fcps community medicine

8/17/2019 Fcps Community Medicine

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1. Box and whisker plot

To create a box-and-whisker plot, you start by ordering your data (putting the

values in numerical order), if they arent ordered already. Then you !nd the

median of your data. The median divides the data into two halves. To divide the

data into "uarters, you then !nd the medians of these two halves.

In descriptive statistics, a box plot or boxplot is a convenient way of graphically depictinggroups of numerical data through their quartiles. Box plots may also have lines extendingvertically from the boxes (whiskers) indicating variability outside the upper and lower quartiles,hence the terms box-and-whisker plot and box-and-whisker diagram. Outliers may be plottedas individual points.

Box plots are nonparametric! they display variation in samples of a statistical population without ma"ing any assumptions of the underlying statistical distribution. #he spacings betweenthe different parts of the box indicate the degree of dispersion (spread) and s"ewness in the data,and show outliers. In addition to the points themselves, they allow one to visually estimatevarious $estimators, notably the interquartile range, midhinge, range, midrange, and trimean. Boxplots can be drawn either hori%ontally or vertically.&

Statistics assumes that your data points (the numbers in your list) are clustered around some central

value. The *bo&* in the bo&!and!whisker plot contains, and thereby highlights, the middle half of thesedata points.

To create a bo&!and!whisker plot, you start by ordering your data (putting the values in numerical order), if they aren"t ordered already. Then you find the median of your data. The median divides the data into twohalves. To divide the data into %uarters, you then find the medians of these two halves. +ote $f you havean even number of values, so the first median was the average of the two middle values, then you includethe middle values in your sub!median computations. $f you have an odd number of values, so the firstmedian was an actual data point, then you do not include that value in your sub!median computations.That is, to find the sub!medians, you"re only looking at the values that haven"t yet been used.

-ou have three points the first middle point (the median), and the middle points of the two halves (what $call the *sub!medians*). These three points divide the entire data set into %uarters, called *%uartiles*. The

top point of each %uartile has a name, being a *'* followed by the number of the %uarter. So the top pointof the first %uarter of the data points is *'*, and so forth. +ote that ' is also the middle number for thefirst half of the list, ' is also the middle number for the whole list, '* is the middle number for the secondhalf of the list, and '+ is the largest value in the list.

nce you have these three points, ', ', and '*, you have all you need in order to draw a simple bo&!and!whisker plot. /ere"s an e&ample of how it works.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_dispersionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-estimatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interquartile_rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhingehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhingehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimeanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimeanhttp://www.purplemath.com/modules/meanmode.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-parametrichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distributionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_dispersionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skewnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L-estimatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interquartile_rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midhingehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-rangehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimeanhttp://www.purplemath.com/modules/meanmode.htm


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• !raw a box"and"whisker plot for the following data set#

$.3, 5.1, 3.9, 4.5, 4.4, 4.9, 5.0, 4.7, 4.1, 4.6, 4.4, 4.3, 4.8, 4.4, 4., 4.5, 4.4

#y first step is to order the set. This gives me

*., +., +., +.*, +.*, +.+, +.+, +.+, +.+, +.-, +.-, +., +./, +.0, +., -.1, -.

The first number $ need is the median of the entire set. Since there are seventeen values in thislist, $ need the ninth value

*., +., +., +.*, +.*, +.+, +.+, +.+, +.+, +.-, +.-, +., +./, +.0, +., -.1, -.

The median is ' 2 +.+.

The ne&t two numbers $ need are the medians of the two halves. Since $ used the *+.+* in themiddle of the list, $ can"t re!use it, so my two remaining data sets are

*., +., +., +.*, +.*, +.+, +.+, +.+ and +.-, +.-, +., +./, +.0, +., -.1, -.

The first half has eight values, so the median is the average of the middle two

' 2 (+.* 3 +.*)4 2 +.*

The median of the second half is 0opyright 1 2li'abeth Stapel 3445!34 All ights eserved

'* 2 (+./ 3 +.0)4 2 +./-

Since my list values have one decimal place and

range from *. to -., $ won"t use a scale of, say,'ero to ten, marked off by ones. $nstead, $"ll draw a

number line from *.- to -.-, and mark off by tenths.

+ow $"ll mark off the minimum and ma&imum values,

and ', ', and '*

The *bo&* part of the plot goes from ' to '*


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And then the *whiskers* are drawn to the endpoints

6y the way, bo&!and!whisker plots don"t have to be drawn hori'ontally as $ did above7 they can be vertical,

too.


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#. $alidity and reliability

%n logic, an argument is valid if and only if its conclusion is logically entailed by its

premises. & formula is valid if and only if it is true under every interpretation, and

an argument form (or schema) is valid if and only if every argument of that logicalform is valid.

%&'(R)N* R')+,)')-. )N +C+!M)C +SSSSMN-

/ritten by Colin &helan and 0ulie /ren1 *raduate +ssistants1 2N) (ffice of+cademic +ssessment 34556"578

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable andconsistent results.

Types of eliability

. -est"retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering thesame test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores fromTime and Time 3 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stabilityover time.

Example: A test designed to assess student learning in psychology could be given

to a group of students twice, with the second administration perhaps coming a weekafter the first. The obtained correlation coefficient would indicate the stability of thescores.

3. &arallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administeringdifferent versions of an assessment tool (both versions must contain items thatprobe the same construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the same group ofindividuals. The scores from the two versions can then be correlated in order toevaluate the consistency of results across alternate versions.

Example: $f you wanted to evaluate the reliability of a critical thinking assessment,you might create a large set of items that all pertain to critical thinking and thenrandomly split the %uestions up into two sets, which would represent the parallelforms.

)nter"rater reliability is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to whichdifferent judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions. $nter!rater reliability is

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entailmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_ifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_formhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_formhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entailmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/If_and_only_ifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretation_(logic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_formhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_form


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useful because human observers will not necessarily interpret answers the same way7raters may disagree as to how well certain responses or material demonstrateknowledge of the construct or skill being assessed.

