facilitating learning

7/17/2019 Facilitating Learning

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Facilitating learning:A Meta-cognitive

Process



“If you teach a person what tolearn, you are preparing that

person for the past. If you teacha person how to learn, you are preparing that person for its

future.”

- Cyril Houle -



Teaching – giving/transferringLearning – acquiring/accepting

EDUCATIVE PROCESS

Learner – given focus

Teacher – prime moverLearning Environent – headway



Learner – embodied spirit

Sentient body - rational soulExperiencing sensation - self-reection

- free will- intellectual abstractions

cognitive a!ective faculties

instinct feelings

imagining emotions intellect free rational memory volition



In!"ences#$i%erent Factors to &ecoeDi%erent to each other:

- environment/home- biological aspect

- "eacher- #ersonal attributes

- #rofessional attributes

'a$ge o( Pro(ession – sense of service

$teacher%

E%ective – doing the right thingE)cienc* – time& e!ort& motivation& method



+,s sho"l$ &e

Manage$:

'- oney'- aterials

'- oment'- anpower'- achine

'- ar(et'- anner

P – lanningO –

rgani)ingL – eadingC –ontrolling

S – ta*ng



LEARER-CETEREDPS.C/OLO0ICAL PRICIPLES

"he following +, psychologicalfactors pertain to the learner and thelearning process "hey focus on

psychological factors that are primarilyinternal to and under the control of thelearner rather than conditioned habits

or physiological factors .owever& theprinciples also attempt to ac(nowledgeexternal environment or contextualfactors that interact with these internal

factors



"he principles are intended to deal

holistically with learners in the contextof real-world learning situations "hus&they are best understood as anorgani)ed set of principles no principle

should be viewed in isolation "he +,principles are divided into thosereferring to 1)cognitive and meta-

cognitive& 2)motivational and afective&3)developmental and social& and4)individual diference actors inuencing learners and learning



Cognitive an$ Meta-cognitiveFactors

+ 0ature of the learning process. learning of complex sub1ect matter

2 3oals of the learning process. can create meaningful& coherent

representations of (nowledge

4 5onstruction of (nowledge. can lin( new information with

existing (nowledge in meaningfulwa s



, Strategic thin(ing

can create and use a repertoire ofthin(ing and reasoning strategies toachieve complex learning goals

6 "hin(ing about thin(ing beyond thin(ing/ deepening of(nowledge

7 5ontext of learning inuenced by environmental factors



Motivational an$ A%ective Factors

8 'otivational and emotionalinuences on 9earning :hat and how much is learned;

< =ntrinsic motivation to learn learner>s creativity& higher orderthin(ing& and natural curiosity $w/in

yourself%stimulated by tas(s of optimal novelty

? E!ects of motivation and e!ortacquisition of complex (nowledge and



Develo1ental an$ Social Factors

+@ Aevelopmental inuences on learning

di!erent opportunities and constraints forlearning physical& intellectual& emotional& andsocial domains

B appropriateness of materialB intellectual& social& emotional& and physicaldomainsB macro s(ills – interest and level of the studentB prior or past experiences – from school& home&culture& and community factorsB early and continuing parental – languageinteractions and two-wayB awareness and understanding of development

di!erences among children – understand



++ Social inuences on learning

inuenced by social interactions&interpersonal relations& andcommunication with others

In$ivi$"al Di%erences Factors

+2 =ndividual di!erences in learning

di!erent strategies& approaches& andcapabilities for learning that are afunction of prior experience andheredity



+4 9earning and diversity 9earning is most e!ective when

di!erences in learners> linguistic&cultural& and social bac(grounds areta(en into account

+, Standards and assessment Setting appropriately high andchallenging standards and assessing

the learner as well as learningprogress including diagnostic& process&and outcome assessment are integralparts of the learning process



Ale2an$er 3 M"r1h* s"ar* o(the 45 Princi1les:

+ "he (nowledge base

2 Strategic processing and control

4 'otivation and a!ective

, Aevelopment and =ndividualdi!erences

6 Situation or context



Revie6 o( the

Develo1entalTheories



"heories

Celated "o "he9earnerDs

Aevelopment

Eri(son

< #sycho-socialStages of

Aevelopment

reud4 5omponents of

#ersonality6 #sychosexual Stages

of development

#iaget, Stages of 5ognitive

Aevelopment

Fohlberg4 Stages and 7

Substances of 'oralAevelopment

Gygots(y• Hn 9anguage

• Ione of #roximalAevelopment

JrofenbrennerJio-Ecological

System



Fre"$ Ps*cho-Se2"alTheor*• reud proposed that there were 6

stages of development reudbelieved that few people successfullycompleted all 6 of the stages=nstead& he felt that most people tiedup their li&i$o at one of the stages&

which prevented them from usingthat energy at a later stage



Stage Erogenous Ione ixation

Hral $birth to +<months% 'outh Arin(ing & eating&smo(ing or nail biting

Knal $+<-42 months% Knus Knal retentive and analexpulsive

#hallic $4 – 7 years% 3enitals Hedipus 5omplex andElectra 5omplex

9atency $7- puberty%

3enital $puberty L% 3enitals



Piaget,s Stages o(Cognitive Develo1ent

M"he principle goal of education

is to create men who arecapable of doing new things&not simply to repeating what

other generaions have done –men who are creative& inventiveand discoversN



Oean #iagetCognitive

development theory

• Children "construct"their understanding ofthe world through theiractive involvement andinteractions.

