final draft chapter 4

7/27/2019 Final Draft Chapter 4

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CHAPTER IV

PERSPECTIVE-TAKING: FROM BASIC UNDERSTANDING TO APPLICATION

Perspective-Taking: A Multi-Faceted Concept

A Brief Definition

Perspective-t!i"# $s %ee" &e'i"e&( i" t$e )*st %sic se"se( s t$e vicri*+s

e,perie"ce *' "*t$er Sc$+.t/( 011234 A"*t$er 56 t* c*"cept+.i/e perspective-t!i"#

is " tte)pt t* +"&erst"& "*t$er pers*" %6 i)#i"i"# t$t pers*"7s perspective

Bts*"( Bts*" et .4( 288934 A&&iti*"..6( perspective-t!i"# re'ers )i".6 t* t$e

c*#"itive pr*cess i"v*.ve& i" t!i"# t$e ps6c$*.*#ic. perspective *' "*t$er O.5e+s

E"&rese"( 288;34

The Relationship Between Perspective-Taking and !path"

I" t$e .te 28


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t$e &i)e"si*"s *' e)pt$6 O.5e+s E"&rese"( 288;34 Rece"t st+&ies $ve s+pp*rte&

t$ese er.6 i&es "& )i"ti" t$e p*sitive c*rre.ti*" %et5ee" e)pt$6 "&

perspective-t!i"# Str6er( 28;134 T$ere'*re( perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*" $s

%ec*)e t$e )*st 're=+e"t.6 +se& &irect )"ip+.ti*" *' e)pt$ic e)*ti*" Bts*"( T+r!

et .4( 288934

The Perspective-Taking #u$scale of the %nterpersonal Reactivit" %nde&

T$e perspective-t!i"# s+%sc.e *' t$e IRI s &isc+sse& i" C$pter III3 tte)pts

t* ssess e''*rts t*5r&s &*pti"# t$e perspective *' *t$ers "& seei"# t$i"#s 'r*) t$eir

p*i"t *' vie54 T$is &i)e"si*" *' t$e IRI )es+res te"&e"c6 t* i)#i"e t$e r*.e *'

"*t$er( "& i" t+r"( +"&erst"& "& pre&ict t$*+#$ts( 'ee.i"#s( "& cti*"s( *' *t$ers

cc+rte.6 Pere/-A.%i"e/ &e P+.( 011>34 Dvis 2882


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ttit+&es Bts*" et .4( 28834 E)pt$ic c*"cer" $s .s* %ee" s$*5" s p*sitive.6

c*rre.te& 5it$ $e.pi"# %e$vi*r Bier$*'' R*$)""( 01134 Perspective-t!i"# c"

eve" .e& t* i"crese& res*+rce ..*cti*" '*r t$e #r*+p t* 5$ic$ t$e tr#et %e.*"#s

Sevi.."* et .4( 01134 T$ese +ses *' perspective-t!i"# $ve %ee" e.%*rte& %6 sever.

c.ssic st+&ies4

%!proving Attitudes Towards (roups

Bts*" et .4 2883 per'*r)e& st+&6 c*"cer"e& 5it$ testi"# t$e e''ective"ess *'

e)pt$6 i" i"&+ci"# p*sitive ttit+&e )*&i'icti*" t*5r& sti#)ti/e& #r*+ps4 T$is

reserc$ &i& i"&icte( ?P*sitive e)pt$ic 'ee.i"#s i"&+ce& '*r " i"&ivi&+. sti#)ti/e&

#r*+p )e)%er #e"er.i/e t* t$e #r*+p s 5$*.e@ Bts*" et .4( 288( p4 2234 Bts*"

et .47s 01103 reserc$ .s* i..+strte& t$e i&e t$t e)pt$ic..6 t!i"# t$e perspective *'

tr#et( 5$* is .s* )e)%er *' sti#)ti/e& #r*+p( c" i)pr*ve ttit+&es t*5r&s t$e

#r*+p s 5$*.e4 T$ere'*re( se.'-rep*rte& e)pt$ic 'ee.i"#s see) t* %e ss*cite& 5it$

