Family and Poverty: Recent Family and Poverty: Recent Findings from a Mixed-Findings from a Mixed-

Methods StudyMethods Study

Kathy EdinKathy EdinHarvard UniveristyHarvard Univeristy

(with the assistance of Sara McLanahan, (with the assistance of Sara McLanahan, Princeton UniversityPrinceton University

Overview of PresentationOverview of Presentation

• What are fragile families and why do we care?What are fragile families and why do we care?• The Fragile Families Study The Fragile Families Study • Findings from quantitative analysesFindings from quantitative analyses• Implications for social policyImplications for social policy• The Qualitative Addition to Fragile Families (TLC3) The Qualitative Addition to Fragile Families (TLC3) • Findings from the qualitative data Findings from the qualitative data • Implications for social policy Implications for social policy

What are Fragile Families and What are Fragile Families and Why do we Care? Why do we Care?

What - What - • Unmarried parents and their childrenUnmarried parents and their children• Fragile in terms of economic and social Fragile in terms of economic and social

resourcesresources• Families in terms of biological and social ties Families in terms of biological and social ties

Why - Why - • Large increases since 1965Large increases since 1965• Disparities by race/ethnicity and educationDisparities by race/ethnicity and education• Links to wellbeing and mobility Links to wellbeing and mobility

Births to Unmarried Mothers, U.S.Births to Unmarried Mothers, U.S.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Year

Perc

en

t

All births White All other

Disparities in Single Motherhood Disparities in Single Motherhood

Low Education

Middle Education

High Education

0

10

20

30

40

50

1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Perc

en

t

McLanahan (2004)

The QuestionsThe Questions

• What are the capabilities of unmarried parents, What are the capabilities of unmarried parents, especially fathers?especially fathers?

• What is the nature of parental relationships at What is the nature of parental relationships at birth; how stable are relationships? birth; how stable are relationships?

• How do parents and children fare?How do parents and children fare?

• What role do policies play in the lives of fragile What role do policies play in the lives of fragile families? families?

The Fragile Families StudyThe Fragile Families Study

• Probability sample of 4900+ new births (1998-2000)Probability sample of 4900+ new births (1998-2000)

20 cities (200,000 or more people)20 cities (200,000 or more people)

75 hospitals 75 hospitals

3700 non-marital births; 1200 marital births3700 non-marital births; 1200 marital births• Data are representative of births in large citiesData are representative of births in large cities• Interviews conducted with both parents at birth Interviews conducted with both parents at birth • Follow-up interviews are conducted when child is 1, 3, and Follow-up interviews are conducted when child is 1, 3, and

5 years old (9 year interviews are currently underway)5 years old (9 year interviews are currently underway)• Child assessments at 3 and 5 years Child assessments at 3 and 5 years • Public use data for core surveys at baseline, 1 year and 3 Public use data for core surveys at baseline, 1 year and 3

years; Also data from qualitative interviews, medical years; Also data from qualitative interviews, medical records, neighborhood characteristics records, neighborhood characteristics

Special FeaturesSpecial Features

• Large sample of ‘high risk children’ (naturally occurring)Large sample of ‘high risk children’ (naturally occurring)• High response rates High response rates

88% of unmarried mothers88% of unmarried mothers

75% of unmarried fathers (60% at the hospital, 85% at 75% of unmarried fathers (60% at the hospital, 85% at least once)least once)

85% of mothers were interviewed at year 585% of mothers were interviewed at year 5• Mixed methods Mixed methods

Phone and in-person surveysPhone and in-person surveys

Interviews with childcare providers and teachersInterviews with childcare providers and teachers

Qualitative interviews in 4 cities – TLC3 and OaklandQualitative interviews in 4 cities – TLC3 and Oakland

Medical records dataMedical records data

Survey ContentSurvey Content

• Parental characteristics: Parental characteristics: health, education, behavior health, education, behavior problems, incarcerationproblems, incarceration

• Attitudes toward marriage, Attitudes toward marriage, fertility, gender roles, fertility, gender roles, fatherhoodfatherhood

• Family structure and stability Family structure and stability • Mother-father relationships: Mother-father relationships:

Parent child relationships: Parent child relationships: stability and qualitystability and quality

• New partnershipsNew partnerships• Child assessments: cognitive Child assessments: cognitive

and behavioraland behavioral

• Employment (underground Employment (underground activities), earningsactivities), earnings

• Income, assets, money Income, assets, money managementmanagement

• Program participation: Program participation: welfare, child support, welfare, child support, housing, etc.housing, etc.

