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Fermented Food Biotechnolo
Dr. H.A. Modi
Food Science and Nutrition Division
Department of Life Sciences
University School of Sciences
Gujarat UniversityAhmedabad-380 009 (Guj.)
Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors
Jaipur 302 003 (Raj.) India
Contents
Preface v
1. INTRODUCTION TO FERMENTED FOODS 1-20
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Concept of Fermentation 1
1.3 Concept of fermented foods 2
1.4 Development of fermented foods < 3
1.5 Benefits of fermented foods to the consumer 3
1.6 Types of food fermentations 5
1.6.1 Acid Food Fermentations 5
1.6.2 Yeast Fermentations 5
1.6.3 Solid State Fermentations 5
1.6.4 - Oriental and Indigenous Fermented Foods 5
1.7 The microbiology of acid food fermentations 9
1.7.1 Metabolism ofLactic Acid Bacteria 10
1.8 Food Fermenting Microorganisms 11
1.9 Microbial Diversity and Food Fermentation 12
1.10 Quality of Fermented Products 13
1.11 An outlook of Food Fermentation Technology 13
1.12 Food Fermentation and Preservation 15
1.13 Food Additives from Fermentation 15
1.13.1 Microbial Pigment 15
Y.13.2 Flavour from Microorganisms 16
1.13.3 Flavour Metabolites and Enzymes 16
viii
1.13.4 Sweeteners 16
1.14 Safety of Fermented Foods 17
1.15 Food Fermentation and World Feeding Problems 1.8
1.16 Impact of Biotechnology on Food Processing 19
1.17 Future Outlook 20
2. LEGUME-BASED FERMENTED FOODS 21-46
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Soy Sauce 21
2.2.1 General Description 21
2.2.2 Manufacture ofSoy Sauce 22
2.2.2.1 Processing of Soybeans 22
2.2.2.2 Processing of Wheat 22
2.2.2.3 Koji Process 24
2.2.2.4 Mash (Moromi) Stage 25
2.2.2.5 Pasteurization 25
2.2.3 Chemical Composition of Soy Sauce 26
2.3 MISO 26
2.3.1 General Description 26
2.3.2 Method of Preparation 27
2.3.2.1 Treatment of Soybeans 27
2.3.2.2 Preparation of Rice Miso Koji 29
2.3.2.3 Yeast and Bacterial Fermentation 29
2.3.2.4 Aging and Packaging 29
2.3.3 Composition of Miso 30
2.4 Modified Miso 31
2.5 Tausi '. 32
2.6 Hamanatto 33
2.7 Tempeh 34
2.7.1 General Description 34
2.7.2 Manufacture of Tempeh 34
2.7.3 The Microbiology of Tempeh Fermentation 34
2.8 Sufu 36
2.8.1 General Description 36
2.8.2 Method of Preparation 37
2.8.2.1 Preparing Soybean Curd 38
2.8.2.2 Moulding 38
2.8.2.3 Brining and Aging 38
2.8.3 Changes Occurring During Fermentation 39
2.9 Meitauza 39
ix
2.10 Natto •40
2.11 Other Natto-resemblingProducts 41
2.11.1 Thau-nao 41
2.11.2 Dage 41
2.12 Ontjom[Oncom,Lontjum,Onchom] 42
2.12.1 Processing of Peanuts and Fermentation 42
2.12.2 Biochemical Changes duringOnrjom Fermentation f 43
2.12.3 Modified Soybean Ontjom 44
2.13 Dawadawa • 44
2.14 Fermented Soy and Peanut Milk 45
3. STARCH-BASED FERMENTED FOODS 47-64
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Lao-chao 47
3.3 Ang-Kak (Red Rice, Ankak, Anka, Ang-Quack, Beni-koji, Aga-Koji 48
3.3.1 General Description 48
3.3.2 Cultures 48
3.3.3 Method of Preparation 48
3.3.4 Pigments 48
3.4 Puto 49
3.5 Modified puto from Rice and Cassava 51
3.6 Tape Ketan (Tepej) 52
3.7 Tape-ketella 52
3.8 Brem 53
3.9 Rice Wine 53
3.10 Ragi 53
3.11 Fermented Maize Products 54
