final 1 computer book

7/24/2019 Final 1 Computer Book

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Introduction to Computer

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COMPUTER

The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate.We can define it as, Anelectronic device which can accept the data from user, process it, and

gives the desire output/ result.

Or

A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or "data." It has the ability tostore, retrieve, and process data. You can use a computer to type documents, send email, and

browse the internet. You can also use it to handle spreadsheets, accounting, databasemanagement, presentations, games, and more.

Or

Computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. Data can be anything likemarks obtained by you in various subjects. It can also be name, age, sex, weight, height, etc. ofall the students in a class. Computer can also be defined in terms of functions it can perform. Acomputer can i) accept data, ii) store data, iii) process data as desired, and iv) retrieve the storeddata as and when required and v) print the result in desired format. The major characteristics of acomputer are high speed, accuracy, diligence, versatility and storage.

All types of computers consist of two basic parts:

Hardware: is any part of your computer that has a physical structure, such as the computermonitor or keyboard.

Software: is any set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. It is what guides the

hardware and tells it how to accomplish each task. Some examples of software are web browsers,games, and word processors such as Microsoft Word.

DIGITAL AND ANALOG COMPUTERS

Digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information isrepresented using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices aredigital computers.

Analog computer is another kind of a computer that represents data as variable across acontinuous range of values. The earliest computers were analog computers. Analog computers

are used for measuring of parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature,pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more flexible but generally less precise thandigital computers. Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristicsof a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics is

Speed: The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions persecond. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can becompleted in a few seconds using the computer.


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For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of anorganization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related totemperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.

Accuracy: Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can

accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.

Diligence:When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. Itcan perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start tillthe end.

Storage:Capability Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer andalso retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the

primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and compact disk can store a largeamount of data permanently.

Versatility:Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the sameease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the nextmoment you may play music or print a document.

HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had beenseveral developments in the computing technology related to the mechanical computing devices.The key developments that took place till the first computer was developed are as follows

Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for counting of largenumbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of bars in horizontal positionson which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have 10 beads each, representing units,tens, hundreds, etc. An abacus is shown in below Figure.

ABACUS

Napiers Bones:was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 AD. byan English mathematician John Napier.

Slide Rule: was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th century.Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and

division. It was used extensively till late 1970s.


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SLIDE RULE:

Pascals: Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could add andsubtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

Leibnizs: Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could both

multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built it

around 1673.

Punch Card: System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He inventedthe punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole in the punched card as binaryone and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The 0s and 1s are the basis of the modern digitalcomputer.

PUNCHED CARD

Babbages Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical machine to

do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was called as differenceengine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a general-purpose calculatingmachine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also called the father of computer.

Holleriths Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith. The machinecould read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.


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GENERATION OF COMPUTERS:

The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but muchmore powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms of thegenerations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based on a new technological

development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers that are more powerful, fasterand efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computer. In thefollowing subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of;

i.

The technology used by them (hardware and software),ii. Computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),iii.

Physical appearance, andiv. Their applications.

FIRST GENERATION (1940 TO 1956): USING VACUUM TUBES

Hardware Technology: The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry andmagnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punched cards and papertapes. The output was displayed as printouts.

VACUUM TUBE

Software Technology: The instructions were written in machine language. Machine languageuses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions. The first generation computers could solve one

problem at a time.

Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in milliseconds.

Physical Appearance: These computers were enormous in size and required a large room forinstallation.

Application: They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing deviceof their time.

Examples: Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator AndCalculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).


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The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a lot ofheat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The machineswere prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since first generationcomputers used machine language, they were difficult to program.

SECOND GENERATION (1956 TO 1963): USING TRANSISTORS

Hardware Technology: Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation ofcomputers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy efficientand reliable. The second generation computers used magnetic core technology for primarymemory. They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary storage. The input was stillthrough punched cards and the output using printouts. They used the concept of a stored

program, where instructions were stored in the memory of computer.

TRANSISTORS

Software Technology: The instructions were written using the assembly language. Assemblylanguage uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding of theinstructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as compared to writinginstructions in machine language. High-level programming languages, such as early versions ofCOBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.

Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in microseconds.

Physical Appearance: Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the size ofthe computer was also reduced.

Application: The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high, though lessthan the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled manually in secondgeneration computers.

Examples: PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first generationcomputers. They required less maintenance than the first generation computers.


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THIRD GENERATION (1964 TO 1971): USING INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Hardware Technology: The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.

Below figure shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip.Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency ofcomputer, manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used to interact with the third generationcomputer, instead of the punched card and printouts.

IC CHIPS

Software Technology: The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the operatingsystem. Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same time. High-levellanguages were used extensively for programming, instead of machine language and assemblylanguage.

Computing Characteristics: The computation time was in nanoseconds.

Physical Appearance: The size of these computers was quite small compared to the second

generation computers.

Application: Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were producedcommercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Examples: IBM 370, PDP 11.

The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the secondgeneration computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual componentsof the computer were not required to be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of thecomputers was also less compared to their predecessors.

FOURTH GENERATION (1971 TO PRESENT):

USING MICROPROCESSORS

Hardware Technology: They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large ScaleIntegration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon chipusing LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated in asmall chip. This era is marked by the development of microprocessor. Microprocessor is a chipcontaining millions of transistors and components, and, designed using LSI and VLSItechnology. A microprocessor chip is shown in Coming Figure. This generation of computers

gave rise to Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic corememory, resulting in fast random access to memory.


