fair share scorecard
TRANSCRIPT
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Fair Share ScorecardEnsuring Taxpayers Receive a Fair Share
for America’s Public Resources
By Greg Zimmerman, Claire Moser, Jessica Goad, and Matt Lee-Ashley August 2015
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Fair Share ScorecardEnsuring Taxpayers Receive a Fair Share
for America’s Public Resources
By Greg Zimmerman, Claire Moser, Jessica Goad, and Matt Lee-Ashley
August 2015
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1 Introduction and summary
3 Three guiding principles for fair share reforms on
public lands
5 Hardrock minerals
7 Coal
9 Onshore oil and gas
11 Offshore oil and gas
13 Solar and wind
15 Geothermal
17 Conclusion
18 Endnotes
Contents
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Introduction and summary
“Under a saue now over a cenury old, public lands mus be ranserred o
privae ownership a he reques o any person who discovers minerals on hem.
We hus have no effecive conrol over mining on hese properies. Because he
public lands belong o all Americans, his 1872 Mining Ac should be repealed
and replaced wih new legislaion which I shall send o he Congress.”
— President Richard Nixon, February 15, 19731
Presiden Richard Nixon’s 1973 reques ha Congress reorm ederal mining pol-
icyhough sill unheededaffirmed a powerul principle ha guides U.S. naural
resource policy: America’s public lands and waers, and he energy and minerals
beneah hem, belong o all Americans. I ollows ha, as owners o hese resources,
American axpayers should be eniled o heir air share o he revenues rom drill-
ing, mining, logging, and oher developmen ha akes place on public lands.
In pracice, however, he oudaed laws and regulaions governing energy and
naural resource exracion on U.S. public lands provide ew proecions or he fis-
cal ineress o U.S. axpayers. On naionally owned public lands, royaly raes or
oil and gas are hal he going rae on land owned by he sae o exas, coal righs
are rouinely sold or less han he cos o a cup o coffee, axpayer-owned gold
is mined royaly ree, and local communiies ge no revenues rom he wind and
solar projecs buil on he public lands ha are in heir backyards.
Alhough he ineress o U.S. axpayers have been long overlooked on naional
public lands, here are signs o change ahead. Te Unied Saes and more han 40
oher counries have ormed a join effor o improve he ransparency o oil, gas,
and mining aciviies hrough he Exracive Indusries ransparency Iniiaive, orEII.2 In a speech announcing he naion’s paricipaion, Presiden Barack Obama
said ha he Unied Saes “will join he global iniiaive in which hese indusries,
governmens and civil sociey, all work ogeher or greaer ransparency so ha
axpayers receive every dollar hey’re due rom he exracion o naural resources.”3
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Afer years o discussing he need or reorms, he U.S. governmen is now aking
seps o ensure American axpayers are receiving a airer reurn rom he leasing
and developmen o publicly owned resources. U.S. Secreary o he Inerior Sally
Jewell has advanced a series o reorms ha, i implemened, would collecively
represen one o he larges seps orward on revenue collecion policy in more
han a generaion. Tese reorms include proposals o close loopholes in he ed-eral coal program, reduce he wase o axpayer-owned naural gas, and modern-
ize royaly, renal, bonding, and bidding policies or oil and gas developmen on
ederal lands.
o help inorm he Unied Saes’ ongoing reorm effors, his scorecard evalu-
aes he reurn Americans receive or publicly owned naural resources, includ-
ing oil, gas, coal, hardrock minerals, and renewable resources. Addiionally, his
scorecard assesses he accessibiliy o publicly available inormaion on exracion
and paymen processes or each naural resource, he exernal coss ha could
burden axpayers rom each resource, and seps currenly being aken o ensureha axpayers receive a air share. Hardrock minerals rae he poores in providing
axpayers a air share, ollowed by coal, oil, and gas resources.
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Three guiding principles for fair
share reforms on public lands
On behal o U.S. axpayers, he U.S. Deparmen o he Inerior, or DOI, manages
he mineral and energy resources on and under naional public lands and waers.
o enable developmen, he DOI grans righs o privae companies ha wan o
exrac and sell oil, gas, coal, hardrock minerals, or renewable energy.
Over he pas six years, he Obama adminisraion has underaken a series o
reorms o help modernize and raionalize he web o policies and rules ha gov-
ern he exracion o hese resources. Tree principles should guide hese reormeffors o bes ensure a air share or American axpayers:
1. Fair return: Royaly raeshe share o revenues owed o American axpay-
ersshould be based on he rue marke value o he resource and se o
maximize revenues generaed. Addiionally, leasing should be guided hrough a
compeiive process, and developmen should occur in a imely manner.
2. Access to information: Daa abou leasing and developmenincluding
inormaion on leases, inspecions, and sales pricesshould be ransparen and
publicly accessible.
3. Internalized costs: Exernal cosssuch as air and waer polluion ha can
have serious impacs or individuals and communiies, boh now and in he
uureshould be accouned or and embedded in he cos o developmen.
Impacs o land and waer should be offse wih resoraion and miigaion.
Based on hese principles, his scorecard evaluaes he exen o which axpayers
are receiving a air share or he exracion and use o publicly owned resources.