3.11.1 Ogi 54
3.11.2 Injera 55
3.11.3 Banku 55
3.11.4 Chicha 55
3.11.5 Pozol 56
3.11.6 Kaanga-Kopuwai 56
3.11.7 KaffirBeer 57
3.11.8 MerissaBeer 57
3.12 Milk/Grain Products 58
3.12.1 Kushik ; 58
3.12.2 Tarhana 58
3.12.3 Kishk 59
3.13 Cassava-based Fermented Foods 59
X
3.13.1 Gari [Manoic, Mandioca, Apium, Yuca, Cassada, Tapioca] 59
3.13.2 Fufii 61
3.13.3 Lafun 62
3.13.4 Chickwangue 62
3.13.5 Peujeum 62
3.13.6 Fermented Cassava Flour in India 62
3.13.7 Poi 64
4. INDIAN FERMENTED MIXED PREPARATIONS 65-74
4.1 Introduction 65
4.2 Idli 654.2.1 Preparation 66
4.2.2 Microorganisms involved in Idli fermentation 67
4.2.3 Biochemical Changes Accompanying Idli Fermentaion 67
4.2.4 Nutritional Values 67
4.3 Dosa 68
4.3.1 Preparation 68
4.3.2 Microflora Associated with Dosa Fermentation 69
4.3.3 Biochemical Changes Accompanying Dosa Fermentation 69
4.3.4 Nutritional Values 69
4.4 Warries 70
4.4.1 Microflora Associated with Warri Fermentation 70
4.4.2 Biochemical Changes Accompanying Warri Fermentation 71
4.5 Bhatura 72
4.6 Jalebie 72
4.7 Kulcha 72
4.8 Nan 73
4.9 Dhokla 73
4.10 Khaman 73
4.11 Kenima 73
4.12 Papadam 74
5. BAKED FOODS 75-109
5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Historical Development 76
5.3 An Outline of the Technology of Baked Foods 77
5.4 Breadmaking Process 79
5.4.1 Dough 79
5.4.2 Leavening Systems 80
5.4.3 Dough Maturing 81
xi
5.4.4 Flavour Development 81
5.4.5 Methods of Bread Production 83
5.4.5.1 Sponge Dough Method 83
5.4.5.2 Straight Dough Method 84
5.4.5.3 Liquid Pre-ferment Method 85
5.4.5.4 Continuous Mix Method 87
5.5 Classification of Bread Types 88
5.6 Use of Bread as a Special Diet 89
5.7 Sour Dough Bread 89
5.8 Rye bread 91
5.9 Typical Formulations for Yeast Raised Bakery Products 92
5.10 Biscuit [Cookie] and Crackers 94
5.10.1 Sponge Goods 94
5.10.2 Chemically Leavened Crackers 96
5.10.3 SweetGoods 96
5.10.4 Quality Cookie Chart 99
5.11 Pretzels (Bretzels) 99
5.12 Cakes 101
5.13 Pies 105
5.14 Doughnuts 107
5.15 Refrigerated Doughs 109
6. FERMENTED MEAT AND FISH PRODUCTS 110-130
6.1 mlroduction 110
6r2 Fermented Sausages 110
6.2.1 Classification 110
6.2.2 Microbiology ofSausage Fermentation 112
6.2.2.1 Role ofStarter Culture 112
6.2.2.2 Composition of Starter Culture 113
6.2.2.3 Changes During Fermentation and Ripening Process 116
6.2.3 Sausage Manufacture 119
6.2.3.1 Formulation and Processing of Fermented Sausages 120
6.2.3.2 Production Process 122
6.3 Ham Production 123
6.4 Nutritional Aspects of Fermented Meat Products.. 125
6.5 Fermented Fish Products • •— 126
6.5.1 Nuoc-mam 127
6.5.2 Bagoong 127
6.5.3 Prahoc 128
6.5.4 Phaak 128
xii
6.5.5 Katsuobushi 128
6.6 HACCP and Fermented Meat Products 1286.7 Microbial Spoilage of Meats and Seafoods 129
7. TEA FERMENTATION 131-1397.1 Introduction
1317.2 Tea Plant and its Cultivation 1317.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Tea Leaves 1327.4 Types of Tea
1337.5 Manufacture Processing of Black Tea 134
7.5.1 Harvest of Tea Shoot Tips 1347.5.2 Withering 134
7.5.3 Tissue Maceration (Rolling) 1347.5.4 Fermentation
1347.5.5 Firing 1357.5.6 Grading and Storage 137