• Studied his 3 children tofocus not on what theyknew but how they knewit.

• Described children'sunderstanding as their"schemas” and how theyuse: – assimilation – accommodation.



• SchemaP – "he term MschemaN to refer to the

cognitive structures by which individualsintellectually adapt to and organi)e theirenvironment

• KssimilationP – "his is the process of Qtting a newexperience into an existing or previouslycreated cognitive structure or schema

• KccommodationP – "his is the process of creating a new

schema



• Equilibration – Kchieving proper balance between

assimilation and accommodation –Aisequilibrium

• this means there is a discrepancy

between what is perceived and whatis understood :e then exert e!ortthrough assimilation andaccommodation to establish

equilibriumonce more



#iagetDs 5ognitive Aevelopment Stages

• Sensorimotor

– !ges birth : the infant uses hissenses and motor abilities tounderstand the world

• #reo$eration

–

!ges %: the child uses metalre$resentations of ob&ects and is ableto use symbolic thought and language

• Concrete o$erations

– !ges %( the child uses logical

o$erations or $rinci$les when solving$roblems

• )ormal o$erations

– !ges u$( the use of logical

o$erations in a systematic fashion andwith the ability to use abstractions

#iagetDs 5ognitive Aevelopment



#iaget s 5ognitive AevelopmentStages• Stage + P Sensory 'otor Stage$birth

to infancy% – "his is the stage when child who is

initially reexive in grasping& suc(ing&

and reaching becomes more organi)edin his movement and activity



Eri7son8s Stages o(

Ps*chosocial Develo1ent

Stage Crisis Mala$a1tati Malignanc Virt"e



Stage Crisis Mala$a1tation

Malignanc*

Virt"e

=nfancy "rust vs'istrust

SensoryAistortion

:ithdrawal .ope

Early Kdulthhood Kutonomy

vs Shame Aoubt

=mpulsivity 5ompulsion :ill #ower

#re-school =nitiative vs3uilt

ruthlessness =nhibition #urpose

School Kge =ndustry vs

=nferiority

0arrow

Girtuosity

=nertia 5ompetence

Kdolescence =dentity vsCole

5onfusion

anaticism Cepudiation idelity

Roung Kdulthood =ntimacy vs

=solation

#romiscuity Exclusivity 9ove

'iddle Kdulthood 3enerativityvs

Stagnation

Hverextention

Ce1ectivity 5are

'aturity Ego =ntegrityvs Aespair

#resumption Aisdain :isdom

FohlbergDs "heory of 'oral



FohlbergDs "heory of 'oralAevelopment

•

Kssessed moral reasoning by posinghypothetical moral dilemmas andexamining the reasoning behind peopleDsanswers

•

Proposed three distinctlevels of moralreasoning: preconventional, conventional, andpostconventional

• Each level is based on the degree to which a

person conforms to conventional standards ofsociety

• Each level has two stages that representdifferent degrees of sophistication in moral

reasoning

FohlbergDs Stages of 'oral



FohlbergDs Stages of 'oralAevelopment



9ev Gygots(y

Socio-Cultural Theory



• De9nition

–Sociocultural theory results fromthe dynamic interaction between a person

and the surrounding social and culturalforces

– clais o( V*gots7*

–

a% undamentally shaped by cultural tools –b% unctioning emerges out of social

processes

–c% Aevelopmental methods $Ione

of #roximal Aevelopment%



• Strategies to utili)e the beneQtsof I#A

• a% Sca!olding –requiresdemonstration& while controlling the

environment so that one can ta(ethings step by step

• b% Ceciprocal teaching – open dialogbetween student and teacher whichgoes beyond simple question andanswer session

• Gygots(y theori)ed that human development is



Gygots(y theori)ed that human development isnot something that is 92e$ an$ eternal =t willchange as a result of historical $evelo1ent;

C"lt"ral In!"ences – a% =mitative learning

– b% =nstructed learning

– c% 5ollaborative learning

Princi1les

– a% 5ognitive development is limited to a certain range at

any given age – b% ull cognitive development requires social interaction

i i



6 'ain #oints

• a% se of Ione of #roximal Aevelopment

• b% =nteraction with other people is importantfor cognitive growth

• c% 5ulture can ma(e daily living more

e*cient and e!ective• d% Kdvanced mental methods start through

social activities

• e% =ncrease of the independent use of

language and thought during a childDs Qrstfew years of life



Aevelopmental Systems

"heoryThe belief that

development can't beexplained by a singleconcept, but rather by acomplex system

Urie



Urie'ron(en&renner

Ecological Systems Theory orbioecological theory• *he varied systems of theenvironment and theinterrelationshi$s among

the systems sha$e achild's develo$ment.• +oth the environment andbiology influence thechild's develo$ment.

• *he environment affectsthe child and the childinfluences theenvironment

-



-'odel• *he microsystem activities and

interactions in the child's immediatesurroundings: $arents, school,friends, etc.

• *he mesosystem relationshi$s amongthe entities involved in the child'smicrosystem: $arents' interactionswith teachers, a school's interactionswith the daycare $rovider

• *he e-osystem social institutionswhich affect children indirectly: the$arents' work settings and $olicies,

e-tended family networks, mass media,community resources

• *he macrosystem broader culturalvalues, laws and governmentalresources

• *he chronosystem changes which occurduring a child's life, both$ersonally, like the birth of a

sibling and culturally, like the ra/iwar.