)*re p*sitive ttit+&es t*5r&s t$e sti#)ti/e& #r*+p Bts*" et .4( 011034 A"*t$er

st+&6 %6 Sevi.."* et .4 0113 pr*vi&e& eve" %r*&er #e"er.i/%i.it6 *'

perspective-t!i"# s t$e )"ip+.ti*" .e& t* "*t *".6 t* i"crese& c*"cer" '*r t$e

speci'ic pict+re& "i). %er i" t$is cse3( "*r *".6 %ers( %+t #e"er. i"crese&

c*"cer" '*r t$e 5e.'re *' .. .ivi"# *r#"is)s i"c.+&e& i" t$e %i*sp$eric sc.e t$t t$e

reserc$ers +ti.i/e&4

ncouraging )elpfulness

I)#i"i"# t$e ''ective stte *' "*t$er *'te" res+.ts i" *''eri"# $e.p t* t$t tr#et

Dvis( 2880


4/12

i"crese& .eve.s *' c*"cer" '*r tr#et "& #reter .eve.s *' $e.pi"# Sevi.."* et .4(

01134 T$is c*"cept t$t $i#$ .eve.s *' e)pt$ic c*"cer"s re p*sitive.6 c*rre.te& 5it$

$i#$ .eve.s *' $e.p'+."ess is 5e.. s+pp*rte& D*vi&i*( A..e"( Sc$r*e&er( 288134 F*r

e,)p.e( Bts*"( T+r!( et .4 28893 c*"&+cte& st+&6 +ti.i/i"# st+&e"ts t!i"# t$e

perspective *' c.ss)te e,perie"ci"# ')i.6 crisis4 T$is reserc$ &e)*"strte& t$t

t$is perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*" i"crese& v*.+"teeri"# t* $e.p t$is st+&e"t

Sevi.."* et .434 A"*t$er e,)p.e *' s+pp*rtive reserc$ '*r t$e $6p*t$esis t$t

perspective-t!i"# +.ti)te.6 i"crese $e.p'+."ess t*5r&s t$e tr#et c" %e '*+"& i"

Bts*" et .47s 01103 st+&64 Bts*" et .4 01103 '*+"& t$t t$e )*re p*sitive ttit+&es(

5$ic$ re '*stere& %6 perspective-t!i"#( re i" t+r"( ss*cite& 5it$ i"crese& .eve.s *'

$e.pi"# '*r t$t #r*+p4

%ncreasing Allocation of Resources to Target

Bts*" et .4 01103 '+rt$ere& +"&erst"&i"# *' t$e e''ects *' perspective-t!i"# i"

"*t$er e)pt$6-i"&+ci"# st+&64 T$e reserc$ers i"&+ce& prticip"ts 5it$ e)pt$6(

t$r*+#$ perspective-t!i"#( '*r 'icti*". c$rcter t$t 5s s+pp*se&.6 &&icte& t* $r&

&r+#s4 Prticip"ts i" t$e perspective-t!i"# c*"&iti*" &i& rep*rt e)pt$ic 'ee.i"#s

t*5r&s t$is c$rcter( %+t t$e e,te"t *' t$e c$"#es i"itite& %6 perspective-t!i"# &*es

"*t e"& t$ere4 Prticip"ts .s* i"crese& i" 5i..i"#"ess t* ..*cte '+"&s t* *t$ers

&&icte& t* $r& &r+#s( eve" i' t$ese '+"&s 5*+.& "*t $e.p t$e speci'ie& tr#et Bts*" et

.4( 011034 F+rt$er reserc$ &*es s+pp*rt t$is c*"cept t$t $i#$ e)pt$6 .eve.s( i"&+ce&

t$r*+#$ perspective-t!i"#( &* c*rre.te 5it$ i"crese& ..*cti*" *' res*+rces t* t$e

tr#et Bts*"( Bts*"( et .4( 288934

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%ncreased nviron!ental Concern