Te crieria used or his assessmen are:
• Transparency: Wha inormaion is publicly available?
• Fair return: Do axpayers receive a reasonable share o he rue marke value?
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• External costs to taxpayers: Wha are he oher negaive impacs on axpayers?
• Progress toward collecting a fair share: Are curren seps being aken o ensure
axpayers receive a air share?
Te Fair Share Ranking below evaluaes he policies ha govern each caegory opublicly owned resource and raes hem based on our crieria as red (inadequae),
orange, and green (adequae). Te resuls show ha hardrock mining policies on
public lands, which receive he lowes ranking in each crieria, does he wors job
o ensuring a air share or axpayers, while geohermal energy does he bes.
FIGURE 1
Fair Share Ranking
Comparing the costs and financial returns to taxpayers from publicly owned
natural resources
Rankings based on authors' analysis of resources.
Source: Based on a Center for American Progress and Center for Western Priorities analysis of publicly owned natural resources and their returns to
taxpayers. For more information, see Center for American Progress and Center for Western Priorities, "Fair Share Scorecard" (2015), available at
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/report/2015/08/14/119374
Hardrock minerals
Onshore oil and gas
Coal
Offshore oil and gas
Solar and wind
Geothermal
Transparency Fair return External costs Progress
Inadequate
Mediocre
Adequate
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Hardrock minerals
Currenly, hardrock mining on America’s public lands is regulaed under he
General Mining Law o 1872, which was originally passed o encourage setlemen
and developmen in he wesern Unied Saes.4 Under he lawwhich has no
been amended in is 143-year hisorymining companies pay no royalies or he
minerals hey mine and can purchase he righs o mine public lands or less han
$5 per acre.5 Analyss have esimaed ha axpayers lose ou on a leas $100 mil-
lion annually in royalies on he mining o more han $1 billion worh o hardrock
minerals, such as gold, silver, uranium, copper, and iron.6 Alhough reormers have
made several unsuccessul atemps o amend he law, domesic and oreign min-
ing companies are sill no required o share any royalies wih axpayers.
Te problems wih he U.S. hardrock mining programs are rendered even more
complicaed by he lack o inormaion colleced on he amoun or qualiy o
minerals exraced rom axpayer-owned lands. According o a 2014 repor by he
House Naural Resources Commitee, he U.S. Bureau o Land Managemen, orBLM, “does no require mining companies o repor daa on he hardrock miner-
als hey exrac rom ederal public domain lands.”7 Te repor, which is based on
daa obained rom he U.S. Securiies and Exchange Commission, esimaed ha
Bottom line
Because Congress has failed to modernize the General Mining Law of 1872, taxpayers
receive no return on publicly owned hardrock minerals and are instead forced to foot the
bill for billions of dollars in cleanup and pollution costs. A lack of basic data collection
compounds the challenge of understanding and addressing the extent of fiscal and
environmental losses.
Fair Share Ranking 6th
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he op 46 mines on public lands produced more han $9.5 billion in hardrock
minerals in 2012 and 2013. I he ederal governmen charged an 18.75 percen
royaly on he exracion o hose minerals, axpayers would have colleced nearly
$1.8 billion in revenues.
While he value o minerals exraced rom U.S. public lands is poorly docu-mened, he exernal coss o hardrock mining are all oo visible: Abandoned
mines and inadequaely reclaimed mine sies do he American landscape. Te
2015 mine disaser in souhern Colorado, which spilled an esimaed 3 million
gallons o oxic wase ino a ribuary o he Colorado River, is a sark reminder
o he impacs rom pas and presen hardrock mining.8 In 2011, he U.S.
Governmen Accounabiliy Office, or GAO, repored ha our ederal agencies
spen $2.6 billion reclaiming abandoned hardrock mines on public lands beween
1997 and 2008.9 Wha’s more, EPA esimaed in 2000 ha 40 percen o he head-
waers o waersheds in he American Wes had been pollued by hardrock mining.
10 Sill, because o he lack o daa colleced and mainained, he GAO noed ha“here are no definiive esimaes o he number o abandoned hardrock mines on
ederal and oher lands.”11
While a ew members o Congress have inroduced legislaion o reorm he ani-
quaed law, hese bills have no moved orward in he legislaive process, and here
has been no progress oward real reorm.
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Coal
Coal mining on naional public lands now accouns or more han 40 percen o all
coal produced in he Unied Saes, 90 percen o which originaes in he Powder
River Basin, locaed in Wyoming and Monana.12
Under curren regulaions, coal companies pay a bonus bid o purchase he righs
o mine coal, an annual renal paymen o $3 per acre, and royalies on he coal
exraced on he firs sale o anoher company. However, recen invesigaions have
shown ha coal companies are selling coal o heir own subsidiary companies o
deliberaely avoid paying royalies.13
According o Headwaers Economics, as a resul o loopholes and subsidies, coal
companies end up paying jus an effecive royaly rae o 4.9 percenwell below
he 12.5 percen rae required by law.14 I coal companies paid a 12.5 percen royaly
rae on he rue marke value o coal, axpayers would collec an addiional $1 billion
every year in coal revenues, including rom coal ha is expored o oreign markes.15
In addiion o loopholes enabling he coal indusry o dodge royaly paymensowed o axpayers, he ederal coal program is plagued by a lack o boh rans-
parency and compeiion. Since 1990, more han 90 percen o all ederal coal
lease sales have had only a single bidder.16 And he ormula ha he DOI uses o
Bottom line
As a result of loopholes in the federal coal program, outdated policies, a lack of transpar-
ency, and high external costs to taxpayers, American taxpayers are not receiving their
fair share for coal mined on America’s public lands.