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Secondary storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger incapacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era. The computers werelinked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This generation also saw thedevelopment of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld devices.

MICROPROCESSORS

Software Technology: Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS-Windowsdeveloped during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface(GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows user to interact with the computer via menusand icons. High-level programming languages are used for the writing of programs.

Computing Characteristics: The computation time is in picoseconds.

Physical Appearance: They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation. Some caneven fit into the palm of the hand.

Application: They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computersbecame available to the home user.

Examples: The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the computerlike Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981, IBMintroduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the Macintosh.

The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaperthan their predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and more reliable.They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.

GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking hasresulted in resource sharing and communication among different computers.


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FIFTH GENERATION (PRESENT AND NEXT): USING ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning andself-organization. The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chipsthat are able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have largememory requirements.

This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to beexecuted in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processingspeed. The Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.

The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate thehuman way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System

(ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.


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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computersare broadly classified into four categories based on their size and type

(1) Microcomputers,(2) Minicomputers,(3) Mainframe computers,(4) Supercomputer.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS BASED ON SIZE AND TYPE

MICROCOMPUTERS

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU, input

unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alonemachines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve morethan one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are someexamples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computersor laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook,

Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC):is the most common type of microcomputer.

It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it consists of three unitskeyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU, memory, hard disk drive, etc.


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It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a single user at home, small business units,and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell and Lenovo are some of the PC manufacturers.Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook: They are portable and have all thefeatures of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can be putinside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the functionality of

the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the name). Laptops arecostlier than the desktop machines.

Netbook:These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are designedfor accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late 2007, they havegained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance needed to enjoy popularactivities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web surfing or instant messaging. The wordnetbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.

Tablet Computer:has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a stylus ora pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet computer are the new

kind of PCs.

Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA): is a small computer that can beheld on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a pen or astylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and are less

powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio and Apple aresome of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have merged into mobile

phones to create smart phones.

Smart Phones are cellular phones:that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They mayuse a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the Internetwirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play games, etc.Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of smart phones.

MAINFRAME COMPUTERS

Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance computers.They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the workloadof many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally used incentralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may be adumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do

processing of its own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has theinput and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and theintelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer.Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many peoplerequire frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBMES000 series.


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SUPERCOMPUTERS

Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high processingspeed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured inFLOPS (Floating point Operations per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform

trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands ofprocessors that can work in parallel.

Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting,

climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear research and

aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military agencies and scientific research

laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and IntelASCI red.


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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Input/output Unit:The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit acceptsdata from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the

user. The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is

understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is

understandable by the user. The input is provided to the computer using input devices like

keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and

printer.

Central Processing Unit CPU: It controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the

computer. It is responsible for processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic

Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

ALU:It performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.

CU:It controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of execution of

instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer.

Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,

addresses and intermediate results of calculation.

Memory Unit: It stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily,

during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory

of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought into the main memory before

processing. The instructions required for processing of data and any intermediate results are also

stored in the main memory. The output is stored in memory before being transferred to the output

device. CPU can work with the information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage

unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the

output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks

and magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.


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APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer is a tool that

provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use computer to get information

about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books in a library, medical

history of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a word. The information may

be presented to you in the form of text, images, video clips, etc.

Education: Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting education.

Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures. Computers are used

to develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance education using the e-learning

software, and to conduct online examinations. Researchers use computers to get easy access to

conference and journal details and to get global access to the research material.

Entertainment:Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can

download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for

making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also

listen to music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc.

Sports: A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play

games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training players.

Advertising: Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on

different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different customers

can be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and the sound

effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the advertisements can be viewed

globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all

companies. In fact, the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for

generating revenues.

Medicine:Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about the

advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of

patients is stored in the computers.

Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like

ultrasound machine, CAT scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc.


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Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery operations like

laparoscopic operations, etc.

Science and Engineering: Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex

scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for

simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing

complex calculations and for visualizing 3-dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications

like the launch of the rockets, space exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.

Government: The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for e-

governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information to the

users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission of

water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The police department uses

computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.

Home:Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use

computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and

relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are

embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,

security devices, etc.

The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss all of them here.

In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above, computers have also

proliferated into areas like banks, investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation,

military operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business organizations, police

department, video conferencing, telepresence, book publishing, web newspapers, and

information sharing.


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INPUT DEVICES

Input devices accept data and instructions from the user. Following are the examples of variousinput devices, which are connected to the computer for this purpose.

1. Keyboard2. Mouse3. Optical/magnetic Scanner4. Microphone for voice as input5. Track Ball

KEYBOARD

Most common and very popular input device is keyboard. The keyboard helps in inputting the

data to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, althoughthere are some additional keys provided for performing some additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now 104 keys or 108 keys keyboard is

also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys are following

Sr. No. Keys Description

1 Typing KeysThese keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digits keys (0-9) which generally givesame layout as that of typewriters.

2 Numeric KeypadIt is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a setof 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machineand calculators.

3 Function KeysThe twelve functions keys are present on the keyboard. These are arranged in arow along the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and isused for some specific purpose.

4 Control keys

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow

key. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

5 Special Purpose KeysKeyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.


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MOUSE

Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a small

palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends

corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons.

Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid.

Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text

into the computer.

JOYSTICK

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It isa stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves ina socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer AidedDesigning (CAD) and playing computer games.

TRACK BALL

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of amouse. This is a ball, which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ballcomes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.


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SCANNER

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when someinformation is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer forfurther manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that canbe stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

MICROPHONE

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphoneis used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixingmusic.