I" s*)e st+&ies e,peri)e"t..6 i"&+ce& perspective-t!i"# res+.te& i" "

i"crese& %i*sp$eric e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" S$+.t/( 011234 Sevi.."* et .4 0113

st+&ie& t$e i)pct *' perspective-t!i"# *" e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" "& t$e )*&erti"#

e''ects *' &isp*siti*". e)pt$64 T$ese reserc$ers )es+re& &isp*siti*". e)pt$6(

5$ic$ t$e6 c*"si&ere& " "tece&e"t( 5it$ t$e IRI4 T$e6 )"ip+.te& perspective-t!i"#

5it$ i"str+cti*". sets( "& e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" 5s )es+re& 5it$ t$e E"vir*")e"t.

M*tives Sc.e( 5$ic$ 5s i"tr*&+ce& %6 S$+.t/ s cite& i" Sevi.."* et .434 Prticip"ts

5ere r"&*).6 ssi#"e& t* vie5 eit$er " "i). i" "t+re *r $r)e& "i).4

Prticip"ts 5ere .s* ssi#"e& t* *"e *' t$ree p*ssi%.e e,peri)e"t. i"str+cti*"

c*"&iti*"s: "* i"str+cti*"( i"str+cti*" t* re)i" *%ective( *r i"str+cti*" t* t!e t$e

perspective *' t$e "i).4 T$*se 5$* vie5e& $r)e& "i). +"&er t$e

perspective-t!i"# i"str+cti*"s s$*5e& t$e $i#$est .eve. *' %i*sp$eric c*"cer" "& t$e

.*5est .eve.s *' e#*istic c*"cer"4 T$is i"crese& c*"cer" '*r t$e 5e.'re *' "i).s "&

t$e %i*sp$ere see)s t* %e &+e t* t$e #e"erti*" *' e)pt$6 %6 t$e perspective-t!i"#

)"ip+.ti*" "& $s %ee" rep.icte& i" *t$er st+&ies S$+.t/( 011134

E)pt$ic c*"cer"s "& perspective-t!i"# re p*sitive.6 c*rre.te& 5it$

%i*sp$eric c*"cer"s Ar"*c!6( Str*i"!( DeCicc*( 01134 St+&ies see) t* s$*5 t$t

e)pt$ic..6 i"&+ce& perspective-t!i"# c" i"crese %i*sp$eric "& e"vir*")e"t.

c*"cer" 5it$i" " i"&ivi&+. Sc$+.t/( 011234 A si)p.e perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*"

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c" i"crese .eve.s *' %i*sp$eric e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer"s S$+.t/( 011134 Bi*sp$eric

c*"cer"s( i" t+r"( $ve %ee" s$*5" s %etter pre&ict*rs *' pr*-e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*r

"& pr*-e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*rs t$" e#*istic c*"cer"s Hirs$ D*.&er)"( 01134

Potential %ssues *ith Perspective-Taking

+ulnera$ilit" and resultant distancing, Perspective-t!i"# i"v*.ves c*)p.e,

reversi"# *' perspectives "& 5ei#$i"# *' i"&ivi&+. ri#$ts %se& *" t$ese perspectives

Krpi! Bri.( 011;34 T$ere'*re( perspective-t!i"# c" )!e *"e7s *5"

v+."er%i.it6 t* si)i.r p.i#$t s.ie"t4 Bec+se *' t$is( perspective-t!i"# )6 .e& t*

&e'e"sive resp*"se *r t* ps6c$*.*#ic..6 &ist"ci"# *"ese.' Bts*" et .4( 28834

Alternate need assistance, D*vi&i* et .4 28813 c*"&+cte& reserc$ *" 5$et$er

e)pt$ic perspective-t!i"# c" i"&+ce prticip"ts t* ssist tr#ets 5it$ "ee&s t$t &i''er