Fair Share Ranking 4th 5th
tied
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esimae he “air marke value” o coal sold is kep confidenial, as are he raes
applied o each lease and he cos deducions given o coal companies.17 Tis non-
compeiive and opaque process shorchanges axpayers and makes he program
vulnerable o raud.
Coal mining also carries high exernal coss ha are currenly unaccouned or inU.S. policy, including coss associaed wih air and waer polluion, public healh,
and climae change. According o a recen analysis rom he Cener or American
Progress and Te Wilderness Sociey, coal mined on ederal lands in Wyoming
and Monana accouns or 10 percen o all U.S. greenhouse gas emissions.18
Te Obama adminisraion has aken a ew firs seps o ensure axpayers are
receiving a air share or coal mined on America’s public lands. Following calls or
reorm, he DOI inroduced a proposed rule o close he loopholes ha allow coal
companies o inenionally dodge royalies and has also sared o hold a series o
“lisening sessions” across he counry o “seek inormaion abou how he BLMcan bes carry ou is responsibiliy o ensure ha American axpayers receive
a air reurn on he coal resources managed by he ederal governmen on heir
behal.”19 Despie hese iniial key seps, a imeline or a final rule has no been
announced, and here have no been any addiional commimens or reorm.
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Onshore oil and gas
Te U.S. Bureau o Land Managemen oversees oil and gas drilling and produc-
ion on he nearly 700 million acre ederal mineral esae.20 Federal onshore oil
producion has increased every year or he pas 10 years, reaching 148.8 million
barrels in 2014, or a nearly 50 percen increase since 2003.21
Producion o oil and naural gas rom ederal lands is an imporan source o pub-
lic revenue, bu oudaed polices shorchange American axpayers. Under curren
rules, oil and gas companies pay a royaly rae o only 12.5 percen, much lower
han he royaly charged by saes. Mos Wesern saes charge beween 16.67 per-
cen and 18.75 percen o produce oil and gas on sae-owned lands, while exas
charges a 25 percen royaly.22 Failure o modernize he royaly rae coss axpay-
ers as much as $730 million annually; and Wesern saeswhich receive an even
spli o ederal royaly revenuesare losing ou on hundreds o millions o dollars
as well.23
In addiion o oudaed royalies, oil and gas companies pay nex o nohing oacquire and hold ono oil and gas leases. A company can acquire a lease on public
lands or as litle as $2.00 per acre, which is he minimum bid allowed. In 2014, oil
and gas companies bough he righs o drill nearly 100,000 publicly owned acres
a $2.00 per acre.24 Companies can also hold ono hese leases or an annual renal
paymen o only $1.50 per acre, a rae ha has no been updaed in decades and ha
Bottom line
Oil and gas drilling on America’s public lands provides an important source of public
revenue, but taxpayers continue to be shortchanged by outdated royalty, revenue, and
leasing policies. Drilling decisions, meanwhile, are too often made out of the public eye
without regard to the costs that will be borne by local communities.
Fair Share Ranking 4th 5th
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independen analyss argue is oo low o encourage companies o diligenly develop
leases.25 Even a small increase in renal raes would generae more han $50 million
annually and would encourage companies o bring idled leases ino producion.26
No only are oil and gas companies ha operae on our naional public lands
sysemaically shorchanging American axpayers, bu he curren sysem is alsodesigned o shield companies rom public scruiny.27 Under curren rules, com-
panies can nominae public lands or lease and developmen in secre, wihou
providing a company name.28 Tis pracice is allowed despie a disric cour judge
ruling in 2013 ha he ideniy o he company nominaing lands “may be relevan
[o hose] who may raise concerns abou he sewardship records o he poenial
owner, a acor relevan o he environmenal impac o he proposed sale.”29
Addiionally, BLM’s sysem or racking leasing and developmen is oudaed and
opaque. Te agency’s LR2000 daabase, or he Land & Mineral Legacy Rehos
2000 Sysem, lacks basic uncionaliy or making even he mos common queries. As a resul, i is virually impossible or an ineresed ciizen o rack he disposi-
ion o leases or he locaion o producing oil and gas wells.30 Addiionally, key
inormaion on new leasessuch as which companies are placing bids, he loca-
ion o new leases, he volume o resources leased, and he value o recenly sold
leasesis no mainained in a cenral reposiory.