BAR CODE READERS

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and darklines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be ahand-held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is thenfed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.


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OUTPUT DEVICES

Output devices return processed data that is information, back to the user. Some of thecommonly used output devices are;

MONITOR

Out of all the output devices, monitor is perhaps the most important output device becausepeople interact with this device most intensively than others. Computer information is displayed,visually with a video adapter card and monitor. Information processed within the CPU, thatneeds to be visually displayed, is sent to video adapter. The video adapter converts informationfrom the format used, in the same manner as a television displays information sent to it by acable service.

Two basic types of monitors are used with microcomputers,

Which are as follows;

1. CRT2. LCD

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): CRT or Cathode Ray Tube Monitor is the typical monitor that yousee on a desktop computer. It looks a lot like a television screen, and works the same way. Thistype uses a large vacuum tube, called cathode ray tube (CRT).

Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD): This type of monitors is also known as flat panel monitor.Most of these employ liquid crystal displays (LCDs) to render images. These days LCD monitorare very popular.


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PRINTER

After a document is created on the computer, it can be sent to a printer for a hard copy (printout).Some printers offer special features such as colored and large page formats. Some of the mostcommonly used printers are:

1. Laser Printer2. Ink Jet Printer3. Dot Matrix Printer4. Line Printer

PLOTTER

A plotter is a special kind of output device that, like a printer, produces images on paper, butdoes so in a different way. Plotters are designed to produce large drawings or images, such asconstruction plans for buildings or blueprints for mechanical objects. A plotter can be connectedto the port normally used by a printer. An array of different colored pens in a clip rack and arobotic arm is part of plotter. The instructions that a plotter receives from a computer consist of a

color, and beginning and ending coordinates for a line. With that information, the plotter picks upthe appropriate pen through its arm, positions it at the beginning coordinates drops the pen downto the surface of the paper and draws to the ending coordinates. Plotters draw curves by creatinga sequence of very short straight lines.


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MEMORY

A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memoryis the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for

processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called cell. Each location orcell has a unique address, which varies from zero to memory size minus one.

For example, if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memorylocation. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types:

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory, which can speed up CPU. It acts asa buffer between the CPU and main memory.

It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The

parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, fromwhere CPU can access them.

ADVANTAGE

Cache memory is faster than main memory. It consumes less access time as compared to main memory. It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

DISADVANTAGE:

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.


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PRIMARY MEMORY (MAIN MEMORY)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.It has limited capacity and data gets lost when power is switched off.

It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. Thedata and instructions required to be processed earlier reside in main memory. It is divided intotwo subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristic of Main Memory These are semiconductor memories. It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory. Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

SECONDARY MEMORY

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than mainmemory. These are used for storing Data/Information permanently.

CPU directly does not access these memories, instead they are accessed via input-output

routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory and then CPUcan access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories. It is known as backup memory. It is non-volatile memory. Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off. It is used for storage of the data in the computer. Computer may run without secondary memory. Slower than primary memories.


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RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and programresult. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).

Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage locationinside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can

reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e., data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is apower failure. Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used withcomputers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.Ram has two types;

STATIC RAM (SRAM)

The word staticindicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied.

However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrixof 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAMneed not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the sameamount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.

Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

Characteristics of the Static RAM:

It has long data lifetime There is no need to refresh

Faster Used as cache memory

Large size Expensive High power consumption


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DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshedin order for it to maintain the data. This isdone by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times persecond. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs aremade up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DYNAMIC RAM:

It has short data lifetime

Need to refresh continuously Slower as compared to SRAM Used as RAM Lesser in size Less expensive

Less power consumption

ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot writeon it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in suchmemories during manufacture.

A ROM stores such instructions as are required to start computer when electricity is first turnedon, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer butalso in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

FOLLOWING ARE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF ROM:

MROM (MASKED ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data orinstructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blankPROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer.


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Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses, which are burnt open during programming. It canbe programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ ONLY MEMORY)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge istrapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because thecharge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartzcrystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal usethe quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (ELECTRICALLY ERASABLE AND PROGRAMMABLE READ

ONLY MEMORY)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed aboutten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). InEEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one

byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming isflexible but slow.

ADVANTAGES OF ROM

Non-volatile in nature These cannot be accidentally changed

Cheaper than RAMs Easy to test More Reliable than RAMs These are static and do not require refreshing Its contents are always known and can be verified


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COMPUTERPORTS

WHAT IS A PORT?

A computer port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be

connected to the computer.

A computer port can also be programmatic docking point through which informationflows from a program to computer or over the internet.

CHARACTERISTICS

External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor,microphone, speakers, etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

SERIAL PORT

Used for external modems and older computer mouse.

Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model. Data travels at 115 kilobits per second.


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PARALLEL PORT

Used for scanners and printers Also called printer port. 25 pin model.

Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

PS/2 PORT

Used for old computer keyboard and mouse Also called mouse port. Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 ports, each for mouse and keyboard. Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port.

UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (OR USB) PORT

Can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.

Introduced in 1997. Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum. Data travels at 12 megabits per second. USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.

VGA PORT

Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

Has 15 holes. Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

POWER CONNECTOR

Three-pronged plug Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

FIREWIRE PORT

Transfer large amounts of data at very fast speed. Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per second. Invented by Apple Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin

FireWire 800 connector

MODEM

Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.


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ETHERNET PORT

Connects to a network and high speed Internet. Connects network cable to a computer. This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per second depending upon the networkbandwidth.

GAME PORT

Connect a PC to a joystick. Now replaced by USB.