Example: $nter!rater reliability might be employed when different judges are

evaluating the degree to which art portfolios meet certain standards. $nter!raterreliability is especially useful when judgments can be considered relativelysubjective. Thus, the use of this type of reliability would probably be more likelywhen evaluating artwork as opposed to math problems.

)nternal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the degreeto which different test items that probe the same construct produce similar results.

A. +verage inter"item correlation is a subtype of internal consistency

reliability. $t is obtained by taking all of the items on a test that probe thesame construct (e.g., reading comprehension), determining the correlationcoefficient for each pair of items, and finally taking the average of all ofthese correlation coefficients. This final step yields the average inter!itemcorrelation.

6. Split"half reliability is another subtype of internal consistency reliability.The process of obtaining split!half reliability is begun by 8splitting in half9all items of a test that are intended to probe the same area of knowledge

(e.g., :orld :ar $$) in order to form two 8sets9 of items. The entire test isadministered to a group of individuals, the total score for each 8set9 iscomputed, and finally the split!half reliability is obtained by determining thecorrelation between the two total 8set9 scores.

9alidity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

:hy is it necessary;

:hile reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. or a test to be reliable, it alsoneeds to be valid. or e&ample, if your scale is off by < lbs, it reads your weight every

day with an e&cess of


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not a very 8scientific9 type of validity, it may be an essential component in enlistingmotivation of stakeholders. $f the stakeholders do not believe the measure is anaccurate assessment of the ability, they may become disengaged with the task.

Example $f a measure of art appreciation is created all of the items should be related to

the different components and types of art. $f the %uestions are regarding historical timeperiods, with no reference to any artistic movement, stakeholders may not be motivatedto give their best effort or invest in this measure because they do not believe it is a trueassessment of art appreciation.

3. 0onstruct =alidity is used to ensure that the measure is actually measure what it isintended to measure (i.e. the construct), and not other variables. >sing a panel of8e&perts9 familiar with the construct is a way in which this type of validity can beassessed. The e&perts can e&amine the items and decide what that specific item isintended to measure. Students can be involved in this process to obtain their feedback.

Example A women?s studies program may design a cumulative assessment of learningthroughout the major. The %uestions are written with complicated wording andphrasing. This can cause the test inadvertently becoming a test of readingcomprehension, rather than a test of women?s studies. $t is important that the measureis actually assessing the intended construct, rather than an e&traneous factor.

=; Criterion"Related 9alidity is used to predict future or current performance ! itcorrelates test results with another criterion of interest.

Example $f a physics program designed a measure to assess cumulative studentlearning throughout the major. The new measure could be correlated with astandardi'ed measure of ability in this discipline, such as an 2TS field test or the @2subject test. The higher the correlation between the established measure and newmeasure, the more faith stakeholders can have in the new assessment tool.

$;


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6; Sampling 9alidity (similar to content validity) ensures that the measure covers thebroad range of areas within the concept under study. +ot everything can be covered,so items need to be sampled from all of the domains. This may need to be completedusing a panel of 8e&perts9 to ensure that the content area is ade%uately sampled.

Additionally, a panel can help limit 8e&pert9 bias (i.e. a test reflecting what an individual

personally feels are the most important or relevant areas).

Example :hen designing an assessment of learning in the theatre department, itwould not be sufficient to only cover issues related to acting. ther areas of theatresuch as lighting, sound, functions of stage managers should all be included. Theassessment should reflect the content area in its entirety.

:hat are some ways to improve validity;

. #ake sure your goals and objectives are clearly defined and operationali'ed.2&pectations of students should be written down.

3. #atch your assessment measure to your goals and objectives. Additionally, havethe test reviewed by faculty at other schools to obtain feedback from an outsideparty who is less invested in the instrument.

. @et students involved7 have the students look over the assessment fortroublesome wording, or other difficulties.

5. $f possible, compare your measure with other measures, or data that may beavailable


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'. kewed curves, where mean, median and mode lies

In probability theory and statistics, skewness is a measure of the asymmetry of the probability distribution of a realvalued random variable about its mean. #he s"ewness

value can be positive or negative, or even undefined.

#he qualitative interpretation of the s"ew is complicated. 5or a unimodal distribution,negative s"ew indicates that the tail on the left side of the probability density function islonger or fatter than the right side 6 it does not distinguish these shapes. 7onversely, positive s"ew indicates that the tail on the right side is longer or fatter than the left side.In cases where one tail is long but the other tail is fat, s"ewness does not obey a simplerule. 5or example, a %ero value indicates that the tails on both sides of the mean balanceout, which is the case both for a symmetric distribution, and for asymmetric distributionswhere the asymmetries even out, such as one tail being long but thin, and the other beingshort but fat. 5urther, in multimodal distributions and discrete distributions, s"ewness is

also difficult to interpret. Importantly, the s"ewness does not determine the relationshipof mean and median.

8"ewed curves are asymmetrical curves9 their s"ewness is caused by :outliers.: (;noutlier is a number thatata isnot normally distributed in s"ewed curves.

?8@$A high yield concepts include "nowing, for example, if the mean is less than ormore than the mode when a curve is s"ewed positively. Or, what happens to the mean,median and mode if the largest number in a data set is removed (i.e., if an outlier is

removed)!" #o$ %an %o$nt, &1, , 3,' then the ()*+biostatisti%s workbook o""ers the easiest3 )teps imaginable so #o$ will / miss a $estion abo$t skewed %$res.

Core concepts of skewed curves

kewed curves are asymmetrical curves they *skew* negatively (the tailpoints left) or positively (the tail points right). kewed curves +$- havethe mean, median mode in the same location. This is distinctly di/erentthan the bell curve, which is symmetrical.