Hutline of 2@th 5entury "heories

• #sychoanalytical "heories –#sychosexualP Sigmund reud –#sychosocialP Eri( Eri(son

• 5ognitive "heories –5ognitive AevelopmentP Oean #iaget

–Socio-culturalP 9ev Gygots(y

• Systems "heories –Ecological SystemsP rie

Jronfenbrenner



St"$ents 6ith E2ce1tionalities

<hat is S1ecial E$"cation=

Specially designed instruction& at no cost tothe parents& to meet the unique needs of a

child with a disabilityJefore +?86 and the passage of the Qrst

federal special education law& four millionchildren with disabilities did not receive thehelp they needed in school and another one

million were completely excluded from school



Aiscrimination and the Jeginning of5hange

• Shortly after the +?6, Brown vs. Board oEducation decision clarifying that Mseparatecannot be equal&N some professionals beganquestioning whether separate classes provided

students with disabilities with an appropriateeducation

• Kfter decades of research& what had become clearwas that the special education was not 1ust a

means of assisting children with disabilities ithad also become a means of discriminatingagainst students who might be perceived byeducators as more challenging to reach



#revalence of Students withAisabilities

• Klthough statistics are di*cult to obtain& it hasbeen estimated that between +@ and +4 percentof the school-age population has exceptionalities

"hus& in an average-si)e classroom of 26

students& it is conceivable that 4 or , individualswill exhibit one or more exceptionalities

• Students with speciQc learning disabilitiesrepresent approximately half of all those receiving

special education& followed by speech orlanguage impairments& mental retardation& andemotional disabilities



#revalence of Students withAisabilities

• =n the past decade& the number ofstudents indentiQed in havingdisabilities has grown signiQcantly

• Some suggest that this increase is inpart because of the desire on thepart of educators and parents to give

help to struggling students• :hat other factors do you thin(

might contribute to this rise;



#roviding an nwavering5ommitment

• Kt no point in history have we& as a nation& ta(ensuch bold and noble measures to mandate theeducational rights of all children& including thosewith disabilities and exceptionalities

• nder the =ndividuals with Aisabilities Kct and theguarantee for a free and appropriate publiceducation& the courts have repeatedly andconsistently ruled that schools simply must

provide the necessary resources to teach allchildren& regardless of the physical or mentalhandicaps they may manifest

"h 9 d E ti l



"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 ?,-+,2 Education for all handicapped

children act $+?86%

• irst law to clearly deQne the rights of disabledchildren to free appropriate public education

• =t requires the school systems to include theparents when meeting about the child or ma(ingdecisions about his/ her education

• =t mandated an individuali)ed education program

$=E#% which must include short and long termgoals

• =t also requires that the child be placed in theleast restrictive environment

9 t C t i ti



9east CestrictiveEnvironment

• T9east restrictive environmentT means that astudent who has a disability should have theopportunity to be educated with non-disabledpeers& to the greatest extent possible

• "hey should have access to the general educationcurriculum& extracurricular activities& or any otherprogram that non-disabled peers would be able toaccess

• "he student should be provided withsupplementary aids and services necessary toachieve educational goals if placed in a settingwith non-disabled peers



=ndividuali)ed Education #rogram$=E#%

• =f team members decide that a student is eligiblefor special education& they then prepare an =E#

• "his document summari)es all of the information

gathered concerning the student& sets theexpectations of what the student will learn overthe next year& and it prescribes the types andamount of special services the student will

receive• 'ust be received and updated annually

C i d 5 t f



Cequired 5omponents of an=E#

• 'ust address how the studentDs disabilitya!ects involvement and progress in thegeneral education

•

Knnual goals and short term ob1ectives• Supplementary aids and services& assistive

technology& participation with peers whodo not have disabilities& accommodations

for testing& dates of e!ectiveness of =E#

"h 9 d E ti l



"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 ?<-+?? Education of the .andicapped

Kct Kmendments $+?<4%

• Kllows for federal funding to create parent

training and information centers so thatparents can learn how to protect the rightsof their child

• Klso provided Qnancial incentives for

transition services from school to adultliving for students with disabilities

"h 9 d E ti l



"he 9aw and Exceptional5hildren• #9 +@+-,87 =ndividuals with Aisabilities

Education Kct $=AEK%$+??@%

• Cenamed earlier laws and their

amendments• 'ore importantly& it replaced the word

MhandicappedN with the word MdisabledN&therefore expanding services for these

students• =t strengthened the lawDs commitment to

greater inclusion in community schools

li h d



Kccomplishments andAisappointments of Special

Education 9aw• "he passage of federal special education

law was revolutionary and it had many

positive e!ects many students who hadbeen completely left out of the publicschool system were now guaranteed aneducation

• .owever& the passage of the law did notaddress all the issues of educatingstudents with disabilities



5onQdentiality

• =AEK speciQes that informationregarding a studentDs disability ishighly conQdential

• "hat information may not be sharedwith anyone who is not directlywor(ing with the student

• Hnce records are not longer needed&a procedure must be in place so thatthey are destroyed