'r*) t$*se 5$ic$ t$e e)pt$6 5s i"iti..6 i"&+ce& '*r4 T$e reserc$ers pr*v*!e&

prticip"ts t* 'ee. $i#$ *r .*5 e)pt$6 '*r pers*" i" "ee&( +si"# perspective-t!i"#(

"& t$e" #ve t$e) c$"ce t* $e.p t$e tr#et 5it$ eit$er t$e "ee& '*r 5$ic$ e)pt$6

5s i"&+ce& '*r( *r "*t$er( .ter"te "ee& s cite& i" Bts*"( T+r!( et .4( 288934

D*vi&i* et .4 '*+"& t$t e)pt$etic perspective-t!i"# see)s t* *".6 i"crese $e.pi"#

5it$ t$e speci'ie& "ee&( per$ps %ec+se 5$e" t$e *pti*" '*r $e.pi"# 5s #ive" t$e

*ri#i". "ee& sti.. e,iste& T$is reserc$ s$*5s t$t e)pt$6-i"&+ce& $e.pi"# )6 "*t

#e"er.i/e cr*ss t5* "ee&s *' *"e i"&ivi&+. Bts*" et .4( 011034 T$ere'*re( it is

p*ssi%.e t$t t$e i"crese& v.+i"# *' t$e tr#et )6 "*t )"i'est +"ti. t$e )*tivti*" *'

e)pt$6 $s psse& 5it$ t$e cessti*" *' t$e *ri#i". "ee& D*vi&i* et .434

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%!plications of Perspective-Taking

ong-Ter! +aluing

Perspective-t!i"# $s %ee" +ti.i/e& i" "+)er*+s st+&ies( 5$ic$ 're=+e"t.6

&e)*"strte t$t t$is t6pe *' )"ip+.ti*" re.i%.6 i"creses e)pt$6 Bts*"( T+r!( et

.4( 288934 Be6*"& i"cresi"# e)pt$6( perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*"s $ve %ee"

s$*5"( )*re rece"t.6( t* i"crese v.+i"# *' tr#et pers*"7s 5e.'re4 It $s .s* %ee"

pr*p*se& t$t "t+re is v.+e& %se& *" t$e &e#ree t* 5$ic$ it is i"c.+&e& 5it$i" *"e7s

*5" c*#"itive represe"tti*" *' t$e se.' Sc$+.t/( 011234 T$is i"cresi"# *' v.+e see)s

t* c*)e s sec*"&r6 res+.t t* e)pt$6( "& t$ere'*re( )i#$t %e c*"si&ere& '+"cti*"

*' i"crese& e)pt$6 Bts*"( T+r!( et .434

T$e i"crese& e)pt$6 t$t is pr*v*!e& %6 perspective-t!i"# see)s t* .e& t*

percepti*" *' i"crese& v.+i"# *' t$is i"&ivi&+.s 5e.'re( %+t reserc$ $s &e)*"strte&

t$t e)pt$6 c" .s* i"crese t$e v.+i"# *' #r*+p t* 5$ic$ t$e tr#et %e.*"#s Bts*"

et .4( 011034 A )*r 'ct*r i" v.+i"# )6 %e t$e e,te"t t* 5$ic$ #r*+p )e)%ers$ip is

s.ie"t iss+e *' t$e "ee& '*r 5$ic$ t$e e)pt$ic 'ee.i"#s 5ere i"&+ce&4 I' *"e

e)pt$i/es i" resp*"se t* "ee&( 5$ic$ is s.ie"t t$r*+#$*+t t$e #r*+p( t$e" it '*..*5s

t$t e)pt$6 c*+.& i)pr*ve ttit+&es t*5r& t$e #r*+p s 5$*.e Bts*" et .4( 011034

F+rt$er)*re( t$is v.+i"# c" e"&+re %e6*"& t$e cessti*" *' t$e *ri#i". "ee& 5$e" t$e

res+.t"t e)pt$6 s$*+.& $ve e"&e& Bts*"( T+r!( et .4( 288934 T$is reserc$ $s #ret

i)p.icti*"s s i"crese& v.+i"#( pr*v*!e& %6 &irect )"ip+.ti*"s *' e)pt$6 s+c$ s

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perspective-t!i"#( see)s t* #e"er.i/e t* '+t+re e)pt$6 "& $e.pi"# Bts*"( T+r!( et

