female pop singers and twitter usage female pop singers on

Microsoft Word - 217886_supp_undefined_BAFB6FDC-BE7D-11E2-9F2A-EF472E1BA5B1.docxFemale Pop Singers and Twitter Usage
FEMALE POP SINGERS ON TWITTER: USE FOR BRANDING AND IMPLICATIONS FOR
PUBLICISTS
School of Professional Studies
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Master of Arts in Communication and Leadership Studies
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ABSTRACT
A celebrity’s success depends upon building and maintaining their ‘well-knownness.’
The increase in usage of and access to social media platforms like the micro-blogging platform
Twitter have led celebrities and their publicity teams to incorporate social media into their
branding and communication strategies. The purpose of this thesis is to examine celebrity
presence on and usage of Twitter and its implications for the role of celebrity publicists. The
study is based in the narrative paradigm, which recognizes and honors each individual’s story
telling abilities. A case study including three influential female pop singers was conducted, and
the results were analyzed using ideological rhetorical analysis. Regardless of the risks its usage
may present, their presence on Twitter indicates that celebrities and their publicists recognize
value in social media involvement.
Female Pop Singers and Twitter Usage 4
TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Importance of the Study ………………………………………………………………………. 5 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………………………………... 6 Definition of Terms Used …………………………………………………………………….. 6 Organization of Remaining Chapters …………………………………………………………. 7 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Philosophical Assumptions and Theoretical Basis ………………………………………….. 8 The Literature ………………………………………………………………………………... 9 Impact on Publicist’s Strategy ………………………………………………………………. 12 Rationale …………………………………………………………………………………….. 14 Research Questions ………………………………………………………………………….. 15 CHAPTER 3: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
Scope of the Study ………………………………………………………………………… 16 Methodology of the Study ………………………………………………………………… 16 Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………… 17 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………………………………………. 19 CHAPTER 4: THE STUDY
Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………... 20 Results of the Study ………………………………………………………………………….. 20 140 Characters or Less ……………………………………………………………………….. 23 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………. 28 CHAPTER 5: SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS
Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………………………. 34 Recommendations for Future Study ………………………………………………………….. 34 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………………………… 36 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………... 37
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Importance of the Study
Today, a simple trip to the grocery store or visit to a news outlet’s homepage exposes the
visitor to a torrent of information and celebrity news. Pictures and stories about celebrity figures
that most people will never actually meet are readily available on computer or iPhone screens.
Celebrities share their wedding plans, latest love interest, dramatic weight gain or embarrassing
faux pas from last weekend. All of these personal details and snapshots into other people’s lives
create a false sense of familiarity. Journalism professor and social commentator Gitlin (2002)
argues that the feeling of knowing people who are unfamiliar to us but whom we have never met
is not a new phenomenon. Since our nation’s infancy, Americans have looked to people whom
they admire and afforded them celebrity status. While the individuals who achieve celebrity
status in 2013 may be markedly different than the celebrities of yesteryear, the trappings of
celebrity, including notoriety and the public’s interest in their private lives, are constants
(Henderson, 2005).
The life-blood of a celebrity (and subsequently their team), is their well-knownness,
which encourages others to follow their day-to-day life for their own entertainment and
participation in conversations about popular culture (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010). The
avenues for facilitating this sense of being well-known have shifted over the course of American
history, from speaking engagements and newspaper interviews to photo shoots, news reports
and, most recently, social media presence (Henderson, 2005). Twitter and other forms of social
media have altered “the magnitude of the flow, the range of characters that enter our world, their
omnipresence, the sheer number of stories” (Gitlin, 2002, p. 22) and the overall exposure to the
average consumer has to the life stories of others (Griffin, 2008). There is, quite simply, more
information about celebrities available today than there ever has been before.
Statement of the Problem
In a recent episode of ABC’s Nashville, country pop star Juliette Barnes takes a career
risk that is inconsistent with her carefully managed brand, and then begins to anxiously check
Twitter for the fan reaction. When her manager tells her not take the negative tweets to heart,
saying, “The tweets don’t matter,” she angrily responds “They do!” (Panettiere, 2013). As this
fictionalized account from Nashville demonstrates, Twitter presents a variety of opportunities for
celebrities and their publicists to increase their well-knownness and strengthen their personal
brands (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010). In Juliette Barnes’ case (Panettiere, 2013), having
the audience live-tweet her risky performance confuses her fan-base and invites criticism from
her detractors. The Twitter coverage of the performance undermines from her carefully managed
brand. As this fictionalized account demonstrates, with new opportunities come new challenges,
and new public relations strategies and techniques. The goal of this study is to examine those
challenges in action. Branding through Twitter has presented challenges and opportunities to
celebrity publicists, while forcing them to readily adapt to the new medium.
Definitions of Terms Used
Well-Knownness, as defined by Boorstein (1962) describes a celebrity as “a person who is
known for his well-knownness” (p. 49). For the purposes of this thesis, well-knownness refers to
the publicity and spectacle that surrounds celebrity figures.
Celebrities, for the purposes of this thesis, are individuals who are known for their well-
knownness (Boorstein, 1962).
Twitter launched in 2006 and has evolved into a premiere micro-blogging platform. It attracts up
to 180 million users each month (Van Dijck, 2011).
A Tweet is a type of micro-blog. It allows users to send brief messages of no more than 140
characters (Xifra & Grau, 2010, p. 171). These tweets are posted to the user’s landing page and
shared with their Twitter followers.
The Landing Page allows the Twitter user to provide a brief description of themselves. It also
includes space for a profile picture and space to link to a homepage. The landing page comes in
standardized format, but can be customized with different colors and images. It also includes a
list of the user’s most recent tweets.
Publicist - These public relations professionals are specialized, and work with celebrity clientele
rather than organizations or corporations (Turner, Bonner & Marshall, 2000).