:ho Ceceives Special



:ho Ceceives SpecialEducation;• SpeciQc learning

disabilities

• Speech or

languageimpairments

• 'ental retardation

• Emotionaldisturbance

• Aeaf/ blindness$both%

•Gisual impairments

• .earing

impairments• Hrthopedic

impairments

• Hther healthimpairments

• Kutism

• "raumatic brain

in1ury• 'ultiple disabilities

• Aevelopmental

delays



Educational #ractices

• =nclusive #racticesUlots of debatesV

• =nclusion is a belief system shared by everymember of a school as a learning communityabout the responsibility of educating all students

so that they can reach their potential• =nclusion encompasses students who are gifted

and talented& those who are at ris( for failurebecause of their life circumstances& those with

disabilities& and those who are average learners• KccommodationsUmar( in boo(& separate

setting& extended time& read alouds& reducednumber of items per page& alternate test



=nclusion

• =n todayDs schools& what is consideredinclusive practice varies widely dependingon state and local policies related to

inclusion& the resources available& teacherand administrator understanding andcommitment& and parent and communitysupport

• =t may loo( li(e an E5 teacher who is inyour room every day for the entire classperiod or a few times a wee( for W a classperiod



=mplications

• Exceptional 5hildrenDs teachers in 0orth 5arolinaare reporting all too often the hardships they facedue to the lac( of available resources

• "he state must do all within its means to secure

the necessary funding of exceptional children sothat no child has to use materials that are worn&out of date& or even worse& contain informationthat is no longer current

•

=t is painfully obvious that state funds areinsu*cient to meet the needs of 0orth 5arolinaDsexceptional children by providing them theresources that are required for a sound education

:hat E5 teachers are



:hat E5 teachers areSaying• Success must never be based on

single test scores

• 0o other issue has raised more

concern with E5 teachers than thatof paperwor(

• .3E S.HC"K3EVV

:h t b t 3ift d d " l t d



:hat about 3ifted and "alentedStudents;

• =AEK does not provide for specialeducation for these students

• Hnly 4@ states mandate education of

students who are gifted and talented• =mportant to note that sometimes

students with disabilities are also

gifted and talented



:hat is 3iftedness;

• 3ifted and talented students are those identiQedby professionally qualiQed persons who by virtueof outstanding abilities are capable of highperformance

• 3iftedness is evidence of advanced developmentacross intellectual areas& within a speciQcacademic or arts-related area& or unusualorgani)ational power to bring about desired

results• "hese children may require di!erentiated

educational programs and services beyond thosenormally provided by the regular school programin order to reali)e their contribution to self andsociet



#revalence

• Estimates vary considerably due todisagreement over deQnition

• Hn average& school districts serve

+2X of students under the MgiftedNlabel

• Aepending on the state& the

prevalence may range from 2 to 22Xof students being served



5haracteristics

• Students who are gifted usually displaycuriosity& a strong need to (now and tounderstand how the world wor(s

•

K student who is gifted may understandlanguage and mathematics at an earlierage than is typical and become (nown toparents and teachers by these s(ills

• "hey may bring high energy levels toschool tas(s& may display characteristicsof perfectionism




• Kbility 3rouping

• ull time or part time separate classes

• Speciali)ed schools

• 5luster 3rouping

• =nclusive practices

• Kcceleration

• Enrichment

• Ai!erentiation



In$ivi$"al Di%erences

$Student Aiversity%

IndividualDifferences

Factors

Benefits ofDiversity in the

Classroom

ClassroomStrategies forStudentDiversity



In$ivi$"al Di%erences

FactorsSocioeconomic Status

Thinking/Learning StyleExceptionalities



'ene9ts o( Diversit*

in the ClassrooStudents' self-awareness is

enhanced by diversity

Student diversity contributes to

cognitive development



'ene9ts o( Diversit*

in the Classroo Student diversity prepares

learners for their role asresponsible members of the society

Student diversity can promoteharmony

Cl St t i



Classroo Strategies

(or St"$ent Diversit* Encourage learners to share their

personal history and experiences

ntegrate learning experiences and

activities which promote students'

multicultural and cross-cultural

awareness!

Cl St t i



Classroo Strategies

(or St"$ent Diversit* "side from highlighting diversity#

identify patterns of unity thattranscend group differences!

$ommunicate high expectations tostudents from all sub-groups!

% i d i t ti l th d t



%se varied instructional methods to

accommodate student diversity in

learning styles!

&ary the examples you use toillustrate concepts in order to

provide multiple contexts that are

relevant to students from diverse

backgrounds!



"dapt to the students diverse

backgrounds and learning styles byallowing them personal choice and

decision-making opportunities

concerning what they will learn and

how they will learn it!

(iversify your methods of assessing

and evaluating student learning!



)urposely# form small-discussiongroups of students from diverse

backgrounds! *ou can form groups

of students with different learning

styles# different cultural

backgrounds# etc!