;lso, a negatively s"ewed curves can be of entirely positive numbers and, positively s"ewedcurves can be of entirely negative numbers. :Cositive: and :negative: provides you the directionof the curve


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0. +egatie skew points in negative direction

. numbers on the x2axis, under the tail, are less than the numbers under thehump3 negatively skewed curves do +4T necessarily have negative numbers

(as in example below)

.

5. 6ositive skew points in positive direction

7. numbers on the x2axis, under the tail, are more than the numbers under thehump3 positively skewed curves do +4T necessarily have positive numbers

(as in example below)

.

1.

.

.


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1'. 8orrelation, types of correlation and its interpretation

10. What is a Correlation?

Thus far we’ve covered the key descriptive statistics—themean, median, mode, and standard deviation—and we’velearned how to test the dierence between means! "ut oftenwe want to know how two thin#s $usually called %variables%because they vary from hi#h to low& are related to each other!

'or example, we mi#ht want to know whether readin# scoresare related to math scores, i!e!, whether students who havehi#h readin# scores also have hi#h math scores, and viceversa! The statistical techni(ue for determinin# the de#ree towhich two variables are related $i!e!, the de#ree to which they

co-vary& is, not surprisin#ly, called correlation!

There are several dierent types of correlation, and we’ll talkabout them later, but in this lesson we’re #oin# to spend mostof the time on the most commonly used type of correlation) the*earson *roduct +oment Correlation! This correlation,si#nied by the symbol r, ran#es from .!// to 0.!//! 1correlation of .!//, whether it’s positive or ne#ative, is aperfect correlation! 2t means that as scores on one of the twovariables increase or decrease, the scores on the othervariable increase or decrease by the same ma#nitude—

somethin# you’ll probably never see in the real world! 1correlation of / means there’s no relationship between the twovariables, i!e!, when scores on one of the variables #o up,scores on the other variable may #o up, down, or whatever! 3ou’ll see a lot of those!

Thus, a correlation of !4 or !5 is re#arded as a hi#h correlation,i!e!, there is a very close relationship between scores on one of the variables with the scores on the other! 1nd correlations of !6 or !7 are re#arded as low correlations, i!e!, there is somerelationship between the two variables, but it’s a weak one!

8nowin# people’s score on one variable wouldn’t allow you topredict their score on t


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*opulation pyramid, baby boom, what advanta#es to

baby boomers is currently available9 echo boom?

; pop$lation p#ramid, also called an age p#ramid or age pi%t$re diagram, is a graphicalillustration that shows the distribution of various age groups in a population (typically that ofa country or region of the world), which forms the shape of a pyramid when the population isgrowing.DE It is also used in ecology to determine the overall age distribution of a population9an indication of the reproductive capabilities and li"elihood of the continuation of a species.

It typically consists of two bac"tobac" bar graphs, with the population plotted on the Faxisand age on the Gaxis, one showing the number of males and one showing females in a particular population in fiveyear age groups (also called cohorts). @ales are conventionallyshown on the left and females on the right, and they may be measured by raw number or as a percentage of the total population.

Copulation pyramids are often viewed as the most effective way to graphically depict the ageand sex distribution of a population, partly because of the very clear image these pyramids present.DE

; great deal of information about the population bro"en down by age and sex can be readfrom a population pyramid, and this can shed light on the extent of development and otheraspects of the population. ; population pyramid also tells how many people of each agerange live in the area. #here tends to be more females than males in the older age groups, dueto femalesH longer life expectancy.

& baby boom is any period marked by a greatly increased birth rate. This

demographic phenomenon is usually ascribed within certain geographical bounds.

6eople born during such a period are often called baby boomers3 however, some

experts distinguish between those born during such demographic baby booms and

those who identify with the overlapping cultural generations. 8onventional wisdom

states that baby booms signify good times and periods of general economic growth

and stability,9citation needed: however in circumstances where baby booms lead to very

large number of children per family unit, such as in the case in lower income regionsof the world, the outcome may be di/erent. 4ne common baby boom was right after

;;%% during the 8old ;ar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_pyramid#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_pyramid#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_boomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Populationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyramidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_pyramid#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohort_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_pyramid#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_boomerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_growthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


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1. *opulation momentum, why di:cult to control

and what is it?

2op$lation *oment$m %ross the emographi% ransition

; typical consequence of the demographic transitiona populationuring the second half of thetwentieth century, the world experienced unprecedented population growth as developingcountries underwent a demographic transition. It was during this period that Jathan Keyfit%demonstrated how an immediate drop to replacement fertility in highfertility populations couldstill result in decades of population growth. Building on wor" by Caul Lincent (+-), he calledthis outcome Mpopulation momentum.N Keyfit% wrote, M#he phenomenon occurs because a

history of high fertility has resulted in a high proportion of women in the reproductive ages, andthese ensure high crude birth rates long after the agespecific rates have droppedN (Keyfit% /! /).

5or societies today that have not yet completed their demographic transitions, populationmomentum is still expected to contribute significantly to future growth, as relatively largecohorts of children enter their reproductive years and bear children. ohn Bongaarts (+ ) calculated that population momentum will account for about half of the developing world


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rates were declining, birth rates remained more or less stable, or at least they declined muchmore slowly, so that year after year, for decades if not centuries, the number of births exceededthe number of deaths by a substantial margin. In /11 the population of Aurope was an estimated*1 million. By 11 it had more than quadrupled to / million ($iviBacci 11/). Auropeansalso migrated to Jorth ;merica and ;ustralia by the millions. #he population continued to grow

despite this outmigration, since most of Aurope did not experience substantial declines in thenumber of children per woman until sometime in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century.5ertility reached replacement in many parts of Aurope around the midtwentieth century, andsince then has fallen well below replacement in much of the continent.