• Contextual variables: Contextual variables: unemployment, unemployment, neighborhood, safetyneighborhood, safety

• Religion and religiosityReligion and religiosity• Race/ethnicity, identify and Race/ethnicity, identify and

immigrant statusimmigrant status

What are parents’ What are parents’ capabilities?capabilities?

Low human capital and earningsLow human capital and earnings

Poor health and other barriersPoor health and other barriers

Parental CapabilitiesParental CapabilitiesMothersMothers FathersFathers

MarriedMarried UnmarriedUnmarried MarriedMarried UnmarriedUnmarried

Age (mean)Age (mean) 29.629.6 23.323.3 31.931.9 26.726.7

Teen parent (%)Teen parent (%) 44 2525 00 1313

Child with otherChild with other

Partner - MPF (%)Partner - MPF (%)1414 4242 1616 4343

Education (%)Education (%)

Less than HSLess than HS

High schoolHigh school

Some collegeSome college

CollegeCollege

1818

2525

2121

3636

4545

3838

1616

11

1919

2121

2727

3434

3838

4040

1818

44

Non-white (%)Non-white (%)

Immigrant (%)Immigrant (%)4949

31318181

19194848 8282

EarningsEarnings

(mean)(mean)$17,107$17,107 $7,997$7,997 $40,499$40,499 $20,962$20,962

Capabilities, cont’dCapabilities, cont’d

MothersMothers FathersFathers

MarriedMarried

(%)(%)UnmarriedUnmarried

(%)(%)MarriedMarried

(%)(%)UnmarriedUnmarried

(%)(%)

DepressionDepression 1313 1616 77 1111

Heavy drinkingHeavy drinking 33 77 2222 2727

Illegal drug useIllegal drug use 11 22 44 88

Either has problemEither has problem 4242 5252 -- --

Both have problemBoth have problem 66 1010 -- --

Father incarceratedFather incarcerated -- -- 66 4040

What is the nature of What is the nature of relationships?relationships?

High Hopes High Hopes

High father involvementHigh father involvement

Relationships at BirthRelationships at Birth

Visiting32%

Little or no contact

9%Friends

8%

Cohabiting51%

Father Involvement at BirthFather Involvement at Birth

Total Total

(%)(%)

Gave money/bought things for childGave money/bought things for child 8080

Helped in another wayHelped in another way 7676

Visited baby’s mother in hospitalVisited baby’s mother in hospital 8888

Child will take father’s surnameChild will take father’s surname 9292

Father’s name is on birth certificateFather’s name is on birth certificate 8484

Mother says father wants to be involvedMother says father wants to be involved 9595

Mother wants father to be involvedMother wants father to be involved 9494

Attitudes & Relationship QualityAttitudes & Relationship Quality

MothersMothers FathersFathers

Pro-marriage attitudesPro-marriage attitudes 2.732.73 2.932.93

SupportivenessSupportiveness 2.592.59 2.642.64

ConflictConflict 1.481.48 1.461.46

Approval of single momApproval of single mom 2.992.99 2.462.46

Gender distrustGender distrust 2.042.04 1.961.96

Pro-marriage, Approval, Distrust mean on scale of 1-4 (strongly disagree – strongly agree)Pro-marriage, Approval, Distrust mean on scale of 1-4 (strongly disagree – strongly agree)

Supportiveness, Conflict mean on scale of 1-3 (never, sometimes, often)Supportiveness, Conflict mean on scale of 1-3 (never, sometimes, often)

How stable are How stable are relationships? relationships?

Growing instability and complexityGrowing instability and complexity

Declining father-involvementDeclining father-involvement

Endings and BeginningsEndings and Beginnings

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Still with bio dad Begin NewPartnership

Child with NewPartner

Perc

en

t

Married Cohab Visit No Rel

Bio-father InvolvementBio-father Involvement(age 5)(age 5)

NonRes High25%

NonRes Low18%

NonRes None20% Lives with Child

37%

New Partnerships: A Surprise! New Partnerships: A Surprise!

