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September | October 2011

Feature title: Feed ormulation fexibility - Understanding the specic nutrient requirements o shrimpenables eed ormulation fexibility in times o challenging commodity pricing

The International magazine or the aquaculture eed industry

http://www.aquafeed.co.uk/




Shrimp is one of the most

important internationally-

traded commodities, in

terms of value and according

to the latest figures available, from

the FAO (2009), world shrimp produc-

tion from aquaculture represents 3.7

million tonnes per year.

It is the most valuable fishery export in

many tropical developing countries provid-

ing significant employment in these regions.

Feed represents more than 50 percentof the production costs of intensive shrimp

production (Tan et al. 2005) with protein

sources accounting for at least 30 percent

of the compounds found in commercial

diets.

Volatility in the availability and pricing

of fishmeal, fish oil and vegetable protein

sources, such as soymeal and grains etc, has

encouraged flexibility in the formulation of

diets to minimise cost.

This flexibility requires an in-depth

understanding of the nutritional require-

ment of the species and its ability to digest

and utilise nutrients from these sources, for

metabolic and physiological processes.

Fishmeal has traditionally been one of the

primary protein sources in shrimp diets and

in addition to providing protein and essential

amino acid it also serves as an attractant and

provides a rich source of essential fatty acids,

fat soluble nutrients and minerals.

The requirement for sustainable diets

demands a reduction in fishmeal usage

and its replacement by vegetable sources.

A number of studies have investigated this

(Forster et al. 2003, Tan et al. 2005).However, a major concern is the incom-

plete nutrient composition of these alterna-

tive ingredients, which may not only reduce

growth, but also increases the complexity of

feed formulation as more ingredients must

be utilised to satisfy nutrient requirement.

This shift in formulation raises numerous

concerns, such as an increase in indigestible

components (fibre and non-starch polysac-

charides), an increase in phytic acid (with its

negative interaction on mineral availability),

available phosphorous, phospholipids and

general digestibility of the protein content.

As a result, cur-

rent research is now

focused on the effect

of phytochemical

components, present

in these diets, on the

metabolic and physi-

ological response in

shrimp.

In addition, the

identification of

genes responsible

for such changes, at

the molecular level,

is also being investi-

gated and is an area

of growing impor-

tance. Information

from these studies are providing further

knowledge on the nutritional requirements

of shrimp and enabling rapid advances in

shrimp nutrition (Gillies & Faha 2003, Match

et al.2005).

ProteinsShrimp, like other fish and animals, have

a requirement for a well-balanced mixture

of essential and non-essential amino acids

from which to construct their own protein

tissues and therefore the balance of essen-

tial amino acids in the diet is crucial.The amino acid requirements of four

commercially important s hrimp species are

shown in Figure 1

The figure indicates that the amino

acid requirements of carnivorous spe-

cies like P. japonicus are higher than the

amino acid requirements of herbivorous

species like P. vannamei. Some authors

thought that their protein utilization was

less effective than in the other species

and therefore additional dietary protein

supplementation was required. However

it has been proven that the source and

nature of the protein its self is important

in determining the protein levels required

by each species. The assimilation of amino

acids by shrimps is most effective when

they are bonded; as opposed to pure free

essential amino acids and in this form they

have performed better under the same

experimental conditions.

Fatty AcidsCrustaceans have long been recognized

as having a limited ability to synthesize

highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) de

novo and having no ability to synthesize

sterols de novo.

Shrimp, therefore, do not have a

definitive dietary lipid requirement but

rather require sufficient lipid to meet

Feed formulation flexibility

Compilation by Dr Elizabeth Sweetman

Figure 1: A comparison of the essential amino acidrequirements for four shrimp species

Understanding the specific nutrient

requirements of shrimp enables feed

formulation flexibility in times of

challenging commodity pricing

32 | InnaIOnal AquAFeed | September-October 2011 -

F: Formulation

their requirement for specific nutrients,

such as HUFA, phospholipids, sterols,

and energy.