Organization of Remaining Chapters
This chapter has presented the rationale behind the study and how its results may impact
the manner in which we view celebrity tweets and interaction with fans on Twitter. The second
chapter will discuss the philosophical traditions and existing theories in which the thesis is
rooted. Chapter 3 will explain the scope of the case study, as well as the methodology used to
conduct it, while Chapter 4 will present an analysis of the study’s results. Chapter 5 considers the
results of the study and how they may be applied to our perceptions of celebrity Twitter
presence, as well as the study’s limitations and directions for possible future research.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Philosophical Assumptions and Theoretical Basis
Fisher (1989) viewed his Narrative paradigm as a foundation for rhetorical criticism, one
which recognizes human beings and honors their story telling abilities. Today, many celebrities
have taken to Twitter to share their stories. Stefanone, Lackaff and Rosen (2008) argue that
Twitter has changed the consumption of celebrity gossip, or ‘stories’ for fans. Now, “Rather
than simply being the target of mediated messages, they can see themselves as protagonists of
mediated narratives and can integrate themselves into a complex media ecosystem” (p. 107).
Thus, Twitter has actually allowed fans to become active participants within celebrity narratives.
There are also more narratives than ever before. Twitter and other forms of social media have
altered “the magnitude of the flow, the range of characters that enter our world, their
omnipresence, the sheer number of stories” (Gitlin, 2002, p. 22).
McLuhan (1959) argued that “the medium is the message” (p. 340). In Twitter’s case,
the implication is that its usage “almost entirely patterns the character of what is thought, felt, or
said by those using it” (McLuhan, 1959, p. 340). If, as Fisher (1989) posits, all human
communication is motivated by unconscious motives, it is imperative to carefully consider the
intent, belief, and attitude or act behind the artifact when determining its meaning. Likewise, the
goal of rhetorical criticism is to consider the text within social and cultural context, considering
its more subtle or unsaid implications (Poulakos, 1987). McLuhan (1959) concurs with this
analysis, contending that the impact of the media we are exposed to “is always subliminal so far
as our ideas and concepts are concerned” (p. 341).
In this context, celebrity tweets may be considered “aspects of the world occurring in
time and shaped by history, culture and character” (Fisher, 1989, p. 57). Each individual artifact
is a reflection of the zeitgeist. Considered from a perspective of rhetorical criticism, a tweet is
“deliberately chosen to influence an audience whose members have the ability to change their
beliefs or behaviors as a consequence of experiencing the message” (Rybacki & Rybacki, 1991,
p.2). Furthermore, one reason that celebrities tweet is to maintain their celebrity status. Tweets
are designed to psychologically impact the audience due to the mood that they invoke or feeling
that they stimulate (Rybacki & Rybacki, 1991). It may be fair to say that celebrities on Twitter
with millions of followers find themselves in a powerful position, able to influence public
opinion with a few carefully chosen words.
The Literature
Celebrities enjoy a greater scope of influence than their less well-known counterparts due
to their celebrity status. Boorstein (1962) described a celebrity as “a person who is known for his
well-knownness” (p. 49). Street (2004) echoes this, describing a celebrity as someone who
enjoys “a greater presence and wider scope of activity and agency than are those who make up
the rest of the population. They are allowed to move on the public stage while the rest of us
watch” (p. 437). Henderson describes the beginning of U.S. celebrity, noting that “Lacking
millennia of history as a nation, Americans of the Revolutionary republic fashioned a mythic
national character out of military heroes and eminent statesmen who embodied the ideals of
virtue, self-reliance and achievement” (2005, p. 38). The communication revolution changed
who was allowed on this public stage during the twentieth century, with personality becoming
the main driver of celebrity, rather than character (Henderson, 2005). During this era, when
newspapers and movies became part of the mainstream culture, a new kind of media-generated
celebrity emerged.
Turner (2004) comments on the notion of media generated celebrity, noting that our
definition of celebrity has changed due to the persistent and constant nature of modern media
coverage. Today, media coverage emphasizes personality over achievement or ability,
recognizing individuals simply for being well known (Henderson, 2005; Boorstein, 1962).
Today, celebrities are super models, athletes or pop singers rather than Revolutionary War
generals. The gulf between yesterday’s George Washington and today’s Paris Hilton could not
be broader, but each was or is considered a celebrity in their day. Today’s celebrities are human
pseudo-events, the product of the hard work of a team of people who make their presence widely
known, and the people who willingly watch their television program, read their latest interview
or listen to their music (Boorstein, 1962; Turner, Bonner & Marshall, 2000). They live and work
in a world of flash and spectacle (Henderson, 2005). Today, that world of flash and spectacle has
grown to include social media.
Twitter has become an important part of the world of flash and spectacle. In fact, people
in the spotlight who aren’t using social media platforms like Twitter are missing an important
opportunity to develop their brand (Kaplan & Hainlein, 2009). Since Twitter launched in 2006,
it has evolved into a premiere micro-blogging platform, attracting up to 180 million users each
month (Van Dijck, 2011). Micro-blogging, or tweeting, allows users to send brief messages of
no more than 140 characters (Xifra & Grau, 2010, p. 171). Since its launch, Twitter’s audience
has changed, shifting from a slightly older adult audience interested in communicating with one
another to young adults interested in receiving news updates and following celebrities (Van
Dijck, 2011). Recognizing the opportunity that Twitter presents to reach millions of potential
followers with relative ease, celebrities, particularly musicians, have made it an integral part of
their branding and publicity plans. In fact, many sign contracts guaranteeing that they will post a
minimum number of tweets each week (Markowitz, 2012). This frequency is meant to ensure
that they will gain and keep fan’s interest and stay in the spotlight. Stars must post interesting
tweets frequently enough to be worth following (Stein, 2012). Otherwise, they risk falling out of
the spotlight.
As it was with the newspapers, movies and interviews of the twentieth century, one of the
main goals of Twitter usage is to see and be seen (Faina, 2012). In fact, social media is a critical
part of any star’s public relation’s plan (Markowitz, 2012). However, celebrities and their public
relations teams must manage their images differently now that communication is simply a mouse
click away. In fact, “Celebrities themselves have started using social media channels like
Twitter in order to guide how various channels depict them and therefore how the media and
public perceive them” (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010, p. 18). Pop singer Lady Gaga, one of
the most followed people on Twitter, is one of the celebrities using the medium to communicate
with her fans and to shape her image. Universal Music’s president of sales, Steve Berman,
observes that “Gaga has worked tirelessly in keeping up daily if not hourly communication with
her fans and growing fan base” (Hampp, 2010, p. 2).