Fathers’ Characteristics Fathers’ Characteristics Social FatherSocial Father

(%)(%)Bio FatherBio Father

(%)(%)

Less than high school Less than high school 88 3636

Not working Not working 1515 2626

Drugs Drugs 11 99

Violence Violence 11 1818

Ever incarceratedEver incarcerated 1818 5050

How well do parents fare? How well do parents fare?

Instability and multi-partnered Instability and multi-partnered fertility lead tofertility lead to

lower resourceslower resources

Mothers’ Household IncomeMothers’ Household Income

2530354045505560

1 2 3 4 5

Years Since Birth

Inco

me (

$1000)

Mothers’ Perceived SupportMothers’ Perceived Support

66

68

70

72

74

76

78

80

Per

cen

t

Mother perceives financial,housing, and child care support

Neitherparent hasMPF

Both parentshave MPF

MPF = multipartnered fertility

How well do children How well do children fare? fare?

Instability and low resources are Instability and low resources are associated with poor parenting and poor associated with poor parenting and poor

child outcomes child outcomes

(depression, aggression, cognitive dev ) (depression, aggression, cognitive dev )

Implications for social policyImplications for social policy

• Marriage policyMarriage policyModest evidence that current policies (welfare and Modest evidence that current policies (welfare and

housing) housing) maymay discourage marriage and cohabitation discourage marriage and cohabitation

Some evidence that new marriage programs Some evidence that new marriage programs maymay work work High hopes at birthHigh hopes at birth

But, low capacities create barriersBut, low capacities create barriers

Some relationships should not be savedSome relationships should not be saved

• Fatherhood involvement policyFatherhood involvement policy Relationship with mother is the key Relationship with mother is the key

• Child support policyChild support policy MayMay reduce fertility reduce fertility

MayMay increase domestic violence among TANF moms increase domestic violence among TANF moms

The Qualitative Addition to The Qualitative Addition to Fragile FamiliesFragile Families

(TLC3)(TLC3)McArthur Network on the Family and the EconomyMcArthur Network on the Family and the Economy

Robert Pollak, Nancy FolbreRobert Pollak, Nancy FolbreJeanne Brooks-Gunn, Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, Greg Duncan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Lindsay Chase-Lansdale, Greg Duncan, Cecilia Conrad, Kathy Edin, Paula England, Irv Garfinkel, Sara Cecilia Conrad, Kathy Edin, Paula England, Irv Garfinkel, Sara

McLanahan, Ron Mincy, Tim Smeeding, Bob WillisMcLanahan, Ron Mincy, Tim Smeeding, Bob Willis

TLC3 StudyTLC3 StudyMacarthur Network on the Family and the Economy, Macarthur Network on the Family and the Economy, National Science Foundation, W. T. Grant FoundationNational Science Foundation, W. T. Grant Foundation

• 75 couples from the Fragile Families Survey, 48 unmarried 75 couples from the Fragile Families Survey, 48 unmarried and 27 married.and 27 married.

• Fragile Families baseline surveyFragile Families baseline surveyIn depth interviews with mom, dad, and couple at….In depth interviews with mom, dad, and couple at….

2-3 months2-3 months1 year1 year2 years2 years4 years4 years

1,200 pages of transcript per couple1,200 pages of transcript per couple3 year long mixed methods Fragile Families workshops3 year long mixed methods Fragile Families workshops

New bookNew book

Unmarried Couples with ChildrenUnmarried Couples with Children

Edited by Paula England Edited by Paula England

and Kathryn Edinand Kathryn Edin

October 2007October 2007

Forming Fragile FamiliesForming Fragile FamiliesEdin et al. 2007Edin et al. 2007

Average time from courtship to first conception together, less than 1 year.Average time from courtship to first conception together, less than 1 year.