9earning/"hin(ingstyles and multiple

intelligences



9EKC0=03/".=0F=03 S"R9Es-refer to the preferred way an individual processes

information- they describe a personDs typical mode of thin(ing&

remembering or problem solving

SE0SHCR #CEECE05ES =ndividuals tend to gravitate toward one or two

types of sensory input and maintain a dominancein one of the following types P

-Gisual 9earners

- Kuditory 9earners - "actile/ Finesthetic 9earners



Gi l l d l b



Gisual learners- tend to learn betterwhen a variety of visual aids are used

Gisual- iconic -refers to those who are

more interested in visual imagery such

as Qlm& graphic displays& pictures Gisual- symbolic

- refers to those who feel

comfortable with abstract symbolismsuch as mathematical formula or the

written word



KA="HCR 9EKC0ECS- recieve information best bylistening

9isteners - they remember things said

to them and ma(e the information their own "al(ers

- they are the one whoprefer to tal( and discuss $ auditory- verbal

processors%



"actile/ (inesthetic learners-

they tend to prefer learning bydoing/ experiencing things



5haracteristics of tactile learnersP- =s good at sports

- 5anDt sit still for long- =s not great at spelling

- Aoes not have great handwriting- 9i(e science lab

- Studies with loud music on- 9i(e adventure boo(s& movies

- 9i(es role playing

- "a(es brea(s when studying- Juilds models- =s involved in martial arts& dance

- =s Qdgety during lectures



3lobal–analytic continuum

analytic- they tendtoward the linear& step- by- step

processes of learning $tree seers% 3lobal- they lean towardsnon- linear thought and tend to

see the whole pattern rather thanparticle elements

$forest seers%

9 ft b i /



9eft- brain/

right- brain continuum left- brained #ECSH0- isportrayed as the linear

$analytic% right- brained person- isviewed as non- linear $global%



Successive processor $left

brain% - details leading to a

conceptual understandingS='9"K0EHS #CH5ESSHC$C=3." JCK=0%

- general concept going onto speciQcs

9E" JCK=0$ K0K9R"=5% right brain$global%



9E" JCK=0$ K0K9R"=5% right brain$global%

Successive .emispheric

Style + GECJK9

2 CES#H0AS "H :HCA'EK0=03

4 SEYE0"=K9

, #CHSESSES =0HC'K"=H09=0EKC9R

6 CES#H0AS "H 9H3=5

7 #9K0S K.EKA

8 CE5K99S #EH#9EDS 0K'E

< S#EKFS :=". E: 3ES"CES ? #05"K9

+@ #CEECS HC'K9 S"AR

AES=30

++ #CEECS JC=3." 9=3."S:.=9E S"AR=03

Simultaneous .emispheric

Style + G=SK9

2 CES#H0AS "H "H0E H GH=5E

4 CK0AH'

, #CH5ESSES =0HC'K"=H0

=0 GKC=EA HCAEC 6 CES#H0AS "H E'H"=H0

7 ='#9S=GE

8 CE5K99S #EH#9E K5ES

< 3ES"CES :.E0 S#EKF=03

? 9ESS #05"K9 +@ #CEECS SH0A/ 'S=5

JK5F3CH0A :.=9ES"AR=03

++ #CEECS CEYE0" 'HJ=9="R

:.=9E S"AR=03



'9"=#9E =0"E99=3E05ES- is an educational theory& Qrst developed by .oward

3ardner& that describes an array of di!erent (inds ofintelligences exhibited by human beings

.oward 3ardner

- he believes that di!erent intelligences may beindependent abilities and all of us possess theintelligences but in varying degrees of strength and s(ill - the theory was Qrst laid out in 3ardnerDs +?<4

boo( rames of 'indP "he "heory of 'ultiple

=ntelligences and has been further reQned in subsequentyears



intelligences

- an ability or set of abilities that allows a person

to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in oneor more cultures

? A=S"=05" HC'S H =0"E99=3E05E +G=SK9/ S#K"=K9 =0"E99=3E05E

$p=5"CE S'KC"%- learning visually and organi)ing ideas

spatially2GECJK9/ 9=03=S"=5 $:HCA S'KC"%

- learning through the spo(en and written word4 'K".E'K"=5K9/ 9H3=5K9 $ 0'JEC S'KC"/ 9H3=5

S'KC"%- learning through reasoning and problem solving



, JHA=9R/ F=0ES".E"=c $ JHAR S'KC"%- learning through interaction with oneDs

environment6 'S=5K9 $'S=5 S'KC"%

- learning through patterns& rhythms and music7 =0"CK#ECSH0Kl $SE9 S'KC"%

- learning through feelings& values and attitudes 8 =0"EC#ECSH0K9 $#EH#9E S'KC"%- learning through interaction with others

< 0K"CK9=S" $0K"CE S'KC"%- learning through classiQcation&categories and

hierarchies? EZ=S"E0"=K9 $S#=C=" S'KC"%

- learning by seeing the Mbig pictureN



:hat is Special Education;

• Specially designed instruction& at no costto the parents& to meet the unique needs

of a child with a disability• Jefore +?86 and the passage of the Qrst

federal special education law& four millionchildren with disabilities did not receivethe help they needed in school andanother one million were completelyexcluded from school

St"$ents 6ith E2ce1tionalities

Discriination an$ the



Discriination an$ the'eginning o( Change

• Shortly after the +?6, Brown vs. Board oEducation decision clarifying that Mseparatecannot be equal&N some professionals beganquestioning whether separate classes

provided students with disabilities with anappropriate education

• Kfter decades of research& what had becomeclear was that the special education was not

1ust a means of assisting children withdisabilities it had also become a means ofdiscriminating against students who might beperceived by educators as more challenging

to reach

Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ith



Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ithDisa&ilities

• Klthough statistics are di*cult to obtain& ithas been estimated that between +@ and +4percent of the school-age population hasexceptionalities "hus& in an average-si)e

classroom of 26 students& it is conceivablethat 4 or , individuals will exhibit one or moreexceptionalities