>emographic transition has occurred much faster in the developing world than it did in Aurope.In -16--, for example, life expectancy at birth in India was about *0 years for both sexescombined9 - years later, life expectancy was nearly +/ (?nited Jations 11b). Over the same period in Kenya, life expectancy rose from + to - years, while in @exico it rose from - to 1(?nited Jations 11b). #his rapid mortality decline, brought about in part by technologyadopted from the Qest and accompanied initially by little or no decrease in fertility, led not to the

long period of steady population expansion that Aurope experienced starting more than a centuryearlier, but rather to rapid population growth, especially in the third quarter of the twentiethcentury. 5ollowing Qorld Qar II, developing countries grew at an average annual rate of morethan percent, with some countries posting yearly population gains of more than * or even + percent, as in Ivory 7oast, ordan, and $ibya (?nited Jations 11b).

?nli"e in Aurope, rapid fertility decline often followed within =ust a few decades. ;lthough muchof sub8aharan ;frica still has fertility well above replacement, most of the rest of the worldappears to have completed the demographic transition. #oday every country in Aast ;sia has subreplacement fertility, and even in countries li"e Bangladesh and Indonesia, once the cause ofmuch handwringing among populationcontrol advocates (7onnelly 110! , *1-), fertility is

now barely above replacement (?nited Jations 11b). #he concept of a demographic transitiontherefore describes developingworld experience about as well as it seems to have portrayedearlier developedworld experience. #he ma=or differences between these two situations are thespeed of mortality decline, the speed of fertility decline, and, as has received most attention boththen and now, the rate of population growth. #oday it is very unusual to see the "ind of population doubling timesin some cases less than 1 yearsthat were so alarming to policyma"ers and scholars throughout the 1s and /1s (Ahrlich 0).

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R20http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R24http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R8http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R9http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R20http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R24http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R8http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R27http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3345894/#R9


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15. C is

determined what does .-specicity means?

In statistics, a re%eier operating %hara%teristi% (/), or / %$re, is a graphical plot that illustrates the performance of a binary classifier system as its discrimination threshold isvaried. #he curve is created by plotting the true positive rate against the false positive rate atvarious threshold settings. (#he truepositive rate is also "nown as sensitivity in biomedicalinformatics, or recall in machine learning. #he falsepositive rate is also "nown as the falloutand can be calculated as specificity). #he RO7 curve is thus the sensitivity as a functionof fallout. In general, if the probability distributions for both detection and false alarm are"nown, the RO7 curve can be generated by plotting the cumulative distribution function (area under the probability distribution from to ) of the detection probability in theyaxis versus the cumulative distribution function of the falsealarm probability in xaxis.

•

RO7 analysis provides tools to select possibly optimal models and to discard suboptimalones independently from (and prior to specifying) the cost context or the classdistribution. RO7 analysis is related in a direct and natural way to cost4benefit analysis of diagnostic decision ma"ing.

• #he RO7 curve was first developed by electrical engineers and radar engineers duringQorld Qar II for detecting enemy ob=ects in battlefields and was soon introduced to psychology to account for perceptual detection of stimuli. RO7 analysis since then has been used in medicine, radiology, biometrics, and other areas for many decades and isincreasingly used in machine learning and data mining research.

• #he RO7 is also "nown as a relative operating characteristic curve, because it is a

comparison of two operating characteristics (#CR and 5CR) as the criterion changes.D

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_classifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_classifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_positivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_and_recall#Definition_.28classification_context.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_and_recall#Definition_.28classification_context.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval#Fall-outhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specificity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval#Fall-outhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_operating_characteristic#cite_note-Swets1996-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_of_a_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_classifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_positivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_positivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precision_and_recall#Definition_.28classification_context.29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval#Fall-outhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specificity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity_(tests)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_retrieval#Fall-outhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulative_distribution_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_makinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometricshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_mininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_operating_characteristic#cite_note-Swets1996-1


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17. Type 2 and 22 errors, how to minimie it?

#pe ! error is often referred to as a Hfalse positiveH, and is the process of incorrectlyre=ecting the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative. In the case above, the null hypothesis

refers to the natural state of things, stating that the patient is not PIL positive.

#he alternative hypothesis states that the patient does carry the virus. ; #ype I error wouldindicate that the patient has the virus when they do not, a false re=ection of the null.

Type 22 @rror

; #ype II error is the opposite of a #ype I error and is the false acceptance of the nullhypothesis. ; #ype II error, also "nown as a false negative, would imply that the patient isfree of PIL when they are not, a dangerous diagnosis.

In most fields of science, #ype II errors are not seen to be as problematic as a #ype I error.Qith the #ype II error, a chance to re=ect the null hypothesis was lost, and no conclusion isinferred from a nonre=ected null. #he #ype I error is more serious, because you havewrongly re=ected the null hypothesis.

@edicine, however, is one exception9 telling a patient that they are free of disease, whenthey are not, is potentially dangerous.

https://explorable.com/research-hypothesishttps://explorable.com/research-hypothesis


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1>. Types of validity, how will you increase the internal and externalvalidity=


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#?. ;hat is @A%= @ow will you measure it and its ranges=

@ealth indexBife e&pectancy at birth e&pressed as an inde& using a minimum value of 34 years

and a ma&imum value of C< years. ;;;;;;;;

Health Index

is a network of physicians and researchers whose goal is to help promote world

health by providing extensive information on prevention, wellness, and therapy

to the world community by:

• Providing access to multiple biomedical databases and information

representing all health models and paradigms worldwide

• Fostering better understanding and exchange between health care

providers of different disciplines

• And conveying valuable free information related to health and to keep to

a minimum the subscription charge for royalty based biomedical indexes


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a) egionnaire disease, causes, how to prevent and treat

b) Crowth chart (other name, interpretation, how to prepare, present)

c) Cl?bal warming, what policies and strategies to reduce it=

d) @idden hunger, what type of micronutrient de!ciency can occur in

children=

e) Types of accidents and what strategies to control=

f) 6olio, C6%, Travellors restrictions for polio, what policies and strategies

for polio=

g) 6la"ue, types, ADA of bubonic pla"ue, control=


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Pearl IndexThe &earl )ndex, also called the &earl rate, is the most common techni%ue used in clinical trials for

reporting the effectiveness of a birth control method.

