer these words written by the late exercise enthusiast, author, and cardiologist, Dr. George Sheehan:

People who say they can't find the time to become fit should realize that a fitness program actually produces time.

Indeed, executives who place a priority on fitness and follow the prescriptions outlined here will reap more time; they should live not only longer, but also gain maximum effectiveness and effi- ciency. Who benefits? Executives themselves and the organizations that depend on their leadership and other talents.

People who say they can't find the time to become fit should realize that a fitness program actually produces time.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Ruth Martin, Heidi Neck, Jeff Houghton, and Chuck Koerber for their insightful comments. They would also like to thank the editors and two anonymous reviewers for their suggestions towards enhancing earlier versions of this manuscript.

Appendix. Endurance Test Scoring for One-Mile Walk

Real Age Men Women 20-29 11:20 -12:20 12:00 -12:59 30-39 12:21 -13:20 13:00 -13:59 40-49 13:21 -14:20 14:00 -14:59 50-59 14:21 -15:20 15:00 -15:59 60-69 15:21 -16:20 16:00 -16:59 70+ 16:21 and longer 17:00 and longer

Source: Cooper, K. H. 1995. It's Better To Believe. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 46. Also available in paperback as Faith- Based Fitness. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 1997.

Notes. Real age refers to the functional or physiologic age at which your physical and mental capabilities are currently operating. Walking times are in minutes and seconds.

Endnotes

'This quotation appeared in LeRoux, M. 1981. Cashing in on wellness. Business Insurance, September 1.


2 Smolin, L. A., & Grossvenor, M. B. 1997. Nutrition: Science and applications, 2nd ed. Fort Worth: Saunders College Pub- lishing. 354.

3The sources for the quotations by Mr. Mangum and Mr. Monaghan were personal interviews conducted by the first author on February 26, 1999 (Mr. Mangum), March 23, 1999 (Mr. Monaghan), and March 15, 1999 (Mr. Harris). The quotes by Ms. Kaplan and Ms. Cone appeared in Rippe, J. M. 1989. Psychology Today. CEO fitness: The performance plus. 23(5):50-54.

4For more information on these studies and others that exam- ine the fitness-performance relationship, see Shephard, R. J. 1999. Do work-site exercise and health programs work? The Physician and Sports Medicine, 27:48-72; Frew, D. R., & Bruning, N. S. 1988. Improved productivity and job satisfaction through employee exercise programs. Hospital Material Management Quarterly, 9:62- 69; Gettman, L. R. 1980. The effect of employee physical fitness on job performance. Personnel Administrator, November:41-61.

'For additional discussion of these and other studies focusing on fitness-mental performance issues, see Lupinacci, N. S., Rikli, R. E., Jones, C. J., & Ross, D. 1993. Age and physical activity effects on reaction time and digit symbol substitution performance in cognitively active adults. Research Quarterly For Ex- ercise and Sport, 64(2):144-151; Bunce, D. J., Barrowclough, A., & Morris, I. 1996. The moderating influence of physical fitness on age gradients in vigilance and serial choice responding tasks. Psychology and Aging, 11(4):671-682; Wojtek, J. C., Solomon, J., Heinl, B., & Ellis, N. R. 1992. The influence of physical fitness on automatic and effortful memory changes in aging. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 35(4):265-286.

6For more discussion of the benefits of being fit, see Cooper, K. H. 1995. It's better to believe. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc. The paperback edition of this citation is Cooper, K. H. 1997. Faith-based fitness. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.

7For an in-depth discussion of research on physical activity and psychological outcomes, see: Physical activity and psychological benefits: Internal Society of Sport Psychology position statement. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 1992, 20(10):179-184; Brandon, J. E., & Loftin, J. M. 1991. Relationship of fitness to depression, state and trait anxiety, intemal health locus of control, and self-control. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73(2):563-566.

'These remarks appear in Rippe, op. cit. 9 See Paolone, A. M., et al. 1976. Results of two years of exercise

training in middle-aged men. The Physician and Sports Medicine, December: 77; Ornish, D., Brown, S. E., Scherwitz, L. W., et al. 1990. Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? Lancet, 336, July, 21:129-133; Smolin & Grossvenor, op. cit.

" Healthy people 2000: National health promotion and disease prevention objectives. 1990. Washington DC: U.S. Depart- ment of Health and Human Services.

11 For a more precise discussion of these landmark studies, see: Calle, E. E., Eugenia, E., Thun, M. J., Petrelli, J. M., et al. 1999. Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults. The New England Journal of Medicine, 341:1097-1105; Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Paffenbarger, R. S., Jr., Clark, D. G., Cooper, K. H., & Gibbons, L. W. 1989. Physical fitness and all- cause mortality: A prospective study of healthy men and women. Journal of The American Medical Association, 262(17): 2395-2401; Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Barlow, C. E., Paffenbarger, R. S., Jr., Gibbons, L. W., & Macera, C. A. 1995. Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. Journal of The American Medical Association, 273(14):1093-1098.