• Students with speciQc learning disabilities

represent approximately half of all thosereceiving special education& followed byspeech or language impairments& mentalretardation& and emotional disabilities

Prevalence o( St"$ents 6ith



Disa&ilities

• =n the past decade& the number ofstudents indentiQed in havingdisabilities has grown signiQcantly

• Some suggest that this increase is inpart because of the desire on the partof educators and parents to give help

to struggling students• :hat other factors do you thin( might

contribute to this rise;

Provi$ing an Un6avering



g gCoitent

• Kt no point in history have we& as a nation&ta(en such bold and noble measures tomandate the educational rights of allchildren& including those with disabilitiesand exceptionalities

• nder the =ndividuals with Aisabilities Kctand the guarantee for a free and

appropriate public education& the courtshave repeatedly and consistently ruledthat schools simply must provide thenecessary resources to teach all children&

regardless of the physical or mental

"he 9aw and Exceptional 5hildren



"he 9aw and Exceptional 5hildren

• #9 ?,-+,2 Education for all handicappedchildren act $+?86%

• irst law to clearly deQne the rights of disabledchildren to free appropriate public education

• =t requires the school systems to include theparents when meeting about the child or ma(ingdecisions about his/ her education

• =t mandated an individuali)ed education program

$=E#% which must include short and long termgoals

• =t also requires that the child be placed in theleast restrictive environment

9east Cestrictive



Environment• T9east restrictive environmentT means that a

student who has a disability should have theopportunity to be educated with non-disabledpeers& to the greatest extent possible

• "hey should have access to the general educationcurriculum& extracurricular activities& or any otherprogram that non-disabled peers would be able toaccess

•

"he student should be provided withsupplementary aids and services necessary toachieve educational goals if placed in a settingwith non-disabled peers

=ndividuali)ed Education #rogram



g$=E#%

• =f team members decide that a student is eligiblefor special education& they then prepare an =E#

• "his document summari)es all of the information

gathered concerning the student& sets theexpectations of what the student will learn overthe next year& and it prescribes the types andamount of special services the student will

receive• 'ust be received and updated annually

Cequired 5omponents of an



q p=E#

• 'ust address how the studentDs disabilitya!ects involvement and progress in thegeneral education

•

Knnual goals and short term ob1ectives• Supplementary aids and services& assistive

technology& participation with peers whodo not have disabilities& accommodations

for testing& dates of e!ectiveness of =E#

"he 9aw and Exceptional



p5hildren• #9 ?<-+?? Education of the .andicapped

Kct Kmendments $+?<4%

• Kllows for federal funding to create parent

training and information centers so thatparents can learn how to protect the rightsof their child

• Klso provided Qnancial incentives for

transition services from school to adultliving for students with disabilities

"he 9aw and Exceptional



p5hildren• #9 +@+-,87 =ndividuals with Aisabilities

Education Kct $=AEK%$+??@%

• Cenamed earlier laws and their

amendments• 'ore importantly& it replaced the word

MhandicappedN with the word MdisabledN&therefore expanding services for these

students• =t strengthened the lawDs commitment to

greater inclusion in community schools

Kccomplishments and



pAisappointments of Special

Education 9aw• "he passage of federal special education

law was revolutionary and it had manypositive e!ects many students who hadbeen completely left out of the publicschool system were now guaranteed aneducation

•

.owever& the passage of the law did notaddress all the issues of educatingstudents with disabilities

5onQdentiality



5onQdentiality

• =AEK speciQes that informationregarding a studentDs disability ishighly conQdential

• "hat information may not be sharedwith anyone who is not directlywor(ing with the student

• Hnce records are not longer needed&a procedure must be in place so thatthey are destroyed

:ho Ceceives Special



Education;• SpeciQc learning

disabilities

• Speech or

languageimpairments

• 'ental retardation

• Emotional

disturbance• Aeaf/ blindness

$both%

•

Gisual impairments

• .earing

impairments• Hrthopedic

impairments

• Hther health

impairments• Kutism

• "raumatic brain

in1ury• 'ultiple disabilities

• Aevelopmentaldelays





• =nclusive #racticesUlots of debatesV• =nclusion is a belief system shared by every

member of a school as a learning communityabout the responsibility of educating all students

so that they can reach their potential• =nclusion encompasses students who are gifted

and talented& those who are at ris( for failurebecause of their life circumstances& those with

disabilities& and those who are average learners• KccommodationsUmar( in boo(& separate

setting& extended time& read alouds& reducednumber of items per page& alternate test

=nclusion



=nclusion

• =n todayDs schools& what is consideredinclusive practice varies widely dependingon state and local policies related toinclusion& the resources available& teacherand administrator understanding andcommitment& and parent and communitysupport

•

=t may loo( li(e an E5 teacher who is inyour room every day for the entire classperiod or a few times a wee( for W a classperiod

=mplications



=mplications

• Exceptional 5hildrenDs teachers in 0orth 5arolinaare reporting all too often the hardships they facedue to the lac( of available resources

• "he state must do all within its means to secure

the necessary funding of exceptional children sothat no child has to use materials that are worn&out of date& or even worse& contain informationthat is no longer current