Was the pregnancy planned, accidental, or somewhere in between? Was the pregnancy planned, accidental, or somewhere in between? PlannedPlanned 12%12%In BetweenIn Between

18%18%Inconsistent ContraceptionInconsistent Contraception 22%22%Unplanned, Not ContraceptingUnplanned, Not Contracepting 25%25%Contraceptive FailureContraceptive Failure

18%18%

Reaction? Most at least somewhat happy!Reaction? Most at least somewhat happy!Woman UnhappyWoman Unhappy 44%44%Man UnhappyMan Unhappy 24%24%

Relationships at time of Relationships at time of conceptionconception

CasualCasual 27%27%Unstable Unstable 14%14%Stable Stable 60%60%

StableStable CasualCasualPlannedPlanned 96%96% 4% 4%In BetweenIn Between 78%78% 14%14%InconsistentInconsistent 68%68% 23%23%Unplanned, NCUnplanned, NC 43%43% 41%41%FailureFailure 42%42% 32%32%

Barriers to marriage, are they Barriers to marriage, are they real?real?

Gibson-Davis et al. 2005Gibson-Davis et al. 2005Gibson-Davis 2007Gibson-Davis 2007

• Economic barriers 83%Economic barriers 83%

• Do they really matter?Do they really matter?If income increased by 10%If income increased by 10%Both are working and going to schoolBoth are working and going to schoolEconomically self-sufficientEconomically self-sufficientPaid all bills each monthPaid all bills each monthNo mention of financial shakinessNo mention of financial shakiness

• 78% who met the bar married, 19% of those who didn’t meet the bar 78% who met the bar married, 19% of those who didn’t meet the bar married anyway.married anyway.

What separates fragile What separates fragile families?families?Reed 2007Reed 2007

• Factors implicated in break up stories.Factors implicated in break up stories.InfidelityInfidelityConstant argumentsConstant argumentsVerbal or Physical AbuseVerbal or Physical AbuseLack of Love and AttentionLack of Love and AttentionSubstance AbuseSubstance Abuse

• Relationship quality central.Relationship quality central.

• Men’s bad behavior is key.Men’s bad behavior is key.

• Women almost always initiate the breakup, men move out.Women almost always initiate the breakup, men move out.

#1 Relationship wrecker:#1 Relationship wrecker:infidelityinfidelity

Hill 2007Hill 2007

• All breakups involve infidelity.All breakups involve infidelity.

• 55% had at least once incident over the course of their 55% had at least once incident over the course of their relationship. relationship.

• 75% suffer from sexual jealousy.75% suffer from sexual jealousy.

• Mostly men. 30% involved both, 13% involved her only.Mostly men. 30% involved both, 13% involved her only.Chronic infidelity almost always ended the relationship.Chronic infidelity almost always ended the relationship.Isolated incidents usually did not.Isolated incidents usually did not.

What separates fathers from What separates fathers from children?children?Claessens 2007Claessens 2007

• Fathers blame mothers for gatekeeping.Fathers blame mothers for gatekeeping.

• Mothers say there are good reasons to restrict fathers’ access to children.Mothers say there are good reasons to restrict fathers’ access to children.72 percent show gatekeeping, though 6 in 10 fathers still say their child in the last 72 percent show gatekeeping, though 6 in 10 fathers still say their child in the last

two months.two months.Mom’s reasons: inconsistency with visitation, the father’s lifestyle, and high conflict.Mom’s reasons: inconsistency with visitation, the father’s lifestyle, and high conflict.Lifestyle concerns rarely kept fathers out entirely.Lifestyle concerns rarely kept fathers out entirely.Where conflict is the reasons, mothers shut fathers out entirely, often have Where conflict is the reasons, mothers shut fathers out entirely, often have

restraining orders.restraining orders.

• Gatekeeping is strongly related to mothers’ re-partnering, suggesting not Gatekeeping is strongly related to mothers’ re-partnering, suggesting not all gatekeeping is warranted.all gatekeeping is warranted.

What happens in new What happens in new “blended” families?“blended” families?

Monte 2007Monte 2007

• Moms legitimate the stepfather role by asserting that time, love and Moms legitimate the stepfather role by asserting that time, love and money count more than blood.money count more than blood.

• When dad visits other kids, mom Is jealous of his time, but visitation When dad visits other kids, mom Is jealous of his time, but visitation prompts sexual mistrust.prompts sexual mistrust.