Finally, developing oil and gas resources on public lands comes wih well-docu-
mened exernal coss. Companies are currenly permited o ven and flare naural
gas as a “wase” during oil producion wihou making royaly paymens o he
American axpayers. Mehane, he main componen o naural gas, is a poen
greenhouse gas; i is 34 imes more powerul han carbon dioxide.31 Oil and gas
developmen ragmens landscapesimperiling healhy wildlie populaions
while oil and oher chemicals spills rom drilling operaions risk conaminaing
public lands and waers.32
While axpayers coninue o be shorchanged or oil and gas resources rom
America’s public lands, he Obama adminisraion has signaled ha i could ake
much-needed reorms in a ew o hese areas. In April, he Obama adminisraion
issued an Advance Noice o Proposed Rulemaking, or ANPR , o accep publiccommen on how o reorm royaly raes, bonding requiremens, minimum bids,
and renal raes. Te ANPR is a criical opporuniy or he adminisraion o ake
needed seps. Addiionally, he adminisraion is currenly in he process o devel-
oping a rule o reduce mehane emissions rom vening and flaring o naural gas
on America’s public lands.
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdf
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Offshore oil and gas
Drilling or oil in he waers off America’s coass came under he microscope in he
afermah o he 2010 Deepwaer Horizon oil spill, which released nearly 5 mil-
lion barrelsor more han 200 million gallonso oil ino he Gul o Mexico.33
Images o oil slicked beaches and dying wildlie brough he risks o offshore drill-
ing ino he living rooms o all Americans.
As he Gul spill has receded rom public view, he Obama adminisraion has
aken some seps o improve he saey o offshore drilling. Addiional ederal
inspecors, or example, have been hired o monior drilling aciviies and help
avoid uure accidens.34 Companies mus also mee new sandards or esing and
mainaining heir drilling equipmen. And Congress has auhorized a ee sysem
or offshore oil and gas inspecions, ranserring some o he financial burden o
inspecions rom American axpayers ono oil companies.35
Boh he adminisraions o Presiden Obama and Presiden George W. Bush
made a commimen o ensure ha Americans receive a air reurn rom he devel-opmen o offshore oil and gas resources. Under Presiden Bush, he DOI wice
raised offshore royaly raes: firs rom 12.5 percen o 16.67 percen, hen rom
16.67 percen o 18.75.36 Under Presiden Obama, he DOI implemened an esca-
laing renal rae o encourage diligen developmen and o make i more cosly or
companies o sockpile unused leases.37
Bottom line
Steps have been taken to ensure America taxpayers receive a fair return from offshore oil
and gas development. But old policies still on the books—and the inherent risk associ-
ated with offshore drilling—mean that taxpayers continue to be exposed to significant
liabilities from offshore oil and gas development.
Fair Share Ranking 3rd
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Te Obama adminisraion has also aken seps o improve reporing and rans-
parency or offshore drilling. In 2010, he DOI implemened a new rule requiring
operaors o insall meers ha record volumes o mehane released hrough ven-
ing and flaring. Such measures have no been implemened or onshore leases.38
Sill, many issues remain unaddressed, wih he public bearing significan risk andcompanies benefiing rom lax rules developed in he pas. For example, American
axpayers may orego upwards o $50 billion because o a law passed in 1995 o
encourage developmen o offshore leases during a ime o low oil and gas prices.39
Te law auhorized he now-deunc Mineral Managemen Service o provide
“royaly relie ” on oil and gas produced in he Gul o Mexico, creaing a massive
loophole allowing companies o avoid paying royalies on leases issued beween
1995 and 2000.40
Tere are also ongoing concerns over expanded offshore revenue sharing.
Revenue sharing is inended o compensae saes and counies or he ax-exempsaus o ederal public lands wihin heir borders and o help miigae he impacs
o developmen.41 Federal law grans mos coasal saes ownership over he
mineral resources up o 3 nauical miles off heir coas; saes keep 100 percen o
he royaly revenues generaed in his area.42 Mineral resources beyond he 3-mile
hreshold is reserved or American axpayers, and any plans o expand revenue
sharing will resul in financial losses o American axpayers.
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Solar and wind
Renewable energy producion rom public lands is growing rapidly. Over jus he
pas six years, he DOI has approved 52 commercial-scale solar, wind, and geo-
hermal projecs on public lands across he Wes.43 Beore 2009, here were only a
handul o wind and geohermal projecs on public lands and no solar projecs.
Currenly, he Bureau o Land Managemen oversees 39 wind energy projecs
on public lands wih a capaciy 5,557 megawats, and i has approved he con-
srucion o 33 uiliy-scale solar energy projecs wih a capaciy o more han
9,000 megawats.44
Because solar and wind are a growing share o he energy harnessed on public
lands, he rules and regulaions governing hem are sill playing cach-up, espe-
cially when i comes o air reurns or axpayers. As an example, wind and solar
energy projecs are auhorized by a firs-come-firs-served righ-o-way process on
public lands, raher han more sableand compeiiveleases.45
Te ederal governmen is aking seps o ensure ha axpayers ge a air reurnrom he solar and wind energy projecs consruced on public lands. Unlike oher
orms o energy developmen, neiher Congress nor he agencies have esablished
rules and regulaions o govern how wind and solar developmen should proceed.
Bottom line
The Department of the Interior and Congress have both taken important steps to
provide a fair share to taxpayers for wind and solar, but those rules and laws have not
yet been finalized.