DIGITAL VIDEO INTERFACE, DVI PORT

Connects a Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards. Very popular among video card manufacturers.

SOCKETS

Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer


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SOFTWARE

As you are aware, computer cannot do anything on its own. It is the user who instructs computer;what to do, how to do and when to do. In order to perform any task, you have to give a set ofinstructions in a particular sequence to the computer. These sets of instructions are called

Programs. Software refers to a set of programs that makes the hardware perform a particular setof tasks in particular order. Software can be classified mainly into following categories and sub-categories are shown in below Figure;

CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE

SYSTEM SOFTWARE

When you switch on the computer the programs stored in ROM are executed which activatesdifferent units of your computer and makes it ready for you to work on it. This set of programscan be called system software. System softwares are sets of programs, responsible for runningthe computer, controlling various operations of computer systems and management of computerresources. Operating System (OS) falls under this category.

Or

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control and extend theprocessing capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by

computer manufacturers.

These softwares comprise of programs written in low level languages which interact with thehardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the interface between hardware and theend users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers,etc.


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FEATURES OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE ARE THE FOLLOWING:

Close to system. Fast in speed. Difficult to design.

Difficult to understand. Less interactive.

Smaller in size. Difficult to manipulate.

Generally written in low-level language.

An operating system: is system software that provides an interface for a user to communicatewith the computer, manages hardware devices (disk drives, keyboard, monitor, etc), manages andmaintains disk file systems and supports application programs. Some popular Operating systemsare UNIX, Windows and Linux. Although operating system provides all the features users needto use and maintain their systems, inevitably, they still do not meet everyones expectations. This

has led to another type of system software called "Utilities". These are programs that bridge thegap between the functionality of an OS and the needs of users. Utility programs are a broad

category of software such as compress (zip)/ un-compress (unzip) files software, antivirussoftware, split and join files software, etc.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

Application software is a set of programs, which are written to perform specific tasks, forexample: An application package for managing library known as library information system isused to manage information of library such as: keeping book details, account holder details, bookissue details, book return details etc. Another application package for managing student details iscalled students information system, manages students roll no, name, parents name, address,

class, section, processing of examination results etc. Application software can be broadly

classified into two types:

EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARES ARE THE FOLLOWING:

Payroll Software Student Record Software Inventory Management Software Income Tax Software Railways Reservation Software Microsoft Office Suite Software Microsoft Word

Microsoft Excel Microsoft Powerpoint


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FEATURES OF APPLICATION SOFTWARE ARE THE FOLLOWING:

It is close to user. It is easy to design.

More interactive. Slow in speed.

Generally written in high-level language. Easy to understand.

Easy to manipulate and use. Bigger in size and requires large storage space.


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DATA & INFORMATION

WHAT IS DATA?

Data can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner,which should be suitable for communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronicmachine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or specialcharacters(+,-,/,*,,=, etc.).

WHAT IS INFORMATION?

Information is organised or classified data so that it has some meaningful values to the receiver.

Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.

For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify the following characteristics:

Timely- Information should be available when required.

Accuracy- Information should be accurate.

Completeness- Information should be complete.

DATA PROCESSING CYCLE

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase theirusefulness & add values for particular purpose.

Data processing consists of basic steps input, processing and output. These three steps constitutethe data processing cycle.


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Input- In this step, the input data are prepared in some convenient form for processing.The form will depend on the processing machine. For example, when electroniccomputers are used, the input data could be recorded on any one of several types of inputmediums, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.

Processing- In this step, input data are changed to produce data in a more useful form.For example, pay-checks may be calculated from the time cards or a summary of sales forthe month may be calculated from the sales orders.

Output-Here, the results of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particularform of the output data depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may bepay-checks for employees.


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NETWORKING

WHAT IS A COMPUTER NETWORK?

A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other toshare information and resources.

CHARACTERISTICS

Share Resources from one computer to another

Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s)connected over the network

Connect a printer, scanner or a fax machine to one computer within the network and letother computers of the network use the machines available over network.

Following is the list of hardwares required to set up a computer network:

Network Cables

Distributors

Router

Internal Network Cards

External Network Cards

NETWORK CABLES

Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable areCategory 5 cable RJ-45.


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DISTRIBUTORS

Each and every computer can be connected to another one via a serial port, but if we need

to connect many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work.The solution is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners, etc.,can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

ROUTER

A router is a type of device, which acts as the central point among computers and otherdevices that are part of a network.

A router is equipped with holes called ports.

Computers and other devices are connected to a router using network cables.

Nowadays, router comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connectedwithout any physical cable.

NETWORK CARD

Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannotbe connected over a network.

Also known as network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC).

Most of branded computers have network card pre-installed.

Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards


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INTERNAL NETWORK CARDS

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted.

Internal network cards are of two types:

First type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection.

Second type uses Industry Standard Architecture (ISA).

Network cables are required to provide network access.

EXTERNAL NETWORK CARDS

Comes in two flavors: Wireless and USB based.

Wireless network card needs to be inserted into the motherboard but no network cable isrequired to connect to network.

USB cards are easy to use and connect via USB port.

Computer automatically detects USB card and can install the drivers required to support

the USB network card automatically.


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DIFFERENT TYPES OF NETWORKS

Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:

Local Area Network (LAN)

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)

A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an

office building or home.

LANs enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed bymultiple users

Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile

Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps

Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device

Has lower cost compared to MANs or WANs

LANs can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in

wired LANs.

Every LAN uses a protocol a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and

transmitted.


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TOPOLOGY

There are three topologies used in LANs.