•

=t is painfully obvious that state funds areinsu*cient to meet the needs of 0orth 5arolinaDsexceptional children by providing them theresources that are required for a sound education

:hat E5 teachers are



Saying• Success must never be based on

single test scores

• 0o other issue has raised more

concern with E5 teachers than thatof paperwor(

• .3E S.HC"K3EVV

:hat about 3ifted and "alented



Students;

• =AEK does not provide for specialeducation for these students

• Hnly 4@ states mandate education of

students who are gifted and talented• =mportant to note that sometimes

students with disabilities are also

gifted and talented

:hat is 3iftedness;



:hat is 3iftedness;

• 3ifted and talented students are those identiQedby professionally qualiQed persons who by virtueof outstanding abilities are capable of highperformance

•

3iftedness is evidence of advanced developmentacross intellectual areas& within a speciQcacademic or arts-related area& or unusualorgani)ational power to bring about desiredresults

• "hese children may require di!erentiatededucational programs and services beyond thosenormally provided by the regular school programin order to reali)e their contribution to self and

societ

#revalence



#revalence

• Estimates vary considerably due todisagreement over deQnition

• Hn average& school districts serve

+2X of students under the MgiftedNlabel

• Aepending on the state& the

prevalence may range from 2 to 22Xof students being served

5haracteristics



5haracteristics

• Students who are gifted usually displaycuriosity& a strong need to (now and tounderstand how the world wor(s

•

K student who is gifted may understandlanguage and mathematics at an earlierage than is typical and become (nown toparents and teachers by these s(ills

• "hey may bring high energy levels toschool tas(s& may display characteristicsof perfectionism





• Kbility 3rouping• ull time or part time separate classes

• Speciali)ed schools

• 5luster 3rouping• =nclusive practices

• Kcceleration

• Enrichment

• Ai!erentiation

MODULE 4>



MODULE 4>

ALBINO, Anne Marie

CANICULA Marielle



Edward Chace

Tolman

Theories of Learning

CANICULA, Marielle

CORDOBA, Joel Mari

DELA CRUZ, MikkoandSUAREZ, Raael Lawrence

together with

Sr! An"elina J#lom, CS$N

present

E$6ar$ Chace Tolan?



?4@@-4BB

• 'orn in e6tonMassach"setts

• Receive$ aca$eic

$egrees inElectrocheistr* an$Ps*cholog* ?M;A; 4B4

Ph;D; 4B4• /e 6as release$ (ro

orth6estern Universit*

(or Glac7 o( teaching



• /is theor* o( learning can &e

loo7e$ on as a &len$ o( 0estalttheor* an$ &ehavioris

•

/e sa6 little val"e in theintros1ective a11roach

•

/e agree$ on olar &ehaviorrather than olec"lar &ehavior

Molar 'ehavior



Molar 'ehavior• P"r1osive

• Tolan,s aor 6or7 6as entitle$P"r1osive 'ehavior in Anials an$Men

•

Relate$ to the 0estalt theor*• Tolan (elt that 6hole &ehavior

1atterns ha$ a eaning that 6o"l$&e lost i( st"$ie$ (ro an eleentistic

vie61oint• It is in contrast 6ith the i$ea o(

olec"lar &ehavior

P"r1osive 'ehavioris



P"r1osive 'ehavioris• E21lains goal-$irecte$ &ehavior

•

&ehavior is PURPOSIVE CO0ITIVE 3MOLAR

E2a1le: the searching &ehavior o( a ratin a aJe 6ill 1ersist "ntil (oo$ is (o"n$

• 0oal or P"r1ose o( Rat: To 9n$ the (oo$• "he purposive behavior is the fact that the rat

still (eeps up with the ma)e

Maor TheoreticalC



Conce1ts• Kccording to "olman& ta(ing his lead

from the 3estalt theorists& learningis essentiall* a 1rocess o(

$iscovering 6hat lea$s to 6hatin the environent;

• E1hasiJer an organismDs drive

state determines which aspect of theenvironment will be emphasi)ed inits perceptual Qeld



• Princi1le o( Least E%ort whenan organism chooses the one that

will require the shortestroute/shortcuts or anything that willonly require minimum amount of

energy

• Cognitive a1 a 1ict"re o(



• Cognitive a1 a 1ict"re o(soething that an organis

"s"all* is enco"ntering 6hen it$o soething;

E2a1le: when a person wal(s on

the same street everyday& he will(now that when he loo(s/turns tohis left& he will see this and when

he loo(s/turns to the right& he willsee that

Vicario"s Trial an$ Error



Vicario"s Trial an$ Error

•

Vicario"s Trial an$ Error -characteristic o( rats 6hereinthe* consistentl* sto1 or 1a"se

at choice 1oints;• Tests in this t*1e o( trial an$

error are teste$ cognitivel*rather than &ehaviorall*;

Learning vs; Per(orance

•

Latent Learning learning thatis not translate$ into1er(orance

Tolan an$ /onJi7 ?4B> ranan e21erient involving



an e21erient involving gro"1s o( rats learning to solve

a aJe; The 9rst gro"1 6as reg"larl*

rein(orce$; The secon$ one ha$to 6ait "ntil the 44th $a*; The

thir$ one 6as Tolan,s interest; A(ter the e21erient he

concl"$e$ that the 1er(oranceo( those 6ho 6ere rein(orce$

a(ter the 44th $a* co1are$ tothe one 6hich 6as rein(orce$contin"all* 6as "ch &etter i(not e"all* &etter;