12 Romano, C. 1994. In sickness and in health. Management Review, 83(5):40-46.

13 Economic Cost of Cardiovascular Diseases. American Heart Association world wide web page (http://american- heart.org/statistics/l0 econom.html).

4 Health Education Branch, Office of Prevention, Education, and Control; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Ser- vice, National Institutes of Health. 1981. Cardiovascular primer for the workplace. NIH Publication No. 81-2210. January.

15 This quotation is documented in Rippe, J. M., & Groves, D. 1990. The new executive image: A fitter breed. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 18(5):125-134.

1 More details related to this survey can be found in ibid. Also, Leinfelder, J. 1991. Executive training: How five managers keep that lean and hungry look. Corporate Report-Minnesota, 22(5):86-93; Rippe, op. cit.

17 See Note 3 for the sources of these quotations. The other fitness examples of executives have been documented in: Han- non, K. 1999. USA TODAY. USA TODAY profile: Charles Rossotti. February 17:7B; Michels, A. J. 1992. Fortune. Doctor's orders: CEOs of pharmaceutical companies stay fit through exercise and a healthy diet. June 15, 125(12):13-15; Kilman, S. 1999. Wall Street Journal. Sears names as Chief Financial Officer Day, who helped revive Safeway Inc. March 5:B-8.

18 argument that "executives who are dedicated to f it- ness may be basing their exercise and diet routines on obsolete or incomplete data" was another finding from the survey of executives from the United States' top 3,000 companies (see endnote 16). Also see Rippe, op. cit. for more information on this survey and this particular finding from this survey.

19 Unless otherwise stated, the main sources for the prescriptions and other materials in this article are the second author's own clinical testing and research, which he has conducted during the last three decades in the United States Air Force, at the Cooper Clinic in Dallas, and at the Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research in Dallas. Before implementing any of the exercise and/or diet prescriptions in this article and/or before embarking on any exercise and/or nutritional program, readers should obtain medical clearance from a qualified physician.

20 See Ahrens, R. 1995. Inc. The healthy workplace. 17(11):77-86. 21 Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit. 22 See Higginbotham, M. B., Morris, K. G., Williams, R. S.,

Coleman, R. E., & Cobb, F. R. 1986. Physiologic basis for the age-related decline in aerobic work capacity. American Journal of Cardiology, 57:1374-1379; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.

23 For in-depth discussion of these studies and others that focus on the aerobic capacities of older people, see Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.; Haber, P., Honiger, M. K., & Nieder- berger, M. 1984. Effects of elderly people 67-76 years of age of three-month endurance training on a bicycle ergometer. Euro- pean Heart Journal, 5 (Supplement, E):37-39; Strovas, J. 1990. Chronic illness need not deter elderly exercisers. The Physician and Sports Medicine, 18(2):20.

24 This quotation appeared in The Physician and Sports Med- icine, 1990, 18(11):89.

25 See for example Higginbotham, Morris, Williams, Coleman, & Cobb op. cit.; Kasch, F. W., Boyer, J. L., Van Camp, S. P., Verity, L. S., & Wallace, J. P. 1990. The effect of physical activity and inactivity on aerobic power in older men (a longi- tudinal study). The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 18(4):73.

26 Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit. 27 See for instance Cooper, K. H. 1982. The aerobics program

for total well-being. New York: Bantam Books; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.

28 Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit. 29 See Pate, R. R., Pratt, M., Blair, S. N., Haskell, W. L., Macera,

C. A., et al. 1995. Physical activity and health. A recommenda- tion from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. Journal of the Amer- ican Medical Association, 273(5):402-407.


30See Blair, Kohl, Paffenbarger, Clark, Cooper, & Gibbons, op. cit.

31 For more discussion on aging and muscle mass decreases, see for instance Cohen, S. H., et al. 1980. Compartmental body composition based on the body, nitrogen, potassium, and calcium. American Journal of Physiology, 239:192-200; Evans, W. J., & Campbell, W. W. 1993. Sarcopenia and age-related changes in the body composition and functional capacity. Journal of Nutrition, 123:465-468.

32For more insights into this Danish study and for more information on the importance of muscle mass loss, see Hjort Sorensen, K. State of health and its association with death among old people at three-years follow-up. Institute for Almen Medicin, Kobenhavns Universitet, Juliane Maries Vej 18, DK- 2100 Kobenhavn 0, 121; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.

33 Fiatarone, M. A., Marks, E. C., Ryan, N. D., Meredith, C. N., Lipsitz, L. A., & Evans, W. J. 1990. High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians. Journal of The American Medical Asso- ciation, 263(22):3029-3034.

34 For a more specific delineation of the relation of strength and bone loss see for example, Sinaki, M. 1989. Exercise and osteoporosis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 70, March:220-229; Work, J. A. 1989. Strength training: A bridge to independence for the elderly. The Physician and Sports Medi- cine, 17(11):134-138.

35 For specifics on this two-part strength test and a complete scoring guide, see Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 47.

36 Specific programs to enhance executive strength are de- scribed in detail in Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 128-150.