Lady Gaga and other female pop singers, such as Taylor Swift and Rihanna, must
recognize that fame is fleeting. Each uses Twitter to regularly communicate with their fan base.
Marshall (2000) observed that “the popular music celebrity… who emerges from the adulation of
a preteen or young teen female audience, demonstrates the rapidity of this dissipation of power
and influence of a public personality” (p. 217). Of the ten most followed people on Twitter, a
list which includes Lady Gaga, Taylor Swift and Rihanna, six are female pop singers ("Top
twitter user," 2013).
Celebrities like Lady Gaga, Taylor Swift and Rihanna share a diverse array of
information through Twitter. Often, their tweets include behind the scenes pictures, videos and
information that are carefully selected to increase the star’s authenticity (Markowitz, 2012).
However, more may be at stake. Markham (2007) argues that celebrity culture and influence has
become so prolific that it regularly influences political and social issues, and is in fact considered
a part of regular news consumption. Thus, celebrity influence on Twitter is more important than
messages limited to 140 characters may suggest, that is it helps to shape American values. It also
has far reaching ramifications for the stars who utilize it. Some celebrities have found
themselves in legal trouble, sued for comments that they have made on Twitter that were found
to be libelous or unpopular in nature (Lozare, 2011). Celebrities who mis-tweet may also lose
Twitter followers. In the wake of the Penn State sex-abuse scandal, Ashton Kutcher used Twitter
to share his thoughts about coach Joe Paterno’s firing with his followers. After a backlash, he
removed his tweet and apologized. He also began having his publicity team preview and edit his
tweets prior to posting (Stein, 2012). As Kutcher’s case suggests, celebrities must carefully
choose what to tweet, in addition to how and when they say it. If they are not careful, they may
attract negative attention from both their supporters and detractors and impact their chance of
future success.
Industries like public relations, promotions and publicity experienced rapid growth over
the last century in response to celebrities’ desire to manage and further their images (Turner,
2004; Tilson, 2003). Hollywood movie studio’s efforts to manage and protect celebrity personas
emerged after a series of scandals in the 1920s which threatened their financial viability. With
their financial future tied to the continued success of their stars, studios began practicing a policy
of studio-sanctioned disclosure, where approved personal information was disseminated in
approved gossip columns, star magazines and interviews (Muntean & Petersen, 2009). Emerging
technologies like Twitter have made maintaining this tight grip impossible and impractical, while
presenting the risk of over-disclosure to celebrities and their publicists.
Social media has altered the practice of celebrity management, changing it from a process
carefully managed and executed by public relations professionals to a less structured process
where celebrities interact and build rapport with their fans (Marwick & Boyd, 2011). Typically, a
public relations professional who works with celebrities is called a publicist (Turner, Bonner &
Marshall, 2000). Publicists have begun incorporating Twitter into their professional lives, using
it to further their clients’ images by sharing links to relevant stories and make reaching out to
media outlets easier (Xifra & Grau, 2010; Waters, Tindall & Morton, 2010).
One of the most common reasons that publicists reach out to media outlets is to dispel or
refute inaccurate or unflattering information about their client (Muntean & Petersen, 2009).
Unfortunately, being in the public eye means that fans see celebrities - warts and all (Hellmueller
& Aeschbacher, 2010). One method that celebrities and their publicists have found to be an
effective counter to the constant intrusion of websites like TMZ (http://www.tmz.com) and Perez
Hilton (http://www.perezhilton.com) is to simply beat them to the punch by providing a greater
degree of personal information through micro-blogging sites like Twitter (Muntean & Petersen,
2009). Weekly celebrity magazines, such as People and US Weekly, have also adjusted to the
new medium. They maintain a Twitter presence, providing links to much of the same
information they provide in print (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010). This allows them to
provide the news to their Twitter followers as it happens, rather than in one weekly news
magazine.
This emphasis on revealing information on Twitter has rendered the press release passé
(Dumenco, 2010). In fact, celebrity tweets may be considered the new public relations gold
standard. “Celebrity tweeting has been equated with the assertion of the authentic celebrity
voice; celebrity tweets are regularly cited in newspaper articles and blogs as ‘official’ statements
from the celebrity” (Muntean & Petersen, 2009, p 23). This approach also extends to crisis
situations. “It wasn’t that long ago that a celebrity with something ‘important’ to put out there,
like an apology, would automatically say it through a tightly controlled protocol… Now 140
characters or fewer suffice” (Dumenco, 2010, p. 28). However, in many cases, those 140
characters are carefully scrutinized before they are ever posted. Like Ashton Kutcher, many
celebrities worry about the impact of a mis-tweet. Now, publicists may contract the management
of social media strategies to separate contractors, who carefully analyze each potential tweet and
its impact before approving and then posting it (Stein, 2012). Thus, while by all appearances
social media interaction is perceived as more authentic and casual, it is still carefully managed to
mitigate risk.
Rationale
Celebrities once seemed like distant figures; people seen and admired on TV, in
magazines or on the silver screen. Now, the advent of new types of social media interaction,
including Twitter, have altered the way that the public interacts with these previously distant
figures, along with the methods that their publicity teams use to manage and enhance their
image. Henderson comments on this phenomenon, noting that “contemporary celebrity is eons
from an age when heroes were placed on pedestals: today, rather than reverential and upward-
looking, the perspective is eye-to-eye” (2005, p. 46). This shift in perspective and subsequent
change in communication styles present important questions for celebrities and their publicists.
Twitter has presented a myriad of opportunities for celebrities and their publicists to
increase their well-knownness and strengthen their personal brands (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher,
2010). But with new promotional opportunities come new challenges, as well as new public
relations strategies and techniques. Celebrities who fail to edit their tweets and carefully manage
their social media brand risk alienating the very fan-bases they are working to maintain (Lozare,
2011; Stein, 2012). The goal of this study is to examine how the use of Twitter has presented
celebrities with a new arena in which to brand themselves, and how they have used it to do so.