Lipids, such as phospholipids, triglycer-

ides and cholesterol, are a major source

of energy in shrimp diets as

well as being involved in sev-

eral essential processes for their

growth, moulting and reproduc-

tion. D’Abramo 1998 reported

that changes in the temperature

of shrimp culture pools may

require a change in the amount

of fatty acid supplementation

in order to achieve established

growth rates, with cold water

species having a higher require-

ment for HUFA than the warmwater species.

Cholesterol is an essential

dietary component of all animal

tissues, and it plays a major role

in cell membrane structure and it

is a precursor for sex hormones,

for bile acids and for vitamin D.

In crustaceans cholesterol is

known to be the most essential

dietary source of sterols as it is

used for development, growth,

reproduction, and survival.

It is a precursor for many

hormones, including ecdyster-

oids, which are critical for the

initiation of metamorphosis and

the moulting process (Teshima

1997). As shrimps are not capable

of synthetizing cholesterol sup-

plementing sterols in shrimp feed

is essential.

The optimum cholesterol

content of shrimp feeds will vary

depending on the stage, the spe-

cies and the diet composition.

VitaminsIt is known that shrimps can satisfy

their vitamin requirements in natural,

healthy environments from abundant

micro organic life.

However, in inten-

sive culture dietary

vitamin supplementa-

tion is essential.

Vitamin deficiency

can impact on shrimp

in many ways: vitamin

B2 deficiency in P van-

namei results in poor

colouration, irritability

and decreased size.

Vitamin B6 deficiency

can result in damage

to epithelial cells and reduced growth and

muscular activity while vitamin C deficiency

is characterized by poor growth, low moult-

ing frequency, decreased wound healing and

high mortality.

Vitamin studies have shown that the

fat-soluble vitamins A, D, and E have been

found to be essential in supporting shrimp

growth (He et al. 1992). Dietary levels of

thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3),

vitamin B5, vitamin B6, choline, inositol

and ascorbic acid have also been recom-

mended for optimising growth performance

in several shrimp species (D’Abramo &

Conklin 1992). A comparison of the vitamin

requirements of four shrimp species are

given in Figure 2.

MineralsMinerals have many essential functions

in shrimp: they are components of the

exoskeleton and other hard-soft tissues

and act as activators in several enzymes

Figure 2: A comparison of the vitamin requirementsfor 4 shrimp species

- September-October 2011 | InnaIOnal AquAFeed | 33

F: Formulation

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use and increase the quality of the final

product.

References

FAO (2009). The state of world fisheries and

aquaculture 2008. Rome, FAO Fisheries and

Aquaculture Department, Rome. 176pp

D’Abramo LR (1998) Nutritional requirements of

the freshwater Prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii:

Comparisons with species of penaied shrimp.

Reviews in Fisheries Science 6: 153-163.

D’Abramo LR, Conklin DE (1992) New

developments in the understanding of thenutrition of penaeid and caridean species of

shrimp. In: Browdy CL, Hopkins SJ Eds, Swimming

Through Troubled Water. Proceedings of the

Special Session on Shrimp Farming, Aquaculture

’95, World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA,

USA, pp. 95–107.

Davis DA, Lawrence AL et al. (1993) Evaluation

of the dietary zinc requirement of Penaeus

vannamei and effects of phytic acid on zinc

and phosphorous bioavailability. J of the World

Aquaculture Society 24: 40-47.

Forster I, Dominy W et al. (2003). Rendered meat

and bone meals as ingredients of diets for shrimp

Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone, 1931). Aquaculture

219: 655–670.

Gillies JP, Faha PD (2003) Nutrigenomics: the

Rubicon of molecular nutrition. J American

Dietetic Association 103: s50–s55.

He H, Lawrence AL et al. (1992) Evaluation of

dietary essentiality of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E

and K for penaeid shrimp (Penaeus vannamei)

Aquaculture 103: 177-185.