• In every case where the new partnership led to marriage, the ex-partner In every case where the new partnership led to marriage, the ex-partner was no longer an active father to her kids and dad was no longer involved was no longer an active father to her kids and dad was no longer involved with any of his other kids.with any of his other kids.

Thank youThank you

National Institute of Child Health & Development (NICHD), National Institute of Child Health & Development (NICHD), California HealthCare Foundation, Commonwealth Fund, California HealthCare Foundation, Commonwealth Fund, Ford Foundation, Foundation for Child Development, Fund for Ford Foundation, Foundation for Child Development, Fund for New Jersey, William T. Grant Foundation, Healthcare Foundation New Jersey, William T. Grant Foundation, Healthcare Foundation of New Jersey, William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Hogg of New Jersey, William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, Hogg Foundation, Christina A. Johnson Endeavor Foundation, Kronkosky Foundation, Christina A. Johnson Endeavor Foundation, Kronkosky Charitable Foundation, Leon Lowenstein Foundation, John D. Charitable Foundation, Leon Lowenstein Foundation, John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, A.L. Mailman Family and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, A.L. Mailman Family Foundation, Charles S. Mott Foundation, National Science Foundation, Charles S. Mott Foundation, National Science Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Public Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Public Policy Institute of California, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Policy Institute of California, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, St. David’s Hospital Foundation, St. Vincent Hospital and Health St. David’s Hospital Foundation, St. Vincent Hospital and Health Services, and US Department of Health and Human Services Services, and US Department of Health and Human Services (ASPE and ACF)(ASPE and ACF)

UPDATE: Multipartnered fertility referencesUPDATE: Multipartnered fertility references

Marcia Carlson and Frank Furstenberg, Jr. 2006"The Marcia Carlson and Frank Furstenberg, Jr. 2006"The Prevalence and Correlates of Multipartnered Fertility among Prevalence and Correlates of Multipartnered Fertility among Urban U.S. Parents“ Urban U.S. Parents“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 68: 718-732.. 68: 718-732.

Kristen Harknett and Jean Knab. 2007"More Kin, Less Support: Kristen Harknett and Jean Knab. 2007"More Kin, Less Support: Multipartnered Fertility and Perceived Support Among Multipartnered Fertility and Perceived Support Among Mothers“ Mothers“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 69(1): 237–253.. 69(1): 237–253.

Marcia Carlson and Frank Furstenberg "The Consequences of Marcia Carlson and Frank Furstenberg "The Consequences of Multi-Partnered Fertility for Parental Involvement and Multi-Partnered Fertility for Parental Involvement and Relationships“ CRCW Relationships“ CRCW Working Paper 2006-28-FFWorking Paper 2006-28-FF

Ronald Mincy "Who Should Marry Whom?: Multiple Partner Ronald Mincy "Who Should Marry Whom?: Multiple Partner Fertility Among New Parents“ CRCW Fertility Among New Parents“ CRCW Working Paper 2002-03-FFWorking Paper 2002-03-FF

Predictors of marriage referencesPredictors of marriage references

W. Bradford Wilcox, Nicholas Wolfinger. 2007. "Then Comes W. Bradford Wilcox, Nicholas Wolfinger. 2007. "Then Comes Marriage? Religion, Race, and Marriage in Urban America“ Marriage? Religion, Race, and Marriage in Urban America“ Social Science ResearchSocial Science Research. 36: 569-589.. 36: 569-589.

Cynthia Osborne. 2005. "Marriage Following the Birth of a Child Cynthia Osborne. 2005. "Marriage Following the Birth of a Child among Cohabiting and Visiting Parents“ among Cohabiting and Visiting Parents“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 67: 14-26.. 67: 14-26.

Christina Gibson-Davis, Kathryn Edin, Sara McLanahan. 2005. "High Christina Gibson-Davis, Kathryn Edin, Sara McLanahan. 2005. "High Hopes but Even Higher Expectations: The Retreat from Marriage Hopes but Even Higher Expectations: The Retreat from Marriage Among Low-Income Couples“ Among Low-Income Couples“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 67(5): 1301-1312.. 67(5): 1301-1312.