PEARL INDEX

Methods of contraception are compared by the Pearl index. A high Pearl index stands for a high

chance of unintentionally getting pregnant a low value for a low chance. !he Pearl index will be

determined by the number of unintentional pregnancies related to "## women years. $.g. "##

women can contracept for " year each with the method that is going to be examined. %f three

pregnancies occur during this period in this group, the Pearl index will be &.#.

!o convert this abstract value to a concrete one, it is possible to multiply the Pearl index of a

method by #.'. !he result is the number of pregnancies you will get in your life, if you use thisparticular contraception method during the whole of your fertile time (from ") till *) years of

age+.

ome examples of different birth control methods- Pearl indices

Knaus-Ogino method "*&*

Ceri!al Ca" ')#//

#tandard Da$s

%ethod&'.0")

Condom &")//

PERI%ON ".*")/

Persona& !om"uter 1

NuaRing #.1*".01

#$m"to-thermal

method#.*)

Intrauterine Dei!e #."".*

Plaster #.*"

'irth !ontrol "ill #.""

#terili(ation #."#.'

!o make sure not to use a less safe method too long, it is good not to use a method longer than

(0# divided through Pearl index+ years. $.g. if the Pearl index of a method is &, you shouldn-t use

this method longer than 0#2&3)1 years for contraception. (Please mind that this is only an

statistic calculation and can absolutely not guarantee to prevent pregnancy.+

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_trialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth_control


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Life table

$n actuarial science and demography, a life table (also called a mortality

table or actuarial table) is a table which shows, for each age, what the probability is

that a person of that age will die before his or her ne&t birthday (*probability of death*).

rom this starting point, a number of inferences can be derived.

• the probability of surviving any particular year of age

• remaining life e&pectancy for people at different ages

Bife tables are also used e&tensively in biology and epidemiology. The concept is also of

importance in product life cycle management.

There are two types of life tables

• Period or static life tables show the current probability of death (for people of

different ages, in the current year)

• Cohort life tables show the probability of death of people from a given cohort

(especially birth year) over the course of their lifetime.

Static life tables sample individuals assuming a stationary population with overlapping

generations. *Static Bife tables* and *cohort life tables* will be identical if population is in

e%uilibrium and environment does not change. *Bife table* primarily refers to period life

tables, as cohort life tables can only be constructed using data up to the current point,

and distant projections for future mortality.

Bife tables can be constructed using projections of future mortality rates, but more oftenthey are a snapshot of age!specific mortality rates in the recent past, and do not

necessarily purport to be projections. or these reasons, the older ages represented in

a life table may have a greater chance of not being representative of what lives at these

ages may e&perience in future, as it is predicated on current advances in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Probability_of_death&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_life_cycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_life_cycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuarial_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Probability_of_death&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_life_cycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sample_(statistics)


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medicine, public health, and safety standards that did not e&ist in the early years of this

cohort.

Bife tables are usually constructed separately for men and for women because of their

substantially different mortality rates. ther characteristics can also be used todistinguish different risks, such as smoking status, occupation, and socioeconomic class

The disability"ad>usted life year 3!+'.8 is a measure of overall disease burden,

e&pressed as the number of years lost due to ill!health, disability or early death.

riginally developed by /arvard >niversity for the :orld 6ank in DD4, the :orld /ealth

rgani'ationsubse%uently adopted the method in DDE as part of the Ad hoc 0ommitteeon /ealth esearch *$nvesting in /ealth esearch F Gevelopment* report. The GAB- is

becoming increasingly common in the field of public healthand health impact

assessment (/$A). $t *e&tends the concept of potential years of life lost due to

prematuredeath...to include e%uivalent years of "healthy" life lost by virtue of being in

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_burdenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Impact_Assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Impact_Assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mortality_ratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco_smokinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_burdenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Health_Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Impact_Assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Impact_Assessmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death


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states of poor health or disability.*H3I $n so doing, mortality and morbidity are combined

into a single, common metric.

Traditionally, health liabilities were e&pressed using one measure (e&pected or average

number of) "-ears of Bife Bost" (-BB). This measure does not take the impact of disabilityinto account, which can be e&pressed by "-ears Bived with Gisability" (-BG). GAB-s are

calculated by taking the sum of these two components. $n a formula

GAB- J -BB K -BG.HI

The GAB- relies on an acceptance that the most appropriate measure of the effects

of chronic illness is time, both time lost due to premature death and time spent

disabled by disease. ne GAB-, therefore, is e%ual to one year of healthy life

lost. Lapanese life e&pectancy statistics are used as the standard for measuring

premature death, as the Lapanese have the longest life e&pectancies. H5I

Disa)ilit$

!isability is the conse%uence of an impairment that may be physical, cognitive, mental,

sensory, emotional, developmental, or some combination of these. A disability may be

present from birth, or occur during a person"s lifetime.

Gisabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and

participation restrictions. Animpairment is a problem in body function or structure7

an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in e&ecuting a task or

action7 while a participation restriction is a problem e&perienced by an individual in

involvement in life situations. Thus, disability is a comple& phenomenon, reflecting an

interaction between features of a person?s body and features of the society in which he

or she lives.HI

An individual may also %ualify as disabled if they have had an impairment in the past or

is seen as disabled based on a personal or group standard or norm. Such impairmentsmay include physical, sensory, and cognitive or developmental disabilities. #ental

disorders (also known as psychiatric or psychosocial disability) and various types

of chronic diseasemay also %ualify as disabilities.