.434

%nterconnectedness with .ature

C*""ecte&"ess 5it$ "t+re c" %e &e'i"e& s ?t$e e,te"t t* 5$ic$ " i"&ivi&+.

i"c.+&es "t+re 5it$i" $is$er c*#"itive represe"tti*" *' se.'@ M6er Fr"t/( 011( p4

9134 I" &&iti*" t* pr*&+ci"# e)pt$ic e)*ti*"s perspective-t!i"# )6 .s*

te)p*rri.6 i"crese t$e e,te"t t* 5$ic$ prticip"ts c*"si&er t$e)se.ves i"terc*""ecte&

5it$ "t+re4 T$t is t* s6( perspective-t!i"# )6 re&+ce t$e &e#ree *' seprti*" t$t

i"&ivi&+.s perceive %et5ee" t$e)se.ves "& "t+re S$+.t/( 011134 S+%se=+e"t.6(

Sc$+.t/ 01123 c*"si&ere& perspective-t!i"# ? )"ip+.ti*" *' t$e i"terc*""ecte&"ess

%et5ee" se.'( *t$er "& %i*sp$ere@ S$+.t/( 0112( p4 1>34

A c*"si&erti*" *' .. .ivi"# t$i"#s s prt *' t$e se.' )6 'ci.itte

pr*-e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*r Ar"*c!6 et .4( 01134 Hi#$ .eve.s *' c*""ectivit6 5it$

"t+re $ve %ee" s$*5" t* %e c*rre.te& 5it$ e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" "&

pr*-e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*r D+tc$er et .4( 01134 S$+.t/ i"terprete& t$is e"vir*")e"t.

c*"cer"( s re'.ective *' vr6i"# .eve.s *' perceive& i"terc*""ecti*" %et5ee" se.' "&

"t+re4 D+tc$er et .4 .s* p*sit t$t c*""ectivit6 5it$ "t+re re'.ects se"se *' e)pt$6

%ec+se +"it6 %et5ee" se.' "& "t+re re i"$ere"t i" t$is c*"cept4 T$is c*"te"ti*" t$t

c*""ecte&"ess 5it$ "t+re )6 .e& t* c*"cer" '*r "t+re $s %ee" s+pp*rte& %6 sever.

st+&ies M6er Fr"t/( 01134

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!pathi/ing *ith Ani!als

S$+.t/ 01113 e,)i"e& t$e e''ects *' perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*" *"

e#*istic( s*ci. .tr+istic "& %i*sp$eric c*"cer"s4 Prticip"ts i" S$+.t/7s st+&6 5$*

5ere i" t$e perspective-t!i"# c*"&iti*" e,perie"ce& i"crese& %i*sp$eric c*"cer" 5$e"

s$*5" " "i). %ei"# $r)e& %6 p*..+ti*"4 H*5ever( t$ere 5s "* si#"i'ic"t

&i''ere"ce %et5ee" t$e perspective-t!i"# c*"&iti*" "& t$e *%ective c*"&iti*" 5$e" t$e

i)#e s$*5" 5s " "i). i" "t+re *r pe*p.e i" "t+re "eit$er i" $r)7s 5634 S$+.t/

01113 s+##este& sever. p*ssi%.e e,p."ti*"s '*r 5$6 perspective-t!i"# )6 i"crese

%i*sp$eric c*"cer" 'ter vie5i"# " "i). $r)e& i" "t+re4 T$e e)pt$6-.tr+is)