The study will also examine how the branding process has presented challenges and
opportunities to their publicists, while forcing them to readily adapt to the new medium. It is
generally recognized that Twitter has become an important tool in the celebrity publicist’s public
relations arsenal. However, the implications of its usage for celebrities and their publicists have
not been fully examined. Accordingly, the following questions will be considered:
Research Questions
RQ1: What advantages and risks does celebrity twitter usage present to celebrity publicists?
RQ2: How have female pop singers Lady Gaga, Taylor Swift and Rihanna used Twitter to brand
themselves?
Chapter 3: SCOPE AND METHODOLOGY
The Scope of the Study
The existing literature demonstrates a clear understanding of the historical development
and maintenance of “well-knownness,” or celebrity status. Utilizing Boorstein’s (1962)
definition, celebrities are individuals who are known simply for being well known - human
pseudo-events. The existing body of research also acknowledges that as new communication
media such as radio, television and social media have become widely used and entered the
mainstream, they have changed the nature of modern celebrity (Henderson, 2005). Social media
has become an important part of the celebrity image management infrastructure. In fact,
Markowitz (2012) considers it a critical part of the star’s public relations plan. The goal of this
study is to consider the challenges and advantages that Twitter usage presents and examine how
female pop stars use Twitter to brand themselves and reach their fan-bases.
Methodology of the Study
To analyze celebrity Twitter presence and branding, this study utilized two
complimentary methodologies: an exploratory case study approach and ideological rhetorical
criticism. The case studies provided a celebrity perspective, and were a suitable option given two
key limitations: the researcher had no direct access to the subjects of the study, and no ability to
manipulate or influence the study’s participants (Yin, 2009). Ideological rhetorical criticism was
used to critically analyze the data gathered from the case studies.
The Case Study’s Prepositions. Yin (2009) believes that prepositions (the hypothesis or
assumptions made by the research team) help to define the scope of the case study by
considering the intent of the study within the context of previous research. Prior research has
determined that modern celebrities are individuals best known for being well-known (Boorstein,
1962). Furthermore, it is evident that Twitter presents an excellent platform upon which
celebrities can build and maintain their brand, and the research (Kaplan & Hainlein, 2009)
indicates that they and their publicists have taken note. Based upon prior research, it seems
likely that female pop singers and their publicists are branding themselves using the tweets and
pictures they post on Twitter. This usage presents risks and advantages to the celebrity (and their
publicity team), who must consider whether each tweet will help, maintain or harm their public
persona. These prepositions will focus the research and guide data collection for analysis
(Baxter and Jack, 2008).
Units of Analysis. Twitter analytics helped to guide the selection of candidates (units of
analysis) for case study. Candidates were chosen based on the assumption that Twitter’s most
followed users have its broadest influence. The latest statistics indicate that six of the top-ten-
most-followed-twitter-users are female pop singers ("Top twitter user," 2013). Because the
analytics indicate that they are among the most followed people on Twitter, the focus of the
study was narrowed to female pop singers. Three candidates with diverse backgrounds and fan-
bases were selected: Lady Gaga (34.5 million followers), Taylor Swift (24 million followers) and
Rihanna (28.5 million followers) ("Top twitter user," 2013). All three women’s songs are
prominently featured on Top 40 radio, but each experienced initial or continued success in other
markets (dance, country and rhythm and blues, respectively) of the music industry . These three
women serve as the ‘case’ in the case study.
Analysis
Artifacts were analyzed according to Foss’ (2008) four step process for analyzing
rhetorical criticism. Ideological rhetorical criticism is an approach incorporating the “concepts
and theories to address the features that characterize the new era: fragmentation of individuals
and communities; a consumer lifestyle” (Foss, 2008, p. 212). First, the prepositions or
‘elements’ in each of the selected artifacts were identified. The sheer volume of information
available on Twitter necessitated the creation of research parameters. The scope of the study was
narrowed to encompass three women in the same industry. To further narrow the scope, the
study was limited to tweets published between Feb. 1 and Feb. 14 of 2013. Re-tweets and
‘mentions,’ or instances where a Twitter follower mentioned the unit of analysis, were not
incorporated.
After selection, the elements identified in each artifact were examined in order to identify
the meanings and ideas they may suggest. In accordance with Foss’ third step, the meanings and
ideas generated in the second step were organized into the “major ideational clusters, themes, or
ideas” (p. 217). Finally, the ideology identified after analyzing the artifacts was applied to
modern society, and how “the artifact functions for the audience who encounters it and the
consequences it has,” (Foss, 2008, p. 220) for individuals and for society as a whole. The “major
ideational clusters, themes, or ideas” (Foss, 2008, p. 217) detected during analysis were then
related to the prepositions which guided the selection of the three case studies.
Reliability and Validity. The researchers took a number of precautions to ensure the
validity of the study. First and foremost, the study was rooted in prepositions (Baxter and Jack,
2008). These prepositions helped to define the scope of the case study by considering the goal of
the study within the context of previous research (Yin, 2009). Thus, the prepositions ensured that
the research team was answering the study’s questions. As previously stated, the use of the case
study approach was carefully considered. The case studies were the only realistic avenue
available for obtaining a celebrity perspective, as the researcher had no direct access to the
subjects of the study, and as such could not manipulate or influence them (Yin, 2009).
Furthermore, the artifacts were limited to specific candidates who tweeted them within a
designated timeframe (the first two weeks of Feb. 2013). These artifacts were carefully collected
and managed within a database created by the researcher. The inclusion of three units of analysis
of the same sex (female) from the same industry (music) contributed to the validity of the
findings. In addition, the research team observed a period of reflection prior to analyzing the
findings, as recommended by Baxter and Jack (2008). This time allowed the researcher to verify
the validity of the study’s findings.
Ethical Considerations
As in any study, the health and wellbeing of the study’s participants are of utmost
importance to the researcher. The celebrities selected for case study were not notified or
contacted directly by the research team, as the study focused on their public personas, not their
private lives. An IRB review is not necessary in this instance as the artifacts or ‘tweets’ under
analysis were voluntarily provided by public figures on their Twitter accounts and are part of the
public record.