BUS TOPOLOGY:

All devices are connected to a central cable, called the bus or backbone. Bus networks are

relatively inexpensive and easy to install for small networks. Ethernet systems use a bus

topology.

RING TOPOLOGY:

All devices are connected to one another in the shape of a closed loop, so that each device is

connected directly to two other devices, one on either side of it. Ring topologies are relatively

expensive and difficult to install, but they offer high bandwidth and can span large distances.

STAR TOPOLOGY:

All devices are connected to a central hub. Star networks are relatively easy to install and

manage, but bottlenecks can occur because all data must pass through the hub. These topologies

can also be mixed. For example, a bus-star network consists of a high-bandwidth bus, called the

backbone, which connects a collection of slower-bandwidth star segments.


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METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a

large campus.

A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of

buildings to entire cities.

A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by

many individuals and organizations.

A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.

A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.

Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customersand cable TV network.

WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)

WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.

A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.

To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or

wireless links such as satellites.

Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways,

which enable them to share data.

The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.


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INTERNET

Internet is a world-wide/global system of interconnected computer networks.

Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies acomputer location.

A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Addressso that user can locate a computer by a name.

Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

INTRANET

Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other.

PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.

Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network andmembers/employees of that company can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by a IP Address, which is unique among thecomputers in that Intranet.


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SIMILARITIES IN INTERNET & INTRANET

Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet. But

only members of Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.

In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/g talk overthe internet.

DIFFERENCES IN INTERNET & INTRANET

Internet is general to PCs all over the world where Intranet is specific to few PCs.

Internet is wider access and provides a better access to websites to large populationwhereas Intranet is restricted.

Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.


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INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WORD

Microsoft Word: is a full feature word processing program that allows the user to design

documents. The many formats available easily enable the user to produce professional reports,

letters, essays and other documents incorporating the use of tables, charts, and graphics. Word is

part of Microsoft Office, which includes other software applications.

LAUNCHING WORD

There are six Open Access Labs (OAL's) on campus. A user can start Word from any of them.

To start Word from a station in the Open Access Labs:

1. Click the Start button1= at the bottom left corner of the screen.

2. Select the All Programs option.

3. Select the Microsoft Office folder.

4. Click the Microsoft Office Word icon.

WORKING WITH THE WORD USER INTERFACE

Word includes many enhancements to make working with the document easier, and to make the

document more professional looking. The redesigned user interface includes the components

illustrated in Coming Figure. Refer to below Table , for a brief description of each item.

TABLE - WORD USER INTERFACE COMPONENTS

Item Description

Title Bar Contains the title of the document and the application

Office button Grouping of commands to save, open, print, and perform other

commands common to all Office applications

Quick Access

Toolbar

Collection of buttons to quickly access regularly used features of

the application

Ribbon Contains man features formerl found in menu structures

Tabs Individual collections rou s of commands within the RibbonInsertion

Point

A flashing line on the screen that indicates where text will be entered

into a document

Scroll Bars Move through the document, up or down, left or right

View O tions Word rovides several different wa s to view a documentDialog

Launcher

A control for accessing more features contained within a group on the

Ribbon

Pa e Indicator Indicates the active a e in the documentMagnification

Control

Controls the magnification of the document

Word Count Continuous display of the number of words in the document


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In addition to the items described in Table 1, the user interface also contains a set of tabs called

contextual tabs. Contextual tabs only appear above the tabs in the Ribbon when specific objects

such as tables and pictures are selected. These tabs contain groups of commands that are relevant

only to those specific objects. Contextual tabs are colored differently from the normal tabs on the

Ribbon to alert the user that additional commands are available for the object selected.

USING THE OFFICE BUTTON / APPLICATION BUTTON:

Word provides a collection of commands common to all Office applications that are groupedunder the Office Button. Clicking the Office Button (see below Figure) will open a dialog boxdisplaying the commands available.

USING THE QUICK ACCESS TOOLBAR

The Quick Access Toolbar is located above the Ribbon and contains common, frequently usedcommands. The commands available from the Quick Access Toolbar are always visible, whicheliminates searching through the Ribbon or tabs.


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CREATING, SAVING, AND CLOSING DOCUMENTS

Whenever the Word application is launched from the Main menu, a new document is openedautomatically. Users can also create a new document while an existing document is open. Once a

document is opened or created, text can be entered at the blinking insertion point, using thekeyboard. The insertion point can be moved by pressing the [Enter] key. When entering text intoa document, it is not necessary to press the [Enter] key at the end of each line because Word willautomatically move the insertion point to the beginning of the next line. The [Enter] key must be

pressed when beginning a new paragraph.

TO CREATE A NEW DOCUMENT WHILE AN EXISTING DOCUMENT

IS OPEN:

1. Click the Office Button then click the new button in the available options. The New

Document dialog box opens.2. Click the Blank and Recent option in the Templates section of the dialog box.3. Select the Blank Document option in the Blank and Recent section of the dialog box.4. Click the Create button A new blank document will open in a Microsoft Word window

independent of the existing document and the dialog box will close.

TO SAVE A NEW DOCUMENT FOR THE FIRST TIME:

1. Click the Save button on the Quick Access Toolbar. The Save As dialog box opens. 2.

Enter a name for the document in the File name: text box

NOTE: By default, documents are saved in the My Documents folder on the main drive of thecomputer. If the user wants to save the document in a different folder or drive, click the drop-down arrow and select a different location.

3.

Click the Save button to save the file. The dialog box will close.

USING SAVE AS

To use the Save As option:

1. Click the Office Button to display the commands within the Office Button group.

2.