Kanazawa A, Teshima S, Sasaki M (1984)

Requirements of the juvenile prawn for calcium,

phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, copper,

manganese, and iron. Mem Fac Fish Kagoshima

Univ 33:63–71.

Match MD, Wahli W, Williamson G (2005)

Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics: the emerging

faces of nutrition. The Federation of American

Societies for Experimental Bio logy publishes The

FASEB Journal 19: 1602–1614.

Muir JF, Roberts RJ (1982) Recent advances in

aquaculture. London, Croom Helm.

Tan B, Mai K et al. (2005) Replacement of fish

meal by meat and bone meal in practical diets for

the white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei (Boone).

Aquac Res 36: 439–444.

Teshima S I (1997). Phospholipids and sterols. In

D’Abramo LR, Conklin DE and Akiyama DM (Eds)

Crustacean nutrition, advances in world aquaculture.

World Aquaculture Society, pp 85-107.

shrimp biochemistry and physiology. The

determination of mineral dietary require-

ments is very difficult for aquatic animals

because of their ability to absorb minerals

directly from their environment.

Copper is important in the oxygen

transfer agent in crustaceans, hemocyanin,

and it is has been estimated that around

40 percent of the total Cu weight found

in shrimps is contained within hemocyanin.

Copper is also required to achieve

maximum growth and tissue mineralization,

deficiency of Cu in P. vannamei has been

characterized by poor growth and reduced

concentrations of Cu in the carapace.

Excess Fe can produce toxic effects

in shrimps, which can lead to decreasing

growth in P. japonicas and zinc has been

shown to have an important role in normal

tissue mineralization in P. vannamei (Davis

et al. 1993). A comparison of the macro

and trace mineral requirements of 4 shrimp

species is given in Figures 3 and 4.

ConclusionCurrent feeding methods are taking

advantage of shrimp omnivorous habits

by incorporating plant-based ingredients

in their diet.

Alternative sources of protein require

supplementation of some essentialamino acids, lipids and minerals in order

to meet the nutritional requirements

of the shrimp

species being

cultured. By using

the new research

area of nutrig-

enomics it is pos-

sible to develop

a more detailed

und e r s t a nd i n g

of how differ-

ent components

of the diet , e.g.

cholesterol, can

influence molec-

ular mechanisms

which in turn will

help in under-

standing their

role in shrimp

physiology and

metabolism.

These future

studies will enable

strategies to be

developed that

will help us to

better understand

shrimp nutrition,

optimise nutrient

pathways such as zinc activation of alkaline

phosphatase.

Mineral supplementation is considered

even more important for the freshwater

prawns, like M. Rosenbergii since their

environment contains less available minerals

(Muir & Roberts 1982).

The macro minerals calcium (Ca), phos-

phorous (P), sodium (Na) and potassium (K)

have a special role to play in osmoregulation,

mineral and water equilibrium,

and the maintenance of the

acid-base balance. Davis et al.

(1993) demonstrated that Ca

and P are essential compo-

nents of hard tissues such as the exoskeleton

of the shrimp and that calcium is necessary

for impulse transmission, osmoregulation and

muscle functions.

A dietary requirement for Na has not

been demonstrated for marine shrimps, but

in the case of pond grown shrimps, sup-

plementation with salt (NaCl) has resulted

in increased growth.

Both freshwater and seawater probably

contain sufficient concentrations of Na and

P to satisfy the requirements of shrimp,

however Kanazawa et al. (1984) reported

that diets with 0.9 percent of P improved

growth in P. japonicus.

Trace minerals such as manganese (Mn),copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and sele-

nium (Se) have important roles to play in

Figure 3: A comparison of the macro mineral

requirements for four shrimp species

Figure 4: A comparison of the trace element requirementsfor four shrimp species

More inforMation:

Mr Evert Drewes

International business director

Dishman Netherlands

Email: [email protected]

34 | InnaIOnal AquAFeed | September-October 2011

F: Formulation

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