Chapter 4: THE STUDY
Introduction
The three female pop singers selected for case study were Lady Gaga (34.5 million
followers), Taylor Swift (24 million followers) and Rihanna (28.5 million followers) ("Top
twitter user," 2013). Each tweets frequently, often multiple times each day. Their Twitter
landing pages and the tweets generated by each Twitter account between Feb. 1, 2013 and Feb.
14, 2013 were treated as individual artifacts for the purposes of the study. In accordance with
Foss’ four step process for analyzing rhetorical criticism, the meanings and ideas detected
within each artifact were organized into “major ideational clusters, themes, or ideas” (p. 217).
The broader implications of these ideational clusters and themes will be explored after the
discussion of initial findings.
The goal of this rhetorical analysis was to determine the efficacy of the study’s
prepositions, which informed the selection of Lady Gaga, Rihanna and Taylor Swift as units of
analysis and helped to guide data collection efforts (Baxter and Jack, 2008). The prepositions
were as follows: based upon the earlier research, it seemed probable that female pop singers and
their publicists were using the tweets and pictures they posted on Twitter to enhance their
personal brand. Furthermore, the research team posited that Twitter usage presented risks and
advantages to the celebrity (and their publicity team), who simultaneously accepted its potential
to both help and harm their reputation.
Results of the Study
Establishing one’s personal brand through a landing page. The pop singers included
in the study fully understand the American colloquialism, “You don’t get a second chance to
make a first impression.” In the virtual world created by Twitter, its users and their followers, the
landing page serves as an introduction and presents an opportunity to encapsulate one’s personal
brand. As a result, seemingly simple decisions like the background color, profile picture and
personal description must all be carefully considered. Due to their importance and the tone that
they set for the celebrities’ interactions with fans, the pop singers’ landing pages were the first
artifacts examined.
Art sustains. At first glance, Lady Gaga’s landing page (Figure 1) is simple: a plain,
white background which includes cartoon graphics that appear to be hand drawn. The cartoon is
a colorful bust of Lady Gaga, wearing a turban and bejeweled head piece. On the bust, tattooed
on Lady Gaga’s neck, are a number of well-known Walt Disney princesses, including Ariel from
The Little Mermaid, Belle from Beauty and the Beast and Cinderella. The personal description
reads “When POP sucks the tits of ART.” The bust of Gaga demonstrates her commitment to
art. In effect, she is depicting herself as living art. The presence of the Disney princesses portray
her as a playful figure while
nodding to fictional characters
which were popular during
princesses also encourages her
fans to follow their dreams and make brave choices, as the heroines in Disney movies do. Her
personal description, “When POP sucks the tits of ART,” suggests that art is sustenance and
sustains her music. It also alludes to breast feeding, and suggests that she sees herself (and her
art) in a maternal light.
Figure 1. Lady Gaga’s landing page.
Self-Promotion. Rihanna’s landing page is bright and colorful with a background
montage in shades of blue and
purple. These colors coordinate
recently released album. In her
profile picture, Rihanna is
literally exposed. The personal description proclaims that she is “unapologetic.” Coincidentally,
this is the title of her new album. The description also indicates that, as she did in her profile
picture, Rihanna intends to be raw and truthful, regardless of the consequences.
Simplicity. Taylor Swift's landing page is simple. She is using the template that Twitter
provides to all of its users, and has not created a specialized look or feel to differentiate her page.
Her landing page is unique not because of what she has done, but because of what she has
chosen not to do. In keeping with this simple approach her profile picture is a headshot, showing
just one half of her face. The
relaxed smile on her face and her
hair blowing in the wind indicate
that she is relaxed and
comfortable. Her landing page is
not hiding behind art or color
Figure 2. Rihanna’s landing page.
Figure 3 . Taylor Swift’s landing page.
schemes, and does not feel produced. In her personal description she writes that she is "Happy.
Free. Confused. Lonely. At the same time." This lyric is part of one of her recent songs, 22
(Swift, 2013, track 6). Swift co-wrote this song, which describes a night out with her friends
when nothing in her life is completely clear. It is likely that she is also appealing to her fans,
many of whom fall within a similar age demographic and can likely relate to the sentiments she
expresses in the song.
140 Characters or Less
Each celebrity’s landing page includes a scrolling window featuring their latest tweets. As
previously stated, tweets are short messages limited to just 140 characters, including spaces
(Xifra & Grau, 2010, p. 171). Frequently, the three celebrities in the case study chose to include
pictures in their posts.
Branding: Lady Gaga’s Artistic Approach to Twitter . During the first two weeks of
February, Lady Gaga’s twitter account generated 19 original tweets. Each of the tweets
generated during the study’s two week time frame was analyzed, and the ideas and meanings
behind them were organized into the following ideational clusters:
Figure 4. Thematic patterns from Lady Gaga’s February 1 through February 14, 2013 tweets.
Gaga’s (2013a) first tweet on Feb. 1 read “Wish me luck little babies! Second go on the silver
screen today. Then back on a plane to St. Louis for the Ball! #HussleHussleHussleHard.” Lady
Gaga treats her fans as her family, taking on a maternal role for her ‘little babies.’ The tweet also
alludes to her continued success and jet setting lifestyle. On Feb. 4 she was still hard at work,
tweeting “Here I Go Again on my own, but in Kansas City I won’t feel alone, #BTWBALL
show #94 that’s number sign not hashtag” (Gaga, 2013b). The frequent travel, performances
and breakneck work pace are frequent themes in Lady Gaga’s tweets, and contribute to her
reputation as a hardworking and dedicated performer.
Lady Gaga’s brand has moved beyond Twitter. She has also lent her name to products.
Later in the month Lady Gaga referred to one of the products she endorses, tweeting, “Wow!