Some advocates object to describing certain conditions (notably deafness and autism)

as *disabilities*, arguing that it is more appropriate to consider them developmental

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-WHO2004-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_losthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-menken-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_impairmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deafnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-WHO2004-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Years_of_potential_life_losthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_expectancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-menken-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_(sociology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_impairmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deafnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autism_spectrum


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differences that have been unfairly stigmati'ed by society. H3IHIurthermore, other

advocates argue that disability is a result of e&clusion from mainstream society and not

any inherent impairment.H5IH


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9ision impairmentAeditB

=ision impairment (or *visual impairment*) is vision loss (of a person) to such a degree

as to %ualify as an additional support need through a significant limitation

of visual capability resulting from either disease, trauma, or congenital or degenerativeconditions that cannot be corrected by conventional means, such as refractive

correction, medication, or surgery.HCIHDIH4I This functional loss of vision is typically defined

to manifest with

. best corrected visual acuity of less than 34NE4, or significant central field defect,

3. significant peripheral field defect including homonymous or heteronymous bilateral

visual, field defect or generali'ed contraction or constriction of field, or

. reduced peak contrast sensitivity with either of the above conditions.HCIHI

earing impairmentAeditB

/earing impairment or hard of hearing or deafness refers to conditions in which

individuals are fully or partially unable to detect or perceive at least some fre%uencies of

sound which can typically be heard by most people. #ild hearing loss may sometimes

not be considered a disability.

(lfactory and gustatory impairmentAeditB

$mpairment of the sense of smell and taste are commonly associated with aging but can

also occur in younger people due to a wide variety of causes.

There are various olfactory disorders

• Anosmia O inability to smell

• Gysosmia O things do not smell as they *should*

• /yperosmia O an abnormally acute sense of smell

• /yposmia O decreased ability to smell

• lfactory eference Syndrome O psychological disorder which causes patients to

imagine they have strong body odor

• Parosmia O things smell worse than they should

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_losshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_traumahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArditiRosenthal1998-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArditiRosenthal1998-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-thomas-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-ssdiqualify.org-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_acuityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArditiRosenthal1998-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-SSDisabilityApplication.com-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyposmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory_Reference_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_odorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_losshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_perceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diseasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_traumahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArditiRosenthal1998-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-thomas-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-ssdiqualify.org-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_acuityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArditiRosenthal1998-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disability#cite_note-SSDisabilityApplication.com-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyposmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory_Reference_Syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_odorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parosmia


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• Phantosmia O *hallucinated smell*, often unpleasant in nature

0omplete loss of the sense of taste is known as ageusia, while dysgeusia is persistent

abnormal sense of taste,

Somatosensory impairmentAeditB

$nsensitivity to stimuli such as touch, heat, cold, and pain are often an adjunct to a more

general physical impairment involving neural pathways and is very commonly

associated with paralysis (in which the motor neural circuits are also affected).

,alance disorder AeditB

A balance disorder is a disturbance that causes an individual to feel unsteady, for

e&ample when standing or walking. $t may be accompanied by symptoms of being

giddy, woo'y, or have a sensation of movement, spinning, or floating. 6alance is the

result of several body systems working together . The eyes (visual system), ears

(vestibular system) and the body"s sense of where it is in space (proprioception) need to

be intact. The brain, which compiles this information, needs to be functioning effectively.

)ntellectual disabilityAeditB

$ntellectual disability is a broad concept that ranges from mental retardation to cognitive

deficits too mild or too specific (as in specific learning disability) to %ualify as mental

retardation. $ntellectual disabilities may appear at any age. #ental retardation is a

subtype of intellectual disability, and the term intellectual disability is now preferred by

many advocates in most 2nglish!speaking countries.

Mental health and emotional disabilitiesAeditB

A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally

associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and

perceived by the majority of society as being outside of normal development or cultural

e&pectations. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions haschanged over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the definition,

assessment, and classification of mental disorders, although standard guideline criteria

are widely accepted.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysgeusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisensory_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_learning_disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disordershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantosmiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ageusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysgeusiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multisensory_integrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioceptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_learning_disabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Disability&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_mental_disorders


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&ervasive developmental disordersAeditB

The diagnostic category of pervasive developmental disorders refers to a group of

five developmental disabilities characteri'ed by differences in the development of

multiple basic functions including sociali'ation and communication. The GS#!$=!T listed the pervasive developmental disorders as autistic disorder , Asperger

syndrome, ett syndrome, childhood disintegrative disorder , and pervasive

developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PGG!+S).H3IHIH5I The GS#!< does not

describe individual diagnosis of any of the pervasive developmental disorders, replacing

all of them with a unified diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder.H


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QAB- model re%uires utility independent, risk neutral, and constant proportional tradeoff

behaviour .HI

The QAB- is based on the number of years of life that would be added by the

intervention. 2ach year in perfect health is assigned the value of .4 down to a value of4.4 for being dead. $f the e&tra years would not be lived in full health, for e&ample if the

patient would lose a limb, or be blind or have to use a wheelchair , then the e&tra life!

years are given a value between 4 and to account for this. Hcitation needed I >nder certain

methods, such as the 2Q!tility value J

QAB-) and that a year of life lived in a state of less than this perfect health is worth less than .

$n order to determine the e&act QAB- value, it is sufficient to multiply the utility value associatedwith a given state of health by the years lived in that state. QAB-s are therefore e&pressed in

terms of *years lived in perfect health* half a year lived in perfect health is e%uivalent to 4.<

QAB-s (4.< years R >tility), the same as year of life lived in a situation with utility 4.< (e.g.

bedridden) ( year R 4.< >tility). QAB-s can then be incorporated with medical costs to arrive at

a final common denominator of costNQAB-. This parameter can be used to develop a cost!

effectiveness analysis of any treatment.

!ecrement tables, also called life table methods, are used to calculate the probability of

certain events.