Hover the mouse over the Save As button to display the options available.3.

If compatibility with previous versions of Word is desired, select the Word 91-2013Document option.

4.

The Save As dialog box will open with the Word document file format automaticallyselected.

5.

If a different format is desired (such as a template or web page format) then click thedrop-down arrow and select the appropriate format.

6.

Enter a name for the file in the File name: textbox.7. Click the Save button to save the document in a different format.


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CLOSING A DOCUMENT/EXITING WORD

If a document has been saved, a user can close the document (and the Word application) byeither clicking the Close button in the upper right corner of the Microsoft Word window or by

clicking the Office Button and then clicking the Close button at the bottom of the list of options.Clicking the Close button in the right corner of the title bar will close the Word application.

OPENING AN EXISTING DOCUMENT

After creating and saving a document, the file resides on a disk. To view or edit an existingdocument, it must first be opened from the disk.

1.

To open an existing document:2. Click the Office Button.3.

Click the Open button in the list of available options.4.

The Open dialog box appears.

EDITING A DOCUMENT

Editing a document can consist of the addition or removal of characters. To edit a document, thetext to be edited must be selected. Text can be selected using the dragging and highlightingmethod with the mouse.

SELECTING TEXT

Selecting text will be an important step in cutting, copying, pasting, deleting, and editing within adocument. Table 2 describes different options for how to select text.

TABLE - OPTIONS FOR SELECTING TEXT

Action Descriptions

Selecting a word Double-click the word

Selecting a sentence Hold down the [Ctrl] key on the keyboard then click

anywhere in the sentence to be selected

Selecting a paragraph Move the pointer to the left of the paragraph until it changes to aright-pointing arrow, and then double-click (a single-click will select

the entire line).

Selecting any amount of text Place the mouse in front of the text to select (it turns into an I-

beam shape) then click and drag the mouse over the text

Selecting the entire document Either move the pointer to the left of any document text until it

changes to a right-pointing arrow, and then triple-click, or simply

press the [Ctrl+A] key combination on the keyboard


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CUT, COPY, AND PASTE

When editing a document, it may be necessary to move or copy text, either within the samedocument or between documents. The text that is cut or copied will be placed onto the

Clipboard(a special area in the application from which material that has been cut or copiedcan be retrieved).

CUT

The Cut feature removes the selected text from the document.

To cut text:1. Select the text to cut.2. Select theHome tab on the Ribbon.3. Click the Cut button in the Clipboard group. The text is cut from its original

location and stored on the Clipboard.

COPY

The Copy feature is similar to the Cut feature except that the Copy feature does not remove the

text from its original location. It creates a copy of the selected text.

PASTE

The Paste feature inserts the contents of the clipboard at an insertion point or over a selected

area.

To paste the last item cut or copied:

1. Select the location to paste the text.

2. Click the Paste button in the Clipboard group.

NOTE:The Cut, Copy, and Paste commands can also be executed by right-clicking the selected

text with the mouse. A shortcut menu will appear containing these commands.

FORMATTING A DOCUMENT

Formatting the characters in a document can enhance the appearance of the document and

provide a more professional appearance to the entire document.

LIVE PREVIEW

In the case of character formatting, Live Preview applies to the Font typeface, Font size, and

Font color. Live Preview allows the user to visualize how a different typeface, size, or color will

appear within the document. Live Preview temporarily displays any changes to a selected object

or selected text in the document without actually changing it.


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THE MINI TOOLBAR

The Mini Toolbar contains frequently used formatting commands and appears in a semi-

transparent mode whenever text is selected for formatting. Moving the mouse over the toolbar

activates it and makes the options available for use. Most of the formatting options on the Mini

Toolbar are discussed in the following sections.

CHARACTER FORMATTING

Character formatting enhances the appearance of text, and includes font typeface, font size, font

style, and font color. Character formatting is applied using the features on the Home tab of the

Ribbon in the Font group

.

CHANGING FONT TYPEFACE

To change the font typeface for selected text:

1. Select the text to change.

2. Click the Font Typeface drop-down arrow the Font group.

3. A list of available fonts will appear.

4. Select the desired font name to change the font typeface.

CHANGING FONT SIZE

Font size refers to the height of printed text on a page and is measured in units called points.

There are 72 points in one inch. The higher the number entered for the font size, the larger thetext will be. The default font size for new documents in Word is 11 points.

To change the font size for selected text:

1.

Select the text to change.

2.

Select the Home tab on the Ribbon.

3.

Click the Font Size drop-down arrow will appear in the Font group. A list of available

font sizes will appear.

4. . Select the desired font size.


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NOTE:Font sizes are not listed in increments of one point. If a desired font size is not listed in

the Font Size drop-down list, click the number instead of the drop-down arrow, manually enter

the desired font size and press the [Enter] key to apply the new font size.

CHANGING FONT STYLE

Font style refers to font type enhancement. See below Table for examples of the available font

styles.

Font Styles

Button Font Style Example

B Bold Example of Bold text

1 Italic Example of Italicized text

U Underline Example of Underlined text

abc Example of Strikethrough text

XO Subscript Example of Subscriptedtext

X Superscript Example of uperscr pte text

Aa Change Case Changes the case of the selected text

CHANGING FONT COLOR

Two aspects of font color can be styled. The background color of the text (also known as the

Text Highlight Color) can be changed from the default color of white and the color of the font

itself can be changed from the default color of black.

To change the Text Highlight Color for selected text:

1. Select the text to change.

2. Click the Text Highlight Color drop-down arrow on the Text Highlight Color button in

the Font group. The available highlight colors will appear

3.