$6p*t$esis s &isc+sse& i" C$pter III3 pre&icts t$t t!i"# t$e perspective *' pers*"

%ei"# $r)e& .e&s t* e)pt$6 "& ctivti*" *' " .tr+istic )*tive4 T$ere'*re( per$ps

t$e perspective-t!i"# )"ip+.ti*" i" S$+.t/ e,peri)e"t #e"erte& 'ee.i"#s *' e)pt$6

"& s+%se=+e"t.6 #reter c*"cer" '*r t$e 5e.'re *' t$e "i).s

Pu$lic Application

Broad #cale %!plications

N+)er*+s st+&ies *" t$e t*pic *' .teri"# e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*r $ve

e)p$si/e& perspective-t!i"# s $i#$.6 e''ective )et$*& *' i"cresi"# e)pt$6(

5$ic$ is p*sitive.6 c*rre.te& 5it$ e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" S$+.t/( 011134 Reserc$ $s

.s* s+pp*rte& t$e c*"cept t$t e)pt$ic perspective-t!i"# )6 %e prtic+.r.6 +se'+. i"

ter)s *' t$e e"vir*")e"t %ec+se e)pt$6 $s %ee" s$*5" t* e,te"& t* "i).s "&

"t+re .!er C$p)"( 011>34 T!i"# perspective c*+.& %e e"c*+r#e& t$r*+#$

sever. )et$*&s4

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'tili/ing Marketing Methods *hich ncourage Perspective-Taking

Perspective-t!i"# )6 %e s+ccess'+..6 +ti.i/e& t$r*+#$ )r!eti"# &vertise)e"t

c)pi#"s4 A" e,)p.e *' t$is )i#$t %e i"str+cti"# vie5ers *r .iste"ers t* t!e t$e

perspective *' speci'ic tr#et s+c$ s " "i).34 T$e #*. 5*+.& %e t* i"crese

c*"cer" '*r t$e tr#et "& )*tivte $e.pi"# %e$vi*r Sevi.."* et .4( 01134 T$is #*.

)i#$t .s* %e )et t$r*+#$ i"te"ti*"..6 $vi"# pr! r"#ers e"c*+r#e perspective-t!i"#

&+ri"# t*+rs *r t$r*+#$ si#"s t$t p*rtr6 perspective-t!i"# sce"ri*( "& i" t+r"(

ev*!e e)pt$64 O"e e,)p.e( 5$ic$ is pr*ve& %6 .!er "& C$p)" 011>3( is si#"

5it$ " i)#e *' '5" st"&i"# "er %+s6 r*& stti"# ?P+t 6*+rse.' i" $er $**ves4

P.ese s.*5 &*5"@ p4 ;34 T$ese t6pes *' c)pi#"s c*+.& $ve )*r i)pct *"

pr*-e"vir*")e"t. ttit+&es "&( i" t+r"( %e$vi*rs S$+.t/( 011134

%ncreasing Connectiveness to .ature Through Perspective-Taking

A"*t$er *pti*" '*r pr*)*ti"# pr*-e"vir*")e"t. %e$vi*r *" %r*& sc.e )i#$t

%e +ti.i/i"# perspective-t!i"# t* e"c*+r#e citi/e"s t* i"c.+&e "t+re i" t$eir

se.'-c*"cept( i"cresi"# c*""ectivit6 5it$ "t+re Ar"*c!6 et .4( 01134 M*re

speci'ic..6( *"e tec$"i=+e )i#$t %e t$e &eve.*p)e"t *' e"vir*")e"t. e&+cti*"

pr*#r)s t$t ev*!e e)pt$6 t$r*+#$ perspective-t!i"#( i&e..6 res+.ti"# i" i"c.+si*"

"& i"crese& %i*sp$eric e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer"4 T$is )i#$t %e prtic+.r.6 +se'+.