FAME the fragrance has officially sold 30 million bottles and is the 8th most successful brand of
the year! Thank you fashionistas!” (Gaga, 2013c). This tweet is thematically similar to many of
Lady Gaga’s tweets. In it, she expresses gratitude for her fans, who bought her fragrance and
contributed to its success. Her dedication to fashion is also a frequent theme. On Feb. 5 she
tweeted, “My hotel room is Sherlock themed, I'm breaking out the vintage Burberry & archive
YSL rive gauche detective coats playing w magnifying glass” (Gaga, 2013d). By referring to two
high end fashion brands in this tweet, Lady Gaga is sharing her interest in the fashion industry.
Her access to such high end clothing items is an indicator of her wealth and privilege. The
implication is that Lady Gaga and her brand are the fashionable choice, and Lady Gaga is a
fashionable woman. She is using her twitter page to brand herself, to sell Lady Gaga branded
items and to instill in her fans a commitment to a fashionable lifestyle.
Leading the fast paced lifestyle that Lady Gaga describes is taxing. The last tweets sent
during the beginning of the February relayed some unfortunate news from her camp. Reports
from celebrity magazines, including Entertainment Weekly, indicated that Lady Gaga was
canceling the remainder of her Born this Way Ball concert tour due to a serious hip injury
requiring surgery (Gornstein, 2013). Lady Gaga (2013e) confirmed the news, in two tweets,
saying “I’ve been hiding a show injury and chronic pain for sometime now, over the past month
it has worsened. I’ve been praying it would heal” (Gaga, 2013f). She continued, “I hid it from
my staff, I didn’t want to disappoint my amazing fans. However after last night’s performance I
could not walk and still can’t” (Gaga, 2013g). She later tweeted “It will hopefully heal as soon as
possible, I hate this. I hate this so much. I love you and Im sorry” (Gaga, 2013h). Lady Gaga’s
account generated a number of tweets on Feb. 12; these tweets are thematically very similar. It is
clear that she feels deep sadness and regret over the tour’s cancellation, but has been left with no
choice but to focus on her own health. Her love and gratitude for her fans and appreciation of
their support are evident.
Branding: Rihanna’s ‘Unapologetic’ Use of Twitter. During the first two weeks of
February, Rihanna’s twitter account generated 40 original tweets. Each of the tweets generated
during this two week period was analyzed, and the ideas and meanings behind them were
organized into the following ideational clusters:
Figure 5. Thematic clusters frm Rihanna’s tweets.
At the beginning of the month, Rihanna expressed her frustration by tweeting, “F***ing
problems…” (Rihanna, 2013a). While she failed to elaborate on the cause of her frustration,
anger and the use of profanity are frequent themes within her tweets. On Feb. 9 she tweeted
“Where my b***** @????” and included a photo featuring two pitbulls standing at attention in a
stark and modern home (Rihanna, 2013b). The themes of power and dominance figure
prominently into Rihanna’s tweets. Whether symbolically, as is the case with the pitbulls, a dog
breed typically associated with power and potential instability, or as in an earlier tweet on Feb. 1,
“Hello to my fav month (feb I’m make you my
b****)” (Rihanna, 2013c). The next day she
tweeted a to-do list for February, typing, “February,
like I own a ho” (Rihanna, 2013d). It seems that
through her actions and her surroundings, Rihanna
is emphasizing her power and dominance. However,
her tweets indicate that she also values her
relationships.
On Feb. 14 (Valentine’s Day), Rihanna tweeted “Roses are green! Somebody knows how
to make my happy” and included a picture of a marijuana bouquet that she received as a gift
(Rihanna, 2013e). Rihanna alludes to marijuana usage frequently in her tweets, and associates
the drug with freedom, romance and success. In a series of pictures taken by photographer Terry
Richardson for Rolling Stone this February ("Rihanna's rolling stone," 2013), and also posted to
her Twitter account, Rihanna is pictured openly smoking marijuana in an embroidered leather
jacket. Her frequent allusions to drug usage help to brand Rihanna as a rebellious and powerful
female voice who is flouting law and authority.
Figure 6. Rihanna, as featured in Rolling Stone magazine ("Rihanna's rolling stone," 2013).
In addition to the rebellious nature she chooses to share with her Twitter followers,
Rihanna also tweets pictures of family and shares her faith with her followers. On Feb. 6, she
tweeted, “When it seems like the world is against you, remember that God is behind your every
positive loving thought. #nevaforget” (Rihanna, 2013f). While this tweet speaks to Rihanna’s
aforementioned frustration, the tone of the tweet is a hopeful one emphasizing the power of faith.
Rihanna also revealed another aspect of her personal life on Feb. 4. She posted a picture with the
hashtag “#rolemodels***” (Rihanna, 2013g). Included in the tweet was a hyperlink to a photo
which included a smiling Rihanna hugging two older women whom one might assume are her
role models. Thus, while she values her freedom and rebellious nature, Rihanna also appears to
be a woman who values her faith and her family.
Branding: Taylor Swift’s Girl Next Door Twitter St yle. During the first two weeks of
February, Taylor Swift’s twitter account generated 14 original tweets. Each of these tweets was
analyzed, and the ideas and meanings behind them were organized into the following ideational
clusters:
Figure 7. Ideational clusters gleaned from Taylor Swift’s tweets the first fourteen days of February 2013.
Taylor Swift began February in a celebratory mood, tweeting, “So I'm just minding my own
business, making a sandwich before rehearsals, and I get a call that Red is platinum in the UK. I
LOVE you guys” (Swift, 2013a). This effusive gratitude for the success of her latest album and
the frequent attribution of her continued success to her fan base are common for Swift. On Feb.
4, she tweeted “Trouble is #1 on US and UK radio so I brought donuts to work. As donuts and
#1s both make me very very happy” (Swift, 2013b). Her enthusiasm continued throughout the
week. On Feb. 6 she told her followers, “Long day of rehearsals &fittings for Grammys (stoked).
Now I'm in bed at 8pm (again) and (still) blaming it on jet lag from the Europe trip” (Swift,
2013c).