Select the desired color.

To change the font color for selected text:

1.

Select the text to change.

2.

Click the Font Color drop-down arrow on the Font Color button in the Font group.

3.

The available font colors will appear.

4.

Select the desired color.


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PARAGRAPH FORMATTING

There may be times when it is necessary to make paragraphs in a document stand out from other

text. It is possible to change the line spacing, use indentations, or set tab stops so the text can

appear in fixed locations across the page. Paragraph formatting can be applied by using the

Paragraph dialog box, the Horizontal Ruler, or shortcut buttons and keystrokes, depending on

which type of paragraph formatting will be applied.

PARAGRAPH ALIGNMENT

Paragraph alignment refers to the horizontal alignment of a paragraph. See below Table for

descriptions of the different paragraph alignments that can be applied. Paragraph alignments can

be applied either by using the alignment buttons on the Formatting toolbar or by using the

Paragraph dialog box.

Table: Paragraph Alignment Options

Button Description

Align Left Left alignment aligns text to the left margin and produces a ragged

(uneven) right margin. Align Left is the default

CenterCenter alignment centers text to the middle of the page

(between the left and the right margins).

Right alignment aligns text to the right margin and produces aragged (uneven) left margin.

Align Right

JustifyJustified alignment aligns text to the both left and right margins

so that neither margin is ragged.

To apply paragraph alignment using the shortcut buttons:

1.

Place the cursor within the paragraph to apply paragraph alignment.

2.

Click the desired paragraph alignment button in the Font group.

To apply paragraph alignment using the Paragraph dialog box:

1. Place the cursor within the paragraph to apply a new paragraph alignment.

2. Click the Paragraph Dialog Box Launcher r' in the Paragraph group. The Paragraph dialog box

opens See figure.

3. Select the Indents and Spacing tab if it is not selected.

4. Click the Alignment: drop-down arrow in the General section

5. Select the desired paragraph alignment option.

6.

Click the OK button.


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LINE SPACING

Line spacing refers to the distance between every line in a paragraph. Line spacing can be adjusted in the

Paragraph dialog box, or by selecting the Home tab on the Ribbon and using the Line Spacing drop-down list

button in the Paragraph. Spacing options in the list include 1.0, 1.15, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0.

To apply line spacing using the Paragraph dialog box:

1.

Place the insertion point within the paragraph where the line spacing will be applied.2.

Click the Paragraph Dialog Box Launcherin the Paragraph group. TheParagraph dialogbox opens (see Figure)

3.

Select theIndents and Spacing tab, if it is not selected.4.

Click the Line spacing: drop-down arrow in the Spacing section.5. Click the desired selection (see Table).6.

If necessary, enter a value in theAt: spin box7.

Click the OK button.

Table - Line Spacing Options

Option Description

Single Accommodates the largest font in the line with a small amount of extra

1.5 Lines One-and-one-half times that of single line spacing

Double Twice that of single line spacing

At Least Specifies the minimum line spacing to fit the largest font on the line (specify

point size in the At: spin box)

Exactly Specifies fixed line spacing that Word does not adjust (specify point size in the

At: spin box)

Multiple Sets line spacing that is increased or decreased from single line spacing by a

percentage specified in the At: spin box (a value of 1.2 would increase line

spacing by 20% of single spacing)


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To apply line spacing using shortcut keystrokes:

Place the insertion point within the paragraph where the line spacing will be applied.

Press the keystroke combination for the desired line spacing (see below Table).

Table - Keystroke Combinations for Setting the Line Spacing

Keystroke Line Spacing Applied

[Ctrl+1] Single Line Spacing

[Ctrl+2] Double Line Spacing

[Ctrl+5] 1 Line Spacing

INDENTATIONS

An indentation is the space between the text and the left and/or right margins. Indentations can

be applied by using the indentation markers on the Horizontal Ruler. See below Table for

descriptions of different types of indentations available.

INDENTATION TYPES

Indentation Description

Left and Right Indent Indents the entire selected paragraph from the

Left/Right margin

First Line Indent Indents only the first line of the selected paragraph from

the Left mar in

Hanging Indent Indents all lines of a paragraph other than the first line

from the left mar in

The Horizontal Ruler (see below Figure) should display automatically when Word 2 is launched.

If not, display it by selecting the View tab on the Ribbon and checking the RULERcheck box in

the Show/Hide group or by clicking the View Ruler button located above the Vertical scroll bar

on the right side of the Word interface.

SETTING TAB STOPS

At times it is necessary to have text appear at fixed locations across the page. Tab stops can be

used to space text in a paragraph. Each paragraph can have a different combination of tab stops.


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Tab stops can be set by using the Tab Stop button on the Horizontal Ruler (see above Figure).

Table in below describes the different types of tab stops available.

To set tab stops using the Horizontal Ruler:

1. Place the insertion point within the paragraph where the tab stops will be set.

2. Click the Tab Stop button at the far left of the Horizontal Ruler until it changes to the

type of tab desired (See Previous Table).3. Click the Horizontal Ruler where to set a tab stop. A tab stop marker will appear.

CHANGING STYLES

Styles are predefined combinations of character and paragraph formatting. Styles can be used to

identify headings at the beginning of a section of a document, or applied to the text within a

paragraph. By using styles, it is easier to apply different character and formatting attributes

simultaneously instead of having to apply them individually. When creating a new document

approximately 16 different styles are available (see Figure). Whenever a new formatting styleis applied to the text of the document, a new style is created for that document so it can be

used to apply the same formatting attributes to another section later on with a single click.