Fair Share Ranking 2nd
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Te DOI and BLM recenly proposed new regulaionsdrafed in Sepember
2014 and scheduled o be finalized by Ocober 2015o ensure air reurns or
axpayers or wind and solar developmen on public lands.46 In addiion o closing
gaps in ederal policies and ensuring more predicabiliy and cerainy or permi-
ing, he new essenial regulaions offer remedies o a number o shorcomings
regarding air marke value or solar and wind, including:47
• A new regulaory ramework or compeiive leasing or wind and solar
in seleced locaions
• Updaes o renal raes so ha hey vary by couny and land values
• Esablishmen o megawat capaciy ees, similar o royalies on ossil
uel exracion
Anoher ongoing problem wih solar and wind energy developmen on publiclands is ha he BLM does no have he auhoriy o direc where revenues go.
Unlike oher energy resources, where a porion o revenues are shared wih saes
or counies, all o he revenues rom solar and wind developmen are deposied ino
he U.S. reasury.48 Some members o Congress are working o provide his auhor-
iy o he agency wih he Public Lands Renewable Energy Developmen Ac.49
In erms o ransparency, he solar and wind programs have a long way o go. Tis
is parly due o he firs-come-firs-served righ-o-way process in which solar and
wind projecs are auhorized. As one observer pu i, his approach “avoids many
o he usual avenues or public inpu.”50
Finally, wind and solar energy developmen do no have nearly he scale o nega-
ive exernaliies as oher energy resources. Wind and solar energy developmen
cause very ew greenhouse gas emissions when compared o oil, gas, and coal and
have litle impac on waer qualiy.
Much like oher energy resources, however, one key negaive exernaliy is he
land use demands rom wind and solar projecs. Boh solar plans and wind arms
occupy lands and have resuling impacs on ecosysems, species, and oher poen-ial uses o ha land, such as recreaion. Wih diligen planning, conflics wih
compeing land uses can be minimized and impacs can be miigaed.
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Geothermal
Geohermal energy producion has been occurring on public lands since he
1960s, and public lands are he source o 40 percen o he naion’s geohermal
energy.51 Te Bureau o Land Managemen currenly manages 818 geohermal
leasesincluding 59 producing leaseswih a capaciy o approximaely 1,500
megawats o geohermal energy.52
Te Geohermal Seam Ac o 1970, he Energy Policy Ac o 2005, 2007 BLM
regulaions, and a 2008 programmaic environmenal impac saemen on geo-
hermal energy ogeher govern how he resource is regulaed on public lands.53
Geohermal energy managemen is housed under BLM’s Fluid Minerals Program
because he echnology used o drill geohermal wells is similar o he echnology
used or oil and gas drilling.54
Tere are curren laws in place addressing air marke value o axpayers or geo-
hermal energy. Te Bureau o Land Managemen saes ha “geohermal leases
generae over $12 million in Federal royalies each year, wih 50 percen shared
wih he saes and 25 percen shared wih local counies.”55
Imporanly, geohermal leases are sold under a compeiive leasing process,
alhough Congress passed legislaion in 2014 ha allowed or noncompeiive
leasing in cerain limied circumsances.56 Lessees also are required o pay renal
Bottom line
Taxpayers are getting a modest return from their geothermal energy resources.
Fair Share Ranking 1st
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ees, currenly se a $2 o $3 per acre per year or compeiive leases and $1 per
acre per year or noncompeiive leasesboh o which increase o $5 per acre per
year afer 10 years.57
Finally, geohermal royalies are assessed on “‘gross proceeds’ rom he sale o elec-
riciy … muliplied by a royaly rae esablished by he BLM.”58
More specifically,hose raes, as defined by regulaion, are “1.75 percen o gross proceeds or he
firs 10 years o producion and 3.5 percen or subsequen years o producion.”59
When i comes o ransparency, he geohermal leasing program has hisorically
had rouble properly collecing daa o ensure ha axpayers receive a air reurn.
For example, he Governmen Accounabiliy Office wroe in 2007 ha “abou 40
percen o [he DOI’s geohermal] royaly daa was eiher missing or erroneous.”60
And in 2009, he Deparmen’s Inspecor General esified on wo invesigaions
regarding geohermal leases:
We have learned ha curren regulaions allow a producer o claim operaing
deducions o up o 99 percen o he royaly owed. Te companies currenly
under invesigaion have allegedly claimed he 99 percen deducion fom heir
owed royalies or as many as 10 years.61
Finally, in erms o exernaliies, geohermal elecriciy is renewable and emis ar
ewer air emissionsincluding carbon dioxide and sulur dioxide, among ohers
han ossil uels such as coal and naural gas.62 A repor rom he geohermal energy
indusry’s rade associaion noes ha “he public benefis rom clean energy
produced in Caliornia and Nevada are worh more han $117 million annually.”63
Oher posiive atribues o geohermal energy developmen include a relaively
small physical ooprin and he abiliy o use and reuse wasewaer in operaions.