7.6 Manufacture Processing of Green Tea 1377.7 Manufacture Processing of Oolong and Pouchong Tea 1387.8 Flavoured Teas
1387.9 Instant Tea
138
8. COFFEE FERMENTATION140-154
8.1 Introduction140
8.2 Origins of Coffee140
8.3 Cultivation141
8.4 Processing and Fermentation of Coffee Fruit 1428.4.1 Dry Method
1428.4.2 Wet Method
1438.5 Microorganisms Involved in Coffee Fermentation 1458.6 Processing Green Beans 146
8.6.1 Roasting 1468.6.2 Grinding 1468.6.3 Packaging 147
8.7 Soluble (Instant) Coffee148
8.8 Physical Properties 1488.9 Chemical Properties 1498.10 Physiological Effects
153
9. COCOA FERMENTATION155-164
9.1 Introduction155
9.2 Cultivation and Production155
xiii
9.3 Cocoa Manufacture 156
9.3.1 Bean Selection 156
9.3.2 Bean Cleaning 157
9.3.3 Roasting 157
9.3.4 Winnowing 159
9.3.5 Nib Grinding 159
9.3.6 Dutching 160
9.3.7 Pressing ,160
9.3.8 Cocoa Grinding 160
9.4 Fermentation Techniques 160
9.4.1 Curing on Drying Platforms 161
9.4.2 Basket Fermentation 161
9.4.3 Heap Fermentation 161
9.4.4 Box Fermentation 161
9.4.5 Tray Fermentation 161
9.5 Microorganisms Involved in Cocoa Fermentation 162
9.6 Chocolate Manufacture< 162
9.6.1 Mixing 162
9.6.2 Refining 163
9.6.3 Conching 163
9.6.4 Deodorization of Cocoa Butter 164
10. INTRODUCTION TO FERMENTED MILKS 165-175
10.1 Introduction. 165
10.2 Definition and Composition of Fermented Milks 165
10.3 Classification and Types of Fermented Milks 166
10.4 Production of Fermented Milks 168
10.4.1 Traditional Method, 168
10.4.2 Commercial Method 169
10.5 Nutritional Value and Properties of Fermented Milk 170
10.6 Therapeutic Properties and Values of Fermented Milks 171
10.7 Assessing Quality of Fermented Milks ;...„.... 172
10.7.1 Quality Control of Raw Materials and Starters 172
10.7.2 Microbiological Analyses of Fermented Milks .' 173
10.7.3 Assessment ofSensory Characteristics 173
10.7.4 Public HealthSafetyAspects 173
10.8 Defects and Spoilage of Fermented Milks 174
11. FERMENTED MILK PRODUCTS 176-205
11.1 Introduction 176
xiv
11.2 Acidophilus milk 176
11.3 Bulgarian Sour Milk 180
11.4 Bulgarian Butter Milk 180
11.5 BifidusMilk, 180
11.6 Cultured Butter Milk 181
11.7 Cultured Sour Cream 182
11.8 Kefir 183
11.9 Kumiss (Milk Wine) 186
11.10 Leben and Other Related Products 189
11.11 Skyr 190
11.12 Taette (Scandinavian Ropy Milk) 192
11.13 Yoghurt 193
11.14 Indian Fermented Milks 198
11.14.1 Dahi or Dadhi 198
11.14.2 Srikhand 201
11.14.3 Lassi 202
11.15 Lactic Beverages 202
11.15.1 Milk Based Beverages 203
11.15.2 Whey Based Beverages 203
12. MICROBIOLOGY OF CHEESE 206-219
12.1 Introduction 206
12.2 Definition and Types of Cheeses ..207
12.3 Composition 209
12.4 Basic Processes involved in Cheese Production 211
12.5 Microbiological Aspects of Cheese-Making 213
12.5.1 Biological Agents 213
12.5.2 Starters for Cheese 214
12.5.3 Rennet 216
12.6 Public Health Concerns/Diseases through Cheese 217
12.7 Microbiological Spoilages of Cheese and their Control 218
12.7.1 Mold Growth 218
12.7.2 Gas Formation 218
12.7.3 Rind Rot 219
12.7.4 Discoloralions/Colour Defects 219
13. COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURE OF CHEESES 220-241
13.1 Introduction 220
13.2 Definitions of Commercial Varieties of Cheese 220