• things that Tolan o&serve$:



things that Tolan o&serve$:

?4 There is a slight i1roveentin the 1er(orance o( the gro"1that 6as never reall*

rein(orce$;

? The rein(orce$ gro"1 sho6e$stea$* i1roveent

thro"gho"t the $"ration;? <hen the rein(orceent 6as

intro$"ce$ 1er(orance vastl*

i rove$

"h lt f th i t



• "he results from the experiment

proved "olmanDs statement thatreinforcements are performancevariable not a learning variable

• 9atent Extinction – occurs simplybecause the organism waspresented in a situation where areinforcer is no longer present Suchextinction does not depend on theperformance of non-reinforced

res onse

Res1onse Learning vs; Place Learning



• Res1onse Learning learning o(s1eci9c res1onses that aree%ective in solving a 1ro&lean$ there&* 1rovi$ing

rein(orceent;

• Place learning learning 6here

an o&ect is locate$; For Tolanonce the location o( an o&ect is7no6n it can &e reache$ &* an*

n"&er o( alternate ro"tes

Rein(orceentE t



E21ectanc*•

Tolan 1re$icte$ that i(rein(orcers 6ere change$&ehavior 6o"l$ &e $isr"1te$&eca"se in Rein(orceentE21ectanc* a 1artic"larrein(orcer &ecoes a 1art o(6hat is e21ecte$;

• Cognitive $issonance negative$rive state an$ the 1ersone21eriencing it see7s 6a*s to

re$"ce it "st as the erson

In$ivi$"al Di%erence Varia&les



• Ks per suggested by "olman&

•

/ [ heredity• A [ age

• T [ previous training

•

E [ special endocrine& drug& orvitamin conditions

Intervening Varia&les



g

•

Create$ &* the theorist to ai$ ine21laining the relationshi1 &et6een thein$e1en$ent an$ $e1en$ent varia&les

•

In-&et6een &ehavior an$ environentalan$ in$ivi$"al $i%erence varia&les

• E2a1les: Dean$ A11etite

Di%erentiation Motor S7ill /*1otheses'iases



'ehaviorist

Pers1ective#avlov&"horndi(e&:atson&S(inner

'ehavioris:

'ehaviorisf h d f b bl d



• focuses on the study of observable and

measurable behavior•=t emphasi)es that behavior is mostlylearned through conditioning andreinforcement $ rewards and

punishment %•=t does not give much attention to themind & and the possibility of thoughtprocesses occurring in the mind

•5ontributions in the development of thebehaviorist theory largely came from#avlov& :atson& "horndi(e and S(inner

•a Cussian psychologist is



Ivan

Pavlov

well (nown for his wor( in

classical conditioning orstimulus substitution

•'ost renownedexperiment involvedmeat& a dog and a bell'easuring the dogDssalivation in order tostudy digestion



5lassical5onditioning

•Sti"l"s generaliJation- once thedog has learned to salivate at the



dog has learned to salivate at the

sound of the bell& it will salivate atother similar sound•E2tinction- if you stop pairing thebell with the food& salivation will

eventually cease in response to thebell•S1ontaneo"s recover*-

extinguished responses can berecovered after an elapsed time& butwill soon extinguish again if the dog

is not presented with food

•Discriination- the dog could



learn to discriminate between

similar bells and discern which bellwould result in the presentation offood and which would not•

/igher-or$er con$itioning- oncethe dog has been conditioned toassociate the bell with the food&another unconditioned stimulus&such as a light may be ashed atthe same time that the bell is rungEventually the dog will salivate at

the ash of the li ht without the

•.e explained that learningis the result of associations



Edward

"horndi(e

is the result of associationsforming between stimuliand responses Suchassociation or habitsbecome strengthened or

wea(ened by nature andfrequency of the S-Cpairings• "he main principle of

connectionism was thatlearning could beadequately explainedwithout considering any

unobservable internal

Theor* o( connectionis- stated that learning has ta(en place when



stated that learning has ta(en place whena strong connection or bond between stimulus

and response is formed

Three 1riar* la64;La6 o( e%ect- S-C is strengthened when

the consequence is positive and wea(enedwhen the consequence is negative

;La6 o( e2ercise- when S-C bond ispractice the stronger it will become

;La6 o( rea$iness- the more readiness the

learner has to respond to the stimulus& thestronger will be the bond between them

Princi1les $erive$ (ro theor*( ti i



o( connectionis:

+9earning requires both practiceand rewards $law ofe!ect/exercise%

2K series of S-C connection can bechained together if they belongto the same action sequence $lawof readiness%

4"ransfer of learning occursbecause previously encounteredsituations

, =ntelligence is a function of the

• wor( with #avlov>s ideas5 id d th t h



Oohn:atson

•5onsidered that humans

are born with a fewreexes and the emotionalreactions of love and rage•Experiment on Klbert anda white rat•.is wor( did clearly showthe role of conditioning in

the development ofemotional responses tocertain stimuli



• operant conditioning



Jurrhusrederi

c(S(inner

•

CeinforcementLC-any stimulusgiven or added toincrease the response

-C- any stimulusthat results in theincreased frequency

of a response when itis