While Swift frequently describes long days and hard work, she does so in an enthusiastic
manner. According to her Twitter feed, February was a busy month. On Feb. 9 she tweeted
“Grammy rehearsals last night, studio today, who knows what tonight holds! (I do. Laying
around watching TV while eating candy)” (Swift, 2013d). Swift frequently mentions food,
especially sweets, in her tweets. These tweets about nourishment and sweets communicate her
wholesomeness. The implication is that Taylor Swift is good for her followers and taking good
care of herself; she is sweet and inoffensive. She is also unafraid to tweet about completing
simple day-to-day activities, such as watching TV or making a sandwich. On Feb. 10 she tweeted
a picture of her cat with a message that read “Video shoot early tomorrow, so my Grammy after-
party situation looks like….” (Swift, 2013e). Sharing mundane details and acknowledging a
desire to relax and spend time out of the spotlight lends Swift’s girl next door image credibility.
Discussion
The values and ideas expressed in each of the artifacts have implications for the
celebrities and their publicists, as well as the fans who follow them on Twitter. As previously
stated, “Celebrities themselves have started using social media channels like Twitter in order to
guide how various channels depict them and therefore how the media and public perceive them”
(Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010, p. 18). It appears that each celebrity has chosen to use this
tool to their advantage, which requires them to actively participate in social media activities. The
pop singers included in the case study (and their publicity teams) demonstrate an understanding
of the power of social media and the important role that it plays in their continued success. The
study confirms that female pop singers and their publicists are branding themselves using the
tweets and pictures they post on Twitter. Each has a unique vision of themselves that they have
chosen to share with their fans.
Lady Gaga’s landing page and tweets brand her as a hardworking, artistic and motherly
figure. Her commitment to art, music and fashion is evident. However, her dedication to her
career and willingness to sacrifice her own health for the sake of her music and her fans provide
an interesting contrast in values. Modeling the value of hard work and working towards one’s
goals is an admirable trait. But concealing the truth, failing to take good care of one’s self and
working to the point of disability are dangerous and irresponsible. The suggestion is that Lady
Gaga cares more about her fans than her own health. However, temporarily disabled or not, Lady
Gaga is still committed to fashion. On Feb. 16 she tweeted, “This is Emma” and attached a photo
of her new gold plated wheelchair (Gaga, 2013i). Even a temporary disability cannot stand in the
way of fashion.
Rihanna’s landing page and tweets contribute to her reputation as an unapologetic rebel.
Her postings encourage drug use and unhealthy relationship dynamics. By tweeting pictures of
marijuana and tweeting images of her using recreational drugs, Rihanna is endorsing their usage
for her millions of young fans. The themes of power, domination and submission which
frequently appear in her tweets encourage unhealthy and unequal relationships. Her tweets
normalize potentially dangerous relationships and behavior. In contrast, Taylor Swift’s tweets
and landing page brand her as a down-to-earth, relatable and approachable role model. Choosing
to use Twitter’s basic landing page design suggests that she is choosing not to differentiate
herself or her landing page from that of other users. She does not tweet about parties she attends,
expensive items that she is purchasing or leading a privileged lifestyle. For her followers, the
implication is that it is okay to be true to yourself, even if that means being a person who chooses
to go back to their hotel rather than attend a Grammy after party. It is clear that for celebrities
like Lady Gaga, Rihanna and Taylor Swift, whose success depends upon their ability to get and
remain in the public eye, their personal brand and status (Hellmueller & Aeschbacher, 2010;
Boorstein, 1962) are carefully managed and maintained via Twitter.
Theoretical Implications
McLuhan (1959) argued that “the medium is the message” (p. 340). In keeping with this
theoretical approach, it is evident that Twitter’s usage “almost entirely patterns the character of
what is thought, felt, or said by those using it” (McLuhan, 1959, p. 340). Each of the tweet
artifacts considered generated significant fan/follower involvement and commentary, in the form
of re-tweets, favorites or responses. The medium has changed the message, and the manner in
which fans communicate with celebrities. Before, publicists generated a press release or
celebrities participated in a studio sanctioned event to generate publicity and gain visibility.
There was no clear, readily accessible method available to fans seeking regular communication
with celebrity figures. Today, the manner in which celebrities share their narratives or stories
(Fisher, 1989) has changed. Twitter has rendered the press release passé (Dumenco, 2010) and
allowed fans a greater level of access, as well as the ability to actively participate in individual
celebrities narratives.
Fans regularly participate in celebrity narratives on Twitter by responding to tweets, or
indicating their approval by favoriting them. Lady Gaga’s tweet “It will hopefully heal as soon
as possible, I hate this. I hate this so much. I love you and Im sorry” (Gaga, 2013h) generated
over 14,000 retweets and 7,321 favorites. It also generated a lengthy fan conversation via
responses to the tweet. On Feb. 3, when Rihanna tweeted “F***ing problems…” (Rihanna,
2013a), over 16,000 fans retweeted her tweet to their own followers, and the comment received
4,662 favorites. Taylor Swift’s tweets receive similar attention from her fan base. Her Feb. 1
tweet, “So I'm just minding my own business, making a sandwich before rehearsals, and I get a
call that Red is platinum in the UK. I LOVE you guys” (Swifta, 2013) was retweeted over
18,000 times and received over 17,000 favorites. Fans carried on a lengthy conversation in
response to the tweet, virtually interacting with one another.
It is evident that, as Stefanone, Lackaff and Rosen (2008) argued, Twitter has changed
the consumption of celebrity gossip, or ‘stories’ for fans. Now, “Rather than simply being the
target of mediated messages, they can see themselves as protagonists of mediated narratives and
can integrate themselves into a complex media ecosystem” (p. 107). Fisher believed that human
communication is a series of narratives through which we define our own values and strive to
recreate ourselves (Griffin, 2008). If this is the case, a celebrity’s Twitter page may be
considered a real-time narrative, one that allows fans to contribute to and feel they are actively
participating in the life of someone they have likely never met.
Twitter has changed the nature of the relationship between celebrity and fan by providing
fans with the opportunity to interact with celebrity figures on a daily basis and actively
participate in the narrative those individuals choose to share about their personal lives. This
increase in participation and the shift toward interactive communication is evident in fans’
interest in and response to Lady Gaga’s illness. When news broke of Lady Gaga’s illness, the
method that she chose to share information with her fans was Twitter. Her approach is the new
modus operandi for individuals in the public eye. “It wasn’t that long ago that a celebrity with
something ‘important’ to put out there, like an apology, would automatically say it through a
tightly controlled protocol… Now 140 characters or fewer suffice” (Dumenco, 2010, p. 28).