To apply a heading style:

1. Select the text where the style will be applied.2.

Click the More drop-down arrow in the Styles group.3. Select the desired heading style. The style will be applied immediately to the selected

text.


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NUMBERS AND BULLETS

When presenting a list of items, it is possible to number or bullet each item to distinguish one

from the other. A bulleted list is used for basic item lists while a numbered list is often used

when the order is important (i.e. instructions). It is also possible to develop multilevel lists where

each line in the list is indented

To create a bulleted list:

1. Select the text where bullets will be applied.2.

Click the Bullets button in the Paragraph group.

To create a numbered list:

1.

Select the text to add numbers to.2.

Click the Numbering button in the Paragraph group.

To create a multilevel list:

1.

Select the text where bullets will be applied.2. Click the Multilevel List button in the Paragraph group.

SETTING BREAKS

Documents can also be formatted with the inclusion of breaks. There are four types of breaks:

Page Break, Column Break, Section Break, and Text Wrapping Break.

Page Break is an efficient way to insert text onto a new page without using the [Enter] key

multiple times.


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In a page with multiple columns, a Column Breakis used to wrap text from the bottom of one

column to the top of the next.

Text Wrapping Breaksare applicable only to web pages.

Section Breaks allow a page to be broken into sections (parts) that are independent of each

other. Sections breaks can have their own formatting, page layout, columns, headers or footers.

There are four types of Section Breaks that can be used in a document: the Next Page break, the

Continuous break, and the Even or Odd Page break. A Next Page break is similar to a Page

Break in that it ends the current page and begins the new section on the following page. A

Continuous break inserts the new section on the current page and continues the section until a

new section is designated. An Even or Odd Page break inserts a break and begins the new section

on the next even or odd page, depending on the break chosen.

To insert a break into a document:

1. In the document, place the insertion point where the breaks will be located.

2. Select the Page Layout tab on the Ribbon.

3. Click the drop-down list (button) in the Page Setup group to display the available breaks

(see Figure).

4. Select the appropriate break.

CHANGING MARGINS

Margins control the space between the top, bottoms, left, and right edges of the paper and the

text. The dark section of the Horizontal Ruler represents the margin, and the white section

represents the width of the work area of the document (see coming Figure).


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To change the margins of a document:

1. Select the Page Layout tab on the Ribbon.

2. Click the Margins drop-down list in the Page Setup group to display the margins

options available.

NOTE:If the desired margins are not available, custom margins can be applied by using the

Page Setup dialog box (see below Figure).

To set custom margins

1.

Click the Custom Margin option in the Pre-Set Margins list

2.

Click the Page Setup Dialog Box Launcher in the Page Setup group. The Page Setup

dialog box opens.

3. Select the Margins tab if it is not already selected.

4. Enter the desired margin widths in the Top: Bottom:, Left:, and Right: spin boxes under

the Margins section.

5. Click the OK button.

VIEWING THE DOCUMENT

Word provides several different ways to view a document. The document can be magnified to

make it easier to read, or the magnification can be reduced to view more of the document, in

order for the user to get a better view.


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SWITCHING DOCUMENT VIEWS

There are five different view styles to choose from. See Table in below for the descriptions of the

different view options. By default, new documents open in Print Layout view. Document views

can be changed by clicking the appropriate button in the Document Views group in the View tab

or the appropriate button on the bottom right of the Word User Interface.

Table Document View Options

View Option Description

Print Layout View the document as it will appear when printed

Full Screen Reading Maximizes the space used in the window

Web Layout View the document as it would look as a Web page

Outline View the document as an outline and show the outlining tools

Draft Allows for quick editing of text; no headers or footers are

visible

MAGNIFYING A DOCUMENT

Magnifying documents makes them easier to read. The magnification level can be set to apercentage of the actual size, or to view the entire width of the page. Changing the magnificationdoes not change the document on paper; it only changes how the document appears on thescreen.

To magnify a document:

1.

Select the View tab on the Ribbon.2. Click the Zoom button in the Zoom group. The Zoom dialog box will open (see Figure).3.

Choose the desired magnification level in the Percent: spin-box or one of the preset levelsby clicking an option button

4. Click the OK button

NOTE:The magnification level can also be changed using the Zoom slider control located onthe Status Bar


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PRINTING A DOCUMENT

Printing options in Word are accessed by clicking the Office Button and hovering the mouse overthe Print button to display the options available (see below Figure). Word prints the entire

document using the formatting and margin settings as defined in previous sections. The optionsavailable in the Print menu of the Office Button include Print (which opens the Print dialog boxand allow the user to change printer settings), Quick Print (which sends the entire document tothe printer without opening the Print dialog box), and Print Preview (which allows the user toview the document in final form before printing).

PREVIEWING A DOCUMENT

Before printing, it is best to preview the document to see how the text appears on each page. ThePrint Preview feature displays the pages as they will appear when printed. Using the PrintPreview feature can avoid wasting time and paper by viewing the draft version of the document.

To use Print Preview:1. Click the Office Button.2.

Hover the mouse over the Print button to display the printing options.3. Click the Print Preview option.

NOTE: Print Preview opens with one page of the document sized to fit in the window. Thedocument magnification can be changed by using the Zoom slider control as described in theViewing the Document section of this handout.

4.

To exit Print Preview, select the Preview Tab on the Ribbon5. Click the Close Print Preview button in the Preview group.

PRINTING OPTIONS

Printing options found in the Print dialog box (see below Figure) include printing the currentpage, selected t