6irth control

Bife table methods are often used to study birth control effectiveness. $n this role, they

are an alternative to the Pearl $nde&.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_neutralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_neutralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelchairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EQ-5D&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EQ-5D&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-utility_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-utility_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-utility_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Indexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk_neutralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality-adjusted_life_year#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelchairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EQ-5D&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-utility_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_carehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost-effectiveness_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearl_Index


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As used in birth control studies, a decrement table calculates a separate effectiveness

rate for each month of the study, as well as for a standard period of time (usually 3

months). >se of life table methods eliminates time!related biases (i.e. the most fertile

couples getting pregnant and dropping out of the study early, and couples becoming

more skilled at using the method as time goes on), and in this way is superior to the

Pearl $nde&.

Two kinds of decrement tables are used to evaluate birth control methods. #ultiple!

decrement (or competing) tables report net effectiveness rates. These are useful for

comparing competing reasons for couples dropping out of a study. Single!decrement (or

noncompeting) tables report gross effectiveness rates, which can be used to accurately

compare one study to another

Survival analysis

Survival analysis is a branch of statistics which deals with analysis of time duration to

until one or more events happen, such as death in biological organisms and failure in

mechanical systems. This topic is called reliability theory or reliability

analysis in engineering, and duration analysis or duration

modeling in economicsor event history analysis in sociology. Survival analysis

attempts to answer %uestions such as what is the proportion of a population which will

survive past a certain time; f those that survive, at what rate will they die or fail; 0an

multiple causes of death or failure be taken into account; /ow do particular

circumstances or characteristics increase or decrease the probability of survival;

To answer such %uestions, it is necessary to define *lifetime*. $n the case of biological

survival, death is unambiguous, but for mechanical reliability, failure may not be well!

defined, for there may well be mechanical systems in which failure is partial, a matter of

degree, or not otherwise locali'ed in time. 2ven in biological problems, some events (for

e&ample, heart attack or other organ failure) may have the same ambiguity.

The theory outlined below assumes well!defined events at specific times7 other cases

may be better treated by models which e&plicitly account for ambiguous events.

#ore generally, survival analysis involves the modeling of time to event data7 in this

conte&t, death or failure is considered an *event* in the survival analysis literature O

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory


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traditionally only a single event occurs for each subject, after which the organism or

mechanism is dead or broken. Recurring event or repeated event models rela& that

assumption. The study of recurring events is relevant in systems reliability, and in many

areas of social sciences and medical research.

A norm is a group!held belief about how members should behave in a given conte&t.

".%nformal guideline about what is considered normal (what is correct orincorrect+ social behavior in a particular group or social unit. 7orms form the

basis of collective expectations that members of a community have fromeach other, and play a key part in social control and social order by exerting

a pressure on the individual to conform. %n short, 8!he way we do things

around here.8

).Formal rule or standard laid down by legal, religious, orsocial authority against which appropriateness (what is right or wrong+ of anindividual-s behavior is 9udged

+#, an abbreviation for naturally occurring radioactive materials

Shaking hands after a sports match is an e&ample of a social norm.

"ro!urement

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!he act of obtaining or buying goods and services.

!he process includes preparation and processing of a demand as well as the

end receipt and approval of payment. %t often involves

("+ purchase planning,

()+ standards determination,(&+ specifications development,

('+ supplier research and selection,

(*+ value analysis,

(1+ financing,

(+ price negotiation,

(0+ making the purchase,

(;+ supply contract administration,

("#+ inventory control and stores, and

(""+ disposals and other related functions.

!he process of procurement is often part of a company-s strategy because

the ability to purchase certain materials will determine if operations will

continue. A business will not be able to survive if it-s price of procurement is

more than the profit it makes on selling the actual product.

"lanning

".A basic management function involving formulation of one or

more detailed plans to achieve optimum balance of needs or demands with

the available resources. !he planning process ("+ identifiesthe goals or ob9ectives to be achieved, ()+ formulates strategies to achievethem, (&+ arranges or creates the means re


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7eutral (bias free+, relating to, or based onverifiable evidence or facts instead of on attitude, belief, or opinion. =pposite

of sub9ective

management

".

!he organi>ation and coordination of the activities of

a business in order to achieve defined ob9ectives.Management is often included as a factor of production along

with? machines, materials, and money. According to the managementguru Peter @rucker (";#;)##*+, the basic task of management includes

both marketing and innovation. Practice of modern management originates

from the "1th century study of lowefficiency and failures ofcertain enterprises, conducted by the $nglish statesman ir !homas

More ("'0"*&*+. Management consists of the interlocking functions of

creating corporate policy and organi>ing, planning, controlling,and directing an organi>ation-s resources in order to achieve the ob9ectivesof that policy.

).

!he directors and managers who have the power and responsibility tomake decisions and oversee an enterprise.

!he si>e of management can range from one person in a small organi>ationto hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. %n large

organi>ations, the board of directors defines the policy which is then carried

out by the chief executive officer, or 5$=. ome people agree that in order

to evaluate a company-s current and future worth, the most importantfactors are the


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Goals: Changing Mindset and Direction

Goals tend to be long on direction, and short on specific tactics. For example, you can

set a goal of losing 30 pounds without having a specific plan as to how to do

it.You’ve defined the destination you want to arrive at, and tactics can be developed asyou move forward.

We can think of a goal as doing the following:

• Defines the destination

• Changes the directon to move toward the destination

• Changes the mindset to adjust to and support the new direction

• Creates the necessity to develop specific tactics

Goals tend to change your mindset by changing your focus. And as your focus changes,it takes your thinking with it. This is why goals are often accompanied byaffirmations,

which involve projecting yourself into the desired (but as yet unattained) destination.

People set goals all the time, without ever being very specific. Organizations do it too. A

company can set a goal of returning to profitability in two years, or becoming the leader

in their industry in five years, all without ever determining how that will be accomplished.

And once again, the details are worked out later, after the big picture changes of

direction and destination — or goals — have been changed and defined.