Geohermal energy developmen has come under some criicism, however, or
is use o echnology, including hydraulic racuring, o drill wells ha can resul
in earhquakes.64
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Conclusion
Presiden Obama’s pledge ha he Unied Saes will ulfill is commimens under
he Exracive Indusries ransparency Iniiaive is a much-needed call o acion
o modernize and reorm ederal naural resource policies. Tese reormswhich
have already begun in some agencies wihin he DOIshould firs and oremos
prioriize he public ineres over simple privae gain.
Guarding he financial ineress o axpayers oday and over he lie o a projec,
or example, will require changes in royaly, bidding, and renal policies. o reducehe risk o wase, raud, and abuse, agencies will need o redouble heir com-
mimen o making daa easily accessible. o avoid saddling communiies wih
unwaned environmenal or public healh coss, ederal energy policy will need o
accoun or he exernaliies associaed wih energy exracion, hus helping level
he playing field among cleaner and dirier uel sources.
Alhough he Unied Saes has sared he long-overdue ask o modernizing is
energy programs o beter saeguard axpayers, i will ake he deerminaion and
urgency o policymakers o ensure ha America’s naural resources are managed
more airly, honesly, and responsibly.
Greg Zimmerman is he Policy Direcor a he Cener or Wesern Prioriies. Claire
Moser is a Research and Advocacy Associae a he Cener or American Progress.
Jessica Goad is he Advocacy Direcor a he Cener or Wesern Prioriies. Mat Lee-
Ashley is a Senior Fellow and Direcor o he Public Lands Projec a he Cener or
American Progress.
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Endnotes
1 President Richard Nixon, “State of the Union Messageto the Congress on Natural Resources and the Environ-ment,” February 15, 1973, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=4102.
2 “Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative,” availableat https://eiti.org/ (last accessed August 2015).
3 The White House, “Opening Remarks by PresidentObama on Open Government Partnership,” Pressrelease, September 20, 2011, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnership.
4 Congressional Budget Office, “Budget Options” (2007),available at https://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-bud-getoptions.pdf.
5 Earthworks, “Hardrock Mining and Reclamation Act of2015” (2015), available at https://www.earthworksac-tion.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdf .
6 Campaign for Responsible Mining, “Reforming theU.S. Hardrock Mining Law of 1872: The Price of Inac-tion” (Washington: The Pew Charitable Trusts, 2009),available at http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inaction.
7 House Natural Resources Committee Democrats, “Trea-sure for the Taking: American Gives Away Billions’ Worthof Hardrock Minerals” (2014), available at http://demo-crats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard rock miningreport FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdf .
8 Tom McGhee, “Animas River mine spill: La Plata andDurango declare state of emergency,” The Denver Post ,August 9, 2015, available at http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flows.
9 Government Accountability Office, “Abandoned Mines:
Information on the Number of Hardrock Mines, Cost ofCleanup, and Value of Financial Assurances,” GAO11–834T, Report to the Subcommittee on Energy andMineral Resources, July 2011, available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdf.
10 Environmental Protection Agency, “Liquid Assets 2000:Americans Pay for Dirty Water,” available at http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liqui-dassets/dirtywater.cfm (last accessed August 2015).
11 Government Accountability Office, “Abandoned Mines:Information on the Number of Hardrock Mines, Cost ofCleanup, and Value of Financial Assurances,” GAO11–834T, Report to the Subcommittee on Energy andMineral Resources, July 2011, available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdf.
12 Nidhi Thakar and Michael Madowitz, “Federal Coal
Leasing in the Powder River Basin” (Washington: Centerfor American Progress, 2014), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/
ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdf.
13 Matt Lee-Ashley and Nidhi Thakar, “Cutting Subsidiesand Closing Loopholes in the U.S. Department ofthe Interior’s Coal Program” (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2015), available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdf.
14 Headwaters Economics, “An Assessment of U.S. FederalCoal Royalties: Current Royalty Structure, EffectiveRoyalty Rates, and Reform Options” (2015), available athttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdf .
15 Ibid.
16 Nidhi Thakar, “Modernizing the Federal Coal Program”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdf .
17 Bureau of Land Management, “Coal Operations,” avail-able at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.html(last accessed August2015); Headwaters Economics, “An Assessment of U.S.Federal Coal Royalties: Current Royalty Structure, Effec-tive Royalty Rates, and Reform Options.”
18 Claire Moser and others, “Cutting Greenhouse Gas fromFossil-Fuel Extraction on Federal Lands and Waters”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2015),available at https://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdf.
19 Bureau of Land Management, “Interior Department An-nounces Series of Public Listening Sessions on FederalCoal Program,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.html.
20 Bureau of Land Management, “Mineral and SurfaceAcreage Managed by the BLM,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.html (last accessed August 2015).
21 Office of Natural Resources Revenue, “StatisticalInformation,” available at h ttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspx (last accessed August 2015). Centerfor American Progress and Center for Western Prioritiesanalysis of federal onshore oil production data for past10 years from the Office of Natural Resources Revenue.
22 Center for Western Priorities, “A Fair Share: The Case for
Updating Federal Royalties” (2013), available at http://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdf.
23 Center for Western Priorities, “A Fair Share: The Case forUpdating Oil and Gas Royalties on Our Public Lands”(2015), available at http://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_up-date.pdf .