Twitter has changed the boundaries of communication for celebrities and fans. It has also
changed the role of public relations professionals.
Implications for Publicists
This ability to influence public opinion makes the responsible practice of public relations
even more important. The celebrity (and their publicity team), must decide whether each tweet
will help, maintain or harm their public persona. For public relations professionals, the impact on
behavior and judgment that the tweet will have on the celebrity’s followers should also be a
consideration. The practice of responsible public relations requires the practitioner to balance
their loyalty to the client with a moral obligation to other stakeholders (Fitzpatrick & Bronstein,
2006). For celebrities, these stakeholders include their fans and twitter followers.
Each of the celebrities included in the case study (and their publicity teams) utilize a
different public relations approach. While Rihanna’s risky approach includes frequent references
to drug use and allusions to her troubled relationship with singer Chris Brown, branding herself
as an artist willing to push boundaries does not appear to have harmed her career. In contrast,
Taylor Swift does not post anything divisive or contentious on her feed. Her presence appears to
be both authentic and risk-averse, designed to avoid controversy or offense. Lady Gaga’s
approach is unfiltered and hands-on. Steve Berman, Universal Music’s President of Sales,
commented that “Gaga has worked tirelessly in keeping up daily if not hourly communication
with her fans and growing fan base” (Hampp, 2010, p. 2). A responsible publicist must consider
their client’s brand when considering the appropriate public relations approach. Publicists must
also accept the shifting nature of their work, and readily adapt to changes in technique and
emerging technologies. If the tweet is the new public relations gold standard (Muntean &
Petersen, 2009), then publicists must learn to help their clients relay messages with implications
for their career and livelihood in 140 characters or less.
Chapter 5: SUMMARIES AND CONCLUSIONS
Limitations of the Study
The study had two specific limitations: access and scope. The research design was
selected after access limitations were considered. Given the celebrity status of the individuals
profiled, the case study approach was the most feasible research option. Unfortunately, there was
no direct access to the subjects of the study, and as such it was not possible to manipulate or
influence the study’s participants (Yin, 2009). Thankfully, while direct access was not possible,
tweets from each unit of analysis’ Twitter-verified account were readily available as part of the
public record. Since celebrity tweets are now considered the most authentic representation of a
celebrity’s voice, “regularly cited in newspaper articles and blogs as ‘official’ statements from
the celebrity” (Muntean & Petersen, 2009, p 23) this level of access appears to be the best
representation of the celebrity perspective available without direct access.
In order to work within time and research constraints, the number of female pop stars
who were included in the case study was limited to three. This approach limited the
generalizability of the study’s results. While the research suggests that female pop stars and their
publicists are strategically utilizing Twitter to enhance their personal brands, the findings may
not apply to other demographics. The results may not apply to male twitter users, non-celebrities
or Twitter users in other industries. In addition, it is possible that the limited timeframe in which
tweets were analyzed did not allow the research team to detect each of the thematic clusters
present within the celebrity’s tweets. Furthermore, ideological rhetorical analysis is, by its
nature, an interpretive and subjective research approach. It is possible that there may have been
variation in another researcher’s findings.
Further Study or Recommendations
Future studies can expand upon the research team’s findings by addressing the initial
study’s limitations. Further study should focus on gaining greater access to the study’s
participants, increasing the timeframe in which celebrity tweets are collected and analyzed and
considering other influential Twitter users for study. Gaining in-person or direct access to the
celebrities included in the case study may prove difficult. However, conducting an interview
with either a celebrity or their publicist may provide a peak behind the carefully cultivated
‘authentic’ voices that are shared through Twitter. Muntean and Petersen (2009) observed that
“Celebrity tweeting has been equated with the assertion of the authentic celebrity voice.”
However, Ashton Kutcher’s case (Stein, 2012) demonstrates that the danger or actual outcome of
a mis-tweet may present so great a risk to the celebrity and their brand that they entrust the
tweets from their authorized twitter account to a third party. While Marwick and Boyd (2011)
argue that social media has altered the practice of celebrity management from a carefully
managed practice managed by public relations professionals into a less structured process that
allows celebrities to interact more freely with their fans, Kutcher’s experience demonstrates that
this may not be the case.
While Henderson observed that “contemporary celebrity is eons from an age when heroes
were placed on pedestals: today, rather than reverential and upward-looking, the perspective is
eye-to-eye” (2005, p. 46), this eye-to-eye perspective may be illusory. Further research is
required to determine how Twitter has changed the nature of communication between celebrities
and their fans, and how greatly this differs from established public relations approaches which
emphasize distance and careful planning. In addition, increasing the window of time from which
tweets are collected would increase the number of tweets available for analysis and allow for a
greater sample size. Likewise, increasing the number of celebrities chosen for case study would
provide a greater number of perspectives to consider. In addition, considering different
demographics or groups of Twitter users, such as male musicians, actresses or political
celebrities, will likely provide a different perspective.
Conclusions
Twitter has presented celebrities and their publicists with an accessible and widely used
tool that can increase their well-knownness and strengthen their personal brands (Hellmueller &
Aeschbacher, 2010). However, using Twitter has also generated new challenges. Publicists have
been forced to consider new public relations strategies and techniques. Celebrities who fail to
edit their tweets and carefully manage their social media brand risk alienating the very fan-bases
they are working to maintain (Lozare, 2011; Stein, 2012). Regardless of the risks that Twitter
creates for celebrity image management, celebrities and publicists appear to be cautiously
adopting its use. Kaplan and Hainlein (2009) observed that celebrities in the spotlight who
weren’t using social media platforms like Twitter were giving up an important opportunity to
develop their brand. For celebrities like Taylor Swift, Rihanna and Lady Gaga, the risk of doing
nothing to further their brand and maintain their ‘well-knownness’ may be greater than the
negative impact of an unpopular tweet.
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