Objectives: Establishing a Series of Concrete Steps

If goals are about the big picture, then objectives are all about tactics. Mechanically,

tactics are action plans to get from where you are to where you want to be. A goal

defines the direction and destination, but the road to get there is accomplished by a

series of objectives.

A good example of this is a person who owes $50,000 in credit card debt on ten

different cards and wants to become debt-free. Getting out of debt is the goal. But it is

achieved by paying off each of the ten credit cards, one at a time. The payoff of each

credit card is an objective — the series of smaller targets that need to be hit in order to

achieve the big picture goal of becoming debt-free.


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The methodology for paying off each credit card will be very specific — i.e., you’ll need

to pay X amount of extra money to Credit Card #1 for Y number of months in order to

meet the objective of paying it off. Then you need to repeat the action for the remaining

nine credit cards. The tactics — which are the objectives — are very specific.

How Objectives Can Help You Reach Your Goals

In nearly any goal you want to reach you can use the credit card example to help you

get there. First, you define the goal — what ever it may be. Unless the goal is a small

one and easily obtained, it’s usually best to break big goals down to a series of specific

action steps — it’s a way of using the divide-and-conquer strategy to accomplish a goal

that’s far too large to do in the near term.

The action steps have specific targets, as well as methods to reach them. Each target is

an objective. Once it’s accomplished you move on to the next one, gradually moving

toward your goal as each target is completed.

Though goals generally control objectives, objectives can also control goals as they

unfold. For example, since a goal is general in nature, it may be refined and altered as

objectives are completed. The completion of an objective or a series of them, could

cause you to either raise or lower the ultimate goal.


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Goals Objectives

Definition omething which you try to

achieve

& speci!c result that

a person or system aims to achieve within a time frame and withavailable resources.

Time Frame Hsually long2term. & series of smaller steps, often alongthe way to achieving a long2term goal.

Magnitude Typically involves lifechanging outcomes, likeretiring, buying a home ormaking a maIor careerchange.

Hsually a near2term target of a largerexpected outcome, such as passing acourse as part of completing a degreeprogram.

Outcome of

immediate

action

&ctions tend to advanceprogress in a very generalsense3 there is oftenawareness that there areseveral ways to reach agoal, so speci!c outcomesarenJt necessary.

$ery speci!c and measurable, a targetis established and victory is declaredonly when the target is hit.

Purpose of

action

& goal if often characteriGedas a change of direction thatwill ultimately lead to adesired outcome.

4bIectives tend to be actions aimedat accomplishing a certain task.

Example K% want to retire by age?LK%n order to reach mygoal of retiring at age ?, %need to save M#?,??? by theend of this yearL

K% want to retire by age ?LK%n orderto reach my goal of retiring at age ?,% need to save M#?,??? by the end ofthis yearL

Hierarchy Coals tend to controlobIectives3 a change in agoal could eliminate one ormore obIectives, or add newones.

&n obIective can modify a goal, butwill seldom change it in afundamental way, even if theobIective isnJt reached.


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a!!ounting s$stem

=rgani>ed set of manual and computeri>ed accounting methods, procedures, and controls established to

gather, record, classify, analy>e, summari>e, interpret, and present accurate and

timely financial data for management decisions.

Taylorism

Production efficiency methodology that breaks everyaction, job, ortask into small

and simplesegments which can be easily analyzed and taught. Introduced in the

early 20th century, Taylorism (1)aims toachieve maximum jobfragmentation to

minimizeskill requirements and joblearning time, (2)

separatesexecution ofwork fromwork-planning, (3) separatesdirect

labor fromindirect labor (4) replacesrule of

thumb productivity estimates withprecise measurements, (5) introducestime and

motion study foroptimum job performance,cost accounting,tool andwork

station design, and (6) makes possible payment-by-resultmethod ofwage

determination. Named after the USindustrial engineerFrederick Winslow Taylor

(1856-1915) who in his 1911 book'Principles OfScientific Management' laid

down thefundamental principles of large-scalemanufacturing throughassembly-

line factories. He emphasized gaining maximumefficiency from

bothmachine and worker, andmaximization ofprofit for thebenefit of

bothworkers andmanagement. Although rightly criticized for alienating workers

by (indirectly but substantially) treating them as mindless, emotionless, and easily

replicablefactors of production, Taylorism was a criticalfactor in the

unprecedentedscale of US factoryoutput that led to Allied victory inSecond

World War, and the subsequent US dominance of the industrial world

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businessdictionary.com/definition/analyze.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/accurate.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/financial.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/data.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/production-efficiency.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/methodology.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/action.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/task.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/segment.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/aim.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/achieve.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/fragmentation.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/skill.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/requirements.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/learning.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/execution.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/work.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/work-planning.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/direct-labor.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/direct-labor.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/indirect-labor.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/rule-of-thumb.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/rule-of-thumb.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/productivity.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/estimate.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/precise.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/measurement.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/time-and-motion-study.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/time-and-motion-study.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/optimum.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/job-performance.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/cost-accounting.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/tool.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/work-station.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/work-station.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/design.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/method.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/wage-determination.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/wage-determination.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/industrial.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/engineer.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/principles.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/scientific-management.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/fundamental.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/manufacturer.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/assembly-line.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/assembly-line.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/efficiency.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/machine.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/maximization.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/profit.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/benefit.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/worker.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/management.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/factors-of-production.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/factor.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/scale.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/output.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/second-world.htmlhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/second-world.html


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motivation

Internal andexternal factors that stimulate desire andenergy in people to be

continually interested and committed to a job,role or subject, or to make an effortto attain agoal.

Motivationresults from the interaction of both conscious and

unconsciousfactors such as the (1) intensity of desire orneed,

(2)incentive orreward value of the goal, and (3)expectations of

theindividual and of his or her peers. These factors are the reasons one has for

behaving a certain way. An example is a student thatspends extra time studying

for atest because he or shewants a bettergrade in theclass.

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