Maureen Waller, Sara McLanahan. 2005. "'His' and 'Her' Marriage Maureen Waller, Sara McLanahan. 2005. "'His' and 'Her' Marriage Expectations: Determinants and Consequences“ Expectations: Determinants and Consequences“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 67: 53-67.. 67: 53-67.

Kristen Harknett, Sara McLanahan. 2004. "Racial and Ethnic Kristen Harknett, Sara McLanahan. 2004. "Racial and Ethnic Differences in Marriage after the Birth of a Child“ Differences in Marriage after the Birth of a Child“ American Sociological ReviewAmerican Sociological Review. 69: 790-811.. 69: 790-811.

Marcia Carlson, Sara McLanahan, Paula England. 2004. "Union Marcia Carlson, Sara McLanahan, Paula England. 2004. "Union Formation in Fragile Families"Formation in Fragile Families"DemographyDemography. 41(2): 237-262.. 41(2): 237-262.

Predictors of marriage references – Predictors of marriage references – continuedcontinued

Kathryn Edin, Joanna Reed. 2005. "Why Don't They Just Get Married? Kathryn Edin, Joanna Reed. 2005. "Why Don't They Just Get Married? Barriers to Marriage Among the Disadvantaged"Barriers to Marriage Among the Disadvantaged"The Future of Children: Marriage and Child Wellbeing. 15(2): 117-The Future of Children: Marriage and Child Wellbeing. 15(2): 117-138.138.

Marcia Carlson, Irwin Garfinkel, Sara McLanahan, Ronald Mincy, Marcia Carlson, Irwin Garfinkel, Sara McLanahan, Ronald Mincy, Wendell Primus. 2004. "The Effects of Welfare and Child Support Wendell Primus. 2004. "The Effects of Welfare and Child Support Policies on Union Formation“ Policies on Union Formation“ Population Research and Policy ReviewPopulation Research and Policy Review. 23(5-6): 513-542.. 23(5-6): 513-542.

Working papersWorking papersJulien Teitler, Nancy Reichman. "Mental Illness as a Barrier to Julien Teitler, Nancy Reichman. "Mental Illness as a Barrier to

Marriage Among Mothers With Out-of-Wedlock Births“ CRCW Marriage Among Mothers With Out-of-Wedlock Births“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-01-FFWorking Paper 2007-01-FF

Julien Teitler, Nancy Reichman, Lenna Nepomnyaschy, Irwin Garfinkel Julien Teitler, Nancy Reichman, Lenna Nepomnyaschy, Irwin Garfinkel "Effects of Welfare Participation on Marriage“ CRCW "Effects of Welfare Participation on Marriage“ CRCW Working Paper 2005-24-FFWorking Paper 2005-24-FF

Maureen Waller, Elizabeth Peters. "The Risk of Divorce as a Barrier to Maureen Waller, Elizabeth Peters. "The Risk of Divorce as a Barrier to Marriage“ CRCW Marriage“ CRCW Working Paper 2005-03-FFWorking Paper 2005-03-FF

Cynthia Osborne, Wendy Manning, Pamela Smock. "Married and Cynthia Osborne, Wendy Manning, Pamela Smock. "Married and Cohabiting Parents’ Relationship Stability: A Focus on Race and Cohabiting Parents’ Relationship Stability: A Focus on Race and Ethnicity“ CRCW Ethnicity“ CRCW Working Paper 2004-17-FFWorking Paper 2004-17-FF

Predictors of father involvement references Predictors of father involvement references

Shelly Lundberg, Sara McLanahan, Elana Rose. 2007 "Child Gender & Shelly Lundberg, Sara McLanahan, Elana Rose. 2007 "Child Gender & Father Involvement in Fragile Families“ Father Involvement in Fragile Families“ DemographyDemography. 44(1):79-92.. 44(1):79-92.

Lenna Nepomnyaschy. 2007. "Child Support and Father-Child Contact Lenna Nepomnyaschy. 2007. "Child Support and Father-Child Contact In Fragile Families“ In Fragile Families“ DemographyDemography. 44(1): 93-112.. 44(1): 93-112.