37 For an expanded discussion of flexibility and related benefits see Stevens, K. 1998. A theoretical overview of stretching and flexibility. American Fitness, 16(1):30-37; Garnett, L. R. 1996. Stretching it to the limit: Stretching exercises increase flexibility of joints. Harvard Health Letter, 21(9):4-6.

38 For specifics on this basic flexibility test and a complete scoring guide, see Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit., 50.

39 See a fuller discussion of Dr. Blake's stretching guidelines in Blake, R. 1998. Don't take muscle flexibility for granted. Ex- ecutive Health's Good Health Report, 34(12):7-8.

40 See Bandy, W. D., Irion, J. M., & Briggler, M. 1997. The effect of time and frequency of static stretching on flexibility of the hamstring muscles. Physical Therapy, 77(10):1090-1097.

41 See for example, Singh, V. N. 1992. A current prospective on nutrition and exercise. Journal of Nutrition, 122(3 Supplement): 760-765; Blair, S. N., Horton, E., Leon, A. S., Lee, I. M., Drinkwater, B. L., Dishman, R. K., Mackey, M., & Kienholz, M. L. 1996. Physical activity, nutrition, and chronic disease. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 28(3):335-349.

42 For a detailed discussion of these issues related to executive nutrition, see Cooper, K. H. 1996. Advanced nutritional therapies. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.

43 For a closer look at research studies examining the link between fat intake and/or cholesterol levels and negative health outcomes, see for example: Dwyer, J. T. 1993. Diet and

nutritional strategies for cancer risk reduction. Cancer, 72:1025- 1031; De Vries, C. E., & van Noorden, C. J. 1992. Effects of dietary fatty acid composition on tumor growth and metastasis. Anti- cancer Research, 12:1513-1522.

44 See for example, Norum, K. R. 1992. Dietary fat and blood lipids. Nutrition Reviews, 50:30-37.

45 Cooper, Nutritional therapies, op. cit.; Cooper, Better to believe, op. cit.

46 For other discussions examining the relationship between fiber and health, see for example Council on Scientific Affairs, Dietary Fiber and Health. 1989. Journal of The American Medical Association, 262(4):542-546; Schneeman, B. O., & Tietyen, J. 1994. Dietary Fiber. In M. E. Shils, J. A. Olson, & M. Shike, (Eds.), Modern nutrition in health and disease, 8th ed. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

47 Further examination of discussions and/or studies that focus on the link between calcium intake and health can be found in: Marcus, R. 1986. Calcium intake and skeletal integrity: Is there a critical relationship? The Journal of Nutrition, 117(17):631; Toss, G. 1992. Effect of calcium intake and other lifestyle factors in bone loss. Journal of International Medical Research, 231:181- 186; Bunker, V. W. 1994. The role of nutrition in osteoporosis. British Journal of Biomedical Science, 51:228-240.

48 A primary source for our discussion on free radicals and antioxidants is the entire issue supplement of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition that was devoted to the topics of free radicals and antioxidants. The citation for this issue is: American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Supplement to Vol. 53(1), January 1991:189S-396S.

49 For examples of research findings and/or discussions sup- porting the relationship between free radical damage and negative health outcomes, see for example Cochrane, C. G. 1991. Cellular injury by oxidants. The American Journal of Medicine, Supplement 3C, September:303C-23Sff.; Kanter, M. M. 1994. Free radicals, exercise, and antioxidant supplementation. Interna- tional Journal of Sport Nutrition, 4(3):205-225.

5 See Cooper, K. H. 1994. Dr. Kenneth H. Cooper's antioxidant revolution. Nashville: Thomas Nelson, Inc.

51 See for example, Block, G. 1992. The data support a role for antioxidants in reducing cancer risk. Nutrition Reviews, 50:207- 213; Kanter, op. cit.

52 Be sure to consult with a physician before taking high dosages of individual supplements if you are on prescribed medications, are pregnant, or have any kind of health problem. Comprehensive guidelines for optimal antioxidant dosages have been issued by the Cooper Clinic. For example, adults over the age of 22 should consume daily the following: vitamin C (1000 mg); vitamin E (400 IU); beta carotene (5000 IU); folic acid (800 mcg); vitamin B6 (50 mg); vitamin B12 (400 mcg); and selenium (100 mcg). Other specific recommendations for optimal dosages of antioxidants can be found in Cooper, Antioxidant revolution, op. cit.

53 Interview with Michael Mangum by the first author, February 26, 1999.


Christopher P. Neck is an asso- ciate professor of management at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. His most recent books include Mastering

- .-~ N~ Self-Leadership: Empowering Yourself for Personal Excel- lence (Prentice-Hall, 1999) and Medicine for the Mind (McGraw-Hill, 1997). He has completed twelve marathons. Contact: [email protected].

Kenneth H. Cooper is a graduate of both the University of Okla- homa School of Medicine and the Harvard University School of Public Health. Founder of the Cooper Aerobics Center, he coined the term aerobics in 1968, and has received worldwide rec- ognition for his contributions to health and fitness. He received the C. Everett Koop Award for his distinguished advocacy of health and wellness. Contact: [email protected].

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