)*&e. s perspective-t!i"# i"creses c*""ecte&"ess %et5ee" se.' "& e"vir*")e"t "&

?"6 ctivit6 t$t re&+ces " i"&ivi&+.7s perceive& seprti*" %et5ee" se.' "& "t+re

5i.. .e& t* " i"crese i" t$t i"&ivi&+.7s %i*sp$eric c*"cer"@ S$+.t/( 0111( p4 1>34

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T$is t6pe *' e&+cti*" c" *cc+r i" 5i&e vriet6 *' setti"#s "& 5*+.& "*t %e

.i)ite& t* t$e c.ssr**)4 F*r e,)p.e( $i!i"# i" t$e 5**&s( t!i"# c.ss trips t* .*c.

pr!s( *r p."ti"# #r&e"s re .. ctivities t$t 5*+.& pr*vi&e *pp*rt+"ities '*r

perspective-t!i"# t$t )i#$t i"crese i"terc*""ecte&"ess 5it$ "t+re( "& i" t+r"

e"vir*")e"t. c*"cer" S$+.t/( 011134 E"vir*")e"t. c*"servti*" "& 5re"ess

c)pi#"s )6 %e"e'it 'r*) t$is )et$*& *' i"terc*""ecte&"ess( 5$ic$ c*+.& $ve #ret

i)p.icti*"s Ar"*c!6 et .4( 01134

Broad #cale Considerations

Reserc$ i"&ictes t$e i)p*rt"ce *' )i"ti"i"# .ivi"# cret+res s t$e tr#et *'

t$ese c)pi#"s4 Si"ce st+&ies $ve s$*5" t$t perspective-t!i"# c" i"&+ce c*"cer"

'*r pe*p.e Bts*"( Bts*"( et .4( 28893( "& )*re rece"t.6 "*"$+)" "i).s Sevi.."*

et .4( 0113( i"ti)te *%ects( s+c$ s %*tt.es 5i.. pr*%%.6 "*t c+se t$e s)e res+.t4

H*5ever( &espite t$e .c! *' e)piric. s+pp*rt rece"t &vertise)e"t c)pi#"s $ve

tte)pte& t* +ti.i/e perspective-t!i"# '*r i""i)te *%ects4 A" e,)p.e *' t$is t6pe *'

e"c*+r#e)e"t '*r t!i"# t$e perspective *' " i""i)te *%ect is t$e Sp"is$

#*ver")e"t7s rece"t &vertise)e"t c)pi#"( 5$ic$ &epicte& %*tt.es &esiri"# t* %e

rec6c.e& Sevi.."* et .434

Sevi.."* et .4 0113 p*sit t$t t$e i"e''ective"ess *' t$ese c)pi#"s )6 %e

&+e t* t$e .c! *' %sic v.+e *' .i'e '*r t$ese *%ects4 Ge"er. c*"cer" is re=+ire& '*r

perspective-t!i"# t* e''ective.6 i"&+ce e)pt$6 "& t$is c*"cer" )6 "*t e,ist '*r

*%ects .i!e %*tt.es "& c"s4 A.t$*+#$ $+)"s &* "*t 5"t t* see *t$er $+)"s *r

"i).s s+''er Bier$*'' R*$)""( 0113( t$is .eve. *' cri"# pr*%%.6 &*es "*t pp.6

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t* "*".ivi"# *%ects4 A"*t$er p*ssi%i.it6 is t$t c*"cer" "& $e.pi"#3 )6 *".6 pp.6 t*

t$*se 5it$i" *"e7s *5" sc*pe *' +stice( 5$ic$ is )&e +p *' ps6c$*.*#ic. %*+"&ries

%se& *" )*r. "*r)s( ri#$ts "& 'ir"ess Sevi.."* et .434 T$ere'*re( it 5*+.& pper

t$t it is i)p*rt"t t* cre'+..6 c$**se t$e tr#ets *' perspective-t!i"# i" *r&er t* e"s+re

t$t t$e6 c" %e e)pt$i/e& 5it$4

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final draft chapter 4

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