Marcia Carlson, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. "Co-Parenting Marcia Carlson, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. "Co-Parenting & Nonresident Fathers' Involvement with Young Children After A & Nonresident Fathers' Involvement with Young Children After A Nonmarital Birth“ CRCW Working Paper 2005-07-FFNonmarital Birth“ CRCW Working Paper 2005-07-FF

Nancy Cohen. "Unmarried African American Fathers’ Involvement Nancy Cohen. "Unmarried African American Fathers’ Involvement with Their Infants: The Role of Couple Relationships“ CRCW with Their Infants: The Role of Couple Relationships“ CRCW Working Paper 2003-13-FFWorking Paper 2003-13-FF

Ronald Mincy, Irwin Garfinkel, Lenna Nepomnyaschy. "In-Hospital Ronald Mincy, Irwin Garfinkel, Lenna Nepomnyaschy. "In-Hospital Paternity Establishment and Father Involvement in Fragile Paternity Establishment and Father Involvement in Fragile Families“ Families“ Journal of Marriage and FamilyJournal of Marriage and Family. 67(3): 611-626.. 67(3): 611-626.

Lawrence Berger, Marcia Carlson, Sharon Bzostek, Cynthia Osborne. Lawrence Berger, Marcia Carlson, Sharon Bzostek, Cynthia Osborne. "Parenting Practices of Resident Fathers: The Role of Marital and "Parenting Practices of Resident Fathers: The Role of Marital and Biological Ties“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-07-FFBiological Ties“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-07-FF

Raymond Swisher, Maureen Waller. "Incarceration and Paternal Raymond Swisher, Maureen Waller. "Incarceration and Paternal Involvement among Non-resident White, African American and Involvement among Non-resident White, African American and Latino Fathers“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-05-FFLatino Fathers“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-05-FF

Christopher Wildeman. "Authoritative, Authoritarian, or Something Christopher Wildeman. "Authoritative, Authoritarian, or Something Less? Conservative Christianity and Paternal Involvement in Fragile Less? Conservative Christianity and Paternal Involvement in Fragile Families“ CRCW Working Paper 2006-26-FFFamilies“ CRCW Working Paper 2006-26-FF

Mental health referencesMental health references

Marilyn Sinkewicz. Forthcoming. "New Estimates of the Prevalence of Marilyn Sinkewicz. Forthcoming. "New Estimates of the Prevalence of Psychopathology among Men: Accounting for Nonresponse Bias“ Psychopathology among Men: Accounting for Nonresponse Bias“ Biodemography and Social BiologyBiodemography and Social Biology..

Robert Whitaker, Sean Orzol, Robert Kahn. 2006. "Maternal Mental Robert Whitaker, Sean Orzol, Robert Kahn. 2006. "Maternal Mental Health, Substance Use, and Domestic violence in the Year After Health, Substance Use, and Domestic violence in the Year After Delivery and Subsequent Behavior Problems in Children at Age 3 Delivery and Subsequent Behavior Problems in Children at Age 3 Years“ Years“ Archives of General PsychiatryArchives of General Psychiatry. 63(5): 551-560.. 63(5): 551-560.

Michelle DeKlyen, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Jean Knab. Michelle DeKlyen, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Jean Knab. 2006. "The Mental Health of Parents with Infants: Do Marriage, 2006. "The Mental Health of Parents with Infants: Do Marriage, Cohabitation and Romantic Status Matter?“ Cohabitation and Romantic Status Matter?“ American Journal of American Journal of Public HealthPublic Health. 96(10): 1836-1841.. 96(10): 1836-1841.

Julien Teitler, Nancy Reichman. "Mental Illness as a Barrier to Julien Teitler, Nancy Reichman. "Mental Illness as a Barrier to Marriage Among Mothers With Out-of-Wedlock Births“ CRCW Marriage Among Mothers With Out-of-Wedlock Births“ CRCW Working Paper 2007-01-FFWorking Paper 2007-01-FF

Sarah Meadows, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. "Family Sarah Meadows, Sara McLanahan, Jeanne Brooks-Gunn. "Family Structure and Mental Health Trajectories“ CRCW Working Paper Structure and Mental Health Trajectories“ CRCW Working Paper 2006-33-FF2006-33-FF