13.3 Basic Steps in Commercial Cheese Making 222
XV
13.3.1 Preparation of Milk 222
13.3.2 Preparation of Milk Coagulum 223
13.3.3 Transformation of Coagulum into Cheese Curd (wheyexpulsion steps) 223
13.3.4 Starter Proliferation and Activity 223
13.3.5 Salting of Cheese Curd 224
13.3.6 Ripening of Cheese 224
13.3.7 Physical Changes 225
13.3.8 Chemical/Biochemical Changes 225
13.3.9 Microbiological Changes 226
13.3.10 Accelerated Cheese Ripening 226
13.4 Fresh Cheeses—Quark 228
13.5 Cottage Cheese (Granular Fresh Cheese) 230
13.6 Harzer Cheese 232
13.7 Emmental (Swiss) Cheese 233
13.8 Cheddar Cheese 234
13.9 LimburgCheese 235
13.10 Camembert Cheese 236
13.11 Roquefort Cheese (Blue Cheese) 237
13.12 DutchCheese (Edam and Gouda) 238
13.13 Mozzarella Cheese (Pasta Filata Type) ., : 238
13.14 Pasteurized Process Cheese/Cheese Spread 239
13.15 Microbiological Tests and Standards for Cheese in India 241
14. INTRODUCTION TO FERMENTED VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 242-257
14.1 Introduction 242
14.2 Lactic Acid Fermented Fruits and Vegetables 242
14.2.1 General Processing Diagram 243
14.2.2 Raw Material Pretreatments 245
14.2.3 The Function of Ingredients Used in the Preparation of
Fermented Fruits and Vegetables 245
14.2.4 Use of Selected Fermentation Starters 248
14.3 Lactic Acid Fermented Fruits 249
14.4 Lactic Acid Fermented Beverages 249
14.5 Nutritional Aspects of Lactic Acid Fermented Plant Products 249
14.5.1 Beneficial Effects 249
14.5.2 Beneficial Dietary Effects 249
14.5.3 Vitamin C Preservation 250
14.5.4 Mineral Preservation 250
14.6.1 Prebrining Treatments 251
xvi
14.6.2 Brining Procedures 252
14.6.3 Brining Vessels 253
14.7 Microbial Spoilage of Vegetables and Fruits 254
15. SAUERKRAUT «»• 258-264
15.1 Introduction > 258
15.2 Mechanical Operations .' 259
15.2.1 Mechanical harvester 259
15.2.2 Grading 259
15.2.3 Core removal 259
15.2.4 Trim 259
15.2.5 Shredding 260
15.2.6 Salting 260
15.2.7 Conveyance 260
15.2.8 FermentationTanks 261
15.3 Processing ,..261
15.3.1 Bulk sauerkraut 261
15.3.2 "Hot Fill" Method 261
15.3.3 Chemical Preservatives 262
15.4 The Fermentation Behaviour and Responsbile Microorganisms 262
15.5 Nutritional Significance 263
15.6 Spoilage of Sauerkrautand Product Defects 263
15.7 Korean "kimchi" 264
16. PICKLES AND OLIVES 265-274
16.1 Introduction 265
16.2 Classification of Pickles 265
16.3 Preparation of Salt-stock Pickles 267
16.3.1 The BriningofCucumbers 267
16.3.2 Microbiological Aspects of Brining 267
16.3.3 Pasteurization of Cucumber Pickles 268
16.3.4 Canning Pickled Cucumbers 268
16.4 Types or Varieties of Pickles 269
16.4.1 Salt Pickles 269
16.4.2 Sour Pickles 269
16.4.3 Genuine Dill Pickles 269
16.4.4 Imitation Dill Pickles 270
16.4.5 Sweet Pickles 270
16.4.6 Mixed Pickles 270
16.4.7 Kosher Dills 270
xvii
16.4.8 Bread-and-butter Pickles 270
16.5 Spoilage of Cucumber Pickles 271
16.6 Olives 271
16.6.1 Green Olives 272
16.6.2 Black Olives 274
16.6.3 Spoilage Problems with Olives 274
17. VINEGAR (ACETIC ACID) 275-282
17.1 Introduction 275
17.2 Definition 275
17.3 Microbial Production of Acetic Acid (Vinegar) 276
17.3.1 Alcoholic Fermentation 276
17.3.2 Acetic Acid Fermentation 277