24 Center for Western Priorities, “Public Lands Oil andGas Lease Tracker: 2014 Summary,” available at http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/ (last accessed August2015).
25 Government Accountability Office, “Oil and Gas Leas-ing: Interior Could Do More to Encourage DiligentDevelopment,” GAO–09–74, Report to Congressional
Requesters, October 2008, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdf .
26 Center for Western Priorities, “A Renter’s Market:Outdated Oil & Gas Rental R ates Fail Taxpayers” (2014),available at http://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdf.
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ummary/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/A-Renters-Market.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0974.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://westernpriorities.org/2015/01/28/public-lands-oil-and-gas-lease-tracker-2014-summary/http://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://www.westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Royalties-Report_update.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://westernpriorities.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/A-Fair-Share.pdfhttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspxhttp://statistics.onrr.gov/ReportTool.aspxhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/About_BLM/subsurface.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/newsroom/2015/july/nr_07_09_2015.htmlhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/PublicLandsEmissions-brief.pdfhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.htmlhttp://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/coal_and_non-energy.print.htmlhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/FederalCoal.pdfhttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdfhttp://headwaterseconomics.org/wphw/wp-content/uploads/Report-Coal-Royalty-Valuation.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/CoalSubs-brief2.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttps://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/ThakarPowderRiver-brief.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/lawsguidance/cwa/economics/liquidassets/dirtywater.cfmhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/assets/130/126667.pdfhttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_28612228/la-plata-and-durango-declare-emergency-sludge-flowshttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/sites/democrats.naturalresources.house.gov/files/Hard%20rock%20mining%20report%20FINAL.revised.7.10_2.pdfhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttp://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2009/01/27/reforming-the-us-hardrock-mining-law-of-1872-the-price-of-inactionhttps://www.earthworksaction.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdfhttps://www.earthworksaction.org/files/publications/FS_1872ML2015.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/110th-congress-2007-2008/reports/02-23-budgetoptions.pdfhttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnershiphttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnershiphttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnershiphttps://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/09/20/opening-remarks-president-obama-open-government-partnershiphttps://eiti.org/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=4102http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=4102
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27 Greg Zimmerman, “The BLM’s Big Step Backwards on Transparency,” Center for Western Priorities, Novem-ber 14, 2013, available at http://westernpriorities.org/2013/11/14/the-blms-big-step-backwards-on-transparency/.
28 Letter from Bureau of Land Management AssistantDirector of Minerals and Realty Management MichaelNedd to Bureau of Land Management State Directors,October 28, 2013, available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/Instruction_Memos_and_Bulle-tins/national_instruction/2014/im_2014_004__oil_and.
html.
29 Citizens for a Healthy Community v. United StatesDepartment of the Interior and United States Bureau ofLand Management , Civil Action No. 12-cv-01661-RPM,February 13, 2013, available at http://www.westernlaw.org/sites/default/files/FOIA_Order.pdf.
30 Bureau of Land Management, “Land & Mineral LegacyRehost 2000 System – LR2000,” available at http://www.blm.gov/lr2000/ (last accessed August 2015).
31 U.N. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,“Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth As-sessment Report, Climate Change 2013: The PhysicalScience Basis” (2013), available at http://www.climat-echange2013.org/images/uploads/WGIAR5_WGI-12Doc2b_FinalDraft_All.pdf .
32 Brian Maffly, “Hikers find unreported oil spill into GrandStaircase monument,” The Salt Lake Tribune, March27, 2014, available at http://www.sltrib.com/sltrib/news/57728795-78/oil-spill-wash-valley.html.csp.
33 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “BPOil Spill,” available at http://www.gulfspillrestoration.noaa.gov/oil-spill/ (last accessed August 2015).
34 Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement,“Statement of James Watson, Director Bureau of Safetyand Environment Enforcement, Before the Senate Com-mittee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior,Environment and Related Agencies,” March 14, 2 012,available at http://www.doi.gov/ocl/hearings/112/SAFY13BudReqBSEE_31412.cfm.
35 Bureau of Land Management, “BLM Director Puts Focuson Oil and G as Inspections,” Press release, July 17, 2014,
available at http://www.blm.gov/or/news/files/BLM_Di-rector_Puts_Focus_on_Oil_and_Gas_Inspections_7-14.pdf.
36 Dirk Kempthorne, Testimony before the Subcommit-tees on Oversight and Investigations and Energy andthe Environment, July 20, 2010, available at http://democrats.energycommerce.house.gov/sites/default/files/documents/Testimony-Kempthorne-OI-EE-Interi-or-Department-Deepwater-Horizon-2010-7-20.pdf .
37 U.S. Department of the Interior, Oil and Gas LeaseUtilization – Onshore and Offshore (2011), availableat http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=239255.
38 Moser and others, “Cutting Greenhouse Gas from Fossil-Fuel Extraction on Federal Lands and Water.”
39 Government Accountability Office, “Oil and GasRoyalties: Litigation over Royalty Relief Could Cost theFederal Government Billions of Dollars,” GAO–08–792R,Report for Congressional Requesters, June 2008, avail-able at http://www.gao.gov/assets/100/95535.pdf .