17.4 Techniques for Acetic Acid Fermentation 278
17.5 Factors Influencing Vinegar Production 279
17.6 Types and Constituents of Vinegar 280
17.6.1 Spirit Vinegar 280
17.6.2 Wine Vinegar 280
17.6.3 Cider Vinegar 281
17.6.4 Malt Vinegar 281
17.6.5 Whey Vinegar 281
17.6.6 Rice Vinegar 281
17.7 Use of Vinegar 281
17.8 Quality Standards•
282
18. ETHYL ALCOHOL 283-289
18.1 Introduction 283
18.2 Biosynthesis and Bio-chemistry 283
18.3 Fermentative Production of Ethanol [Ethyl Alcohol] 284
18.3.1 Microorganisms 284
18.3.2 Preparation of Inoculum 285
18.3.3 Raw Materials 286
18.3.4 Preparation of Fermentation Medium 286
18.3.5 Fermentation Conditions 286
18.3.6 Recovery 287
18.3.7 Flowsheet 288
18.4 By-products •288
19. FERMENTED ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES 290-309
19.1 Introduction 290
19.2 Biotcchnological Sequence of Wines 290
xviii
19.3 Influence of the Raw Material 291
19.4 Fermentation 292
19.5 White Wine Production 293
19.6 Rose (or Pink) Wine Production 294
19.7 Red Wine Production 294
19.8 Dessert Wines 294
19.9 Special Types 297
19.10 Clarification 297
19.11 Aging 300
19.12 Wine Disorders 300
19.13 Chemical and Sensory Analysis 301
19.14 Bottling and Labeling 301
19.15 Sparkling Wines , 301
19.16 Wines Produced By Secondary Fermentation 302
19.17 Fermented Juice Products 304
19.17.1 Fermented Cider 304
19.17.2 Apple Wine 305
19.17.3 Apple Brandy 305
19.18 Beer 305
19.18.1 Kinds of Beer 306
19.18.2 Beer Production 306
19.18.3 Chemical Composition of Beer 308
20. DISTILLED BEVERAGE SPIRITS 310-325
20.1 Introduction 31020.2 Whisky Types 311
20.3 American Manufacturing Process 312
20.3.1 Definitions 312
20.3.2 Grain Handling and Milling 31320.3.3 Mashing 31420.3.4 Fermentation 31520.3.5 Distillation 317
20.3.6 Maturation 319
20.4 Gin 320
20.4.1 London Dry Gin 32020.4.2 Holland Gin 321
20.4.3 Compound Gin 321
20.5 Brandy 321
20.6 Rum 322
20.7 Cordials and Liqueurs 323
xix
20.8 Vodka 323
20.9 Tequila 324
21. MICROBIAL SURFACTANTS IN FOOD APPLICATIONS 326-335
21.1 Introduction 326
21.2 Functional Properties ofinterest in Food 327
21.3 Emulsification 329
21.4 Food-related uses of Surfactants 330
21.5 Examples of Biosurfactants used as Food Additives 334
21.6 Conclusion 335
22. ENSILAGE 336-347
22.1 Introduction 336
22.2 Silo : 337
22.3 Fermented Feeds 337
22.4 Ensilage from Feed Grains 337
22.4.1 Ensiling Process 338
22.4.2 Biochemical and Microbiological Changes during Ensiling 338
22.5 Spoilage and Production Defects 339
22.6 Haylage-Ensiling Hay Crops 340
22.6.1 Ensiling Process 340
22.6.2 Conditioners 341
22.6.3 Fenn Process 341
22.7 Additives to Ensiling 342
22.7.1 Microbial Cultures 342
22.7.2 Enzymes 343
22.7.3 Antibiotics .344
22.7.4 Nutritive Additives 345
22.7.5 Preservatives 345v22.8 Products of Microbial Processes Added to Feeds 345
22.8.1 Microbial Biomass 346
22.8.2 Animal Growth Promotants 346
22.8.3 Miscellaneous Products 347
SELETED BIBLIOGRAPHY 348-351
APPENDIX A. Sweeteners 352-354
APPENDIX B. Enzymes Used in Food Biotechnology 355-356
APPENDIX C. Traditional Speciality Sausages 357-362
APPENDIX D. Fermented Sausages Using Starter Culture 363-367
INDEX, 368-375