40 U.S. Energy Information Administration, “Outer Con-tinental Shelf Deep Water Royalty Relief Act of 1995:Description,” available at http://www.eia.gov/oil_gas/natural_gas/analysis_publications/ngmajorleg/conti-nental.html (last accessed August 2015).
41 Government Accountability Office, “Land ManagementAgencies: Revenue Sharing Payments to States andCounties,” GAO/RCED–98–261, Report to the HonorableVic Fazio, House of Representatives, September 1998,available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/230/226280.pdf.
42 Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “FederalOffshore Lands,” available at http://www.boem.gov/Federal-Offshore-Lands/ (last accessed August 2015).
43 U.S. Department of the Interior, “Secretary Jewell Offers
Vision for Balanced, Prosperous Energy Future,” Pressrelease, March 17, 2015, available at http://www.doi.gov/news/pressreleases/secretary-jewell-offers-vision-for-balanced-prosperous-energy-future.cfm.
44 Bureau of Land Management, “Renewable EnergyResources,” available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/energy/renewable_energy.html (last accessedAugust 2015).
45 Ibid.
46 Bureau of Land Management, “Competitive Solar andWind Energy Leasing Regulations: 43 CFR Part 2800and 2880 Proposed R ule” (2014), available at http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__RE-ALTY__AND_RESOURCE_PROTECTION_/energy/solar_and_wind.Par.70101.File.dat/Public Webinar Dec3 2014 - S olar and Wind Regulations.pdf.
47 Bureau of Land Management, “Competitive Processes, Terms, and Conditions for Leasing Public Lands forSolar and Wind Energy Development and TechnicalChanges and Corrections,” Federal Register 79 (2014). Tobe codified at 43 C.F.R. pt 2800 and 2880.
48 Stuart Iler and David Rosner, “Revenue Sharing 101,”Bipartisan Policy Center, August 16, 2013, available athttp://bipartisanpolicy.org/blog/revenue-sharing-101/.
49 Public Land Renewable Energy Development Act , S. 279,113th Cong, 2d sess. (Government Printing Office,2014), available at https://www.congress.gov/113/bills/s279/BILLS-113s279is.pdf.
50 Pamela Baldwin, “Fair Market Value for Wind and SolarDevelopment on Public Land” (The Wilderness Societyand Taxpayers for Common Sense, 2010), available at
http://wilderness.org/sites/default/files/Fair-Market-Value-Whitepaper.pdf .
51 Bureau of Land Management, “Geothermal Energy,”available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/en-ergy/geothermal.html (last accessed August 2015).
52 Ibid.
53 Bureau of Land Management and Forest Service,“Record of Decision and Resource Management PlanAmendments for Geothermal Leasing in the WesternUnited States” (2008), available at http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/MINERALS__REALTY__AND_RE-SOURCE_PROTECTION_/energy/geothermal_eis/final_programmatic.Par.90935.File.dat/ROD_Geother-mal_12-17-08.pdf .
54 Bureau of Land Management, “Programmatic EIS for
Geothermal Resources: Frequently Asked Questions,”available at http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/en-ergy/geothermal/geothermal_nationwide/Documents/draft_programmatic/faqs.html (last accessed August2015).
55 Bureau of Land Management, “Geothermal Energy.”
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56 43 C.F.R. § 3203; Geothermal Production Expansion Actof 2013, Public Law 113–709, 113th Cong., 2d sess. (De-cember 22, 2014), available at https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-re-port/709/1; Bureau of Land Management, “GeothermalResource Leasing and Geothermal Resources UnitAgreements,” Federal Register 72 (84) (2007), availableat http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdf.
57 Iler and Rosner, “Revenue Sharing 101.”
58 43 C.F.R. § 3000, 3200, and 3280
59 Baldwin, “Fair Market Value for Wind and Solar Develop-ment on Public Land.”
60 Government Accountability Office, “Royalties Col-lection: Ongoing Problems with I nterior’s Efforts toEnsure a Fair Return for Taxpayers Require Attention,”GAO–07–682T, Testimony Before the House Committeeon Natural Resources, March 2007, available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdf .
61 House Committee on Appropriations, “Statement ofMary Kendell, Acting Inspector General Departmentof the Interior, Before the House Committee on Appro-priations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, andRelated Agencies,” March 3, 2 009, available at http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htm.
62 Benjamin Matek, “Promoting Geothermal Energy:Air Emissions Comparison and Externality Analysis”(Washington: Geothermal Energy Association, 2013),available at http://geo-energy.org/events/Air Emissions
Comparison and Externality Analysis_Publication.pdf .
63 Ibid.
64 Tim Stephens, “Geothermal power facility inducesearthquakes, study finds,” University of California Santa Cruz, July 11, 2013, available at http://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.html.
https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://news.ucsc.edu/2013/07/geothermal-earthquakes.htmlhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://geo-energy.org/events/Air%20Emissions%20Comparison%20and%20Externality%20Analysis_Publication.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-111hhrg52296/html/CHRG-111hhrg52296.htmhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gao.gov/new.items/d07682t.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttp://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2007-05-02/pdf/E7-7991.pdfhttps://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1https://www.congress.gov/congressional-report/113th-congress/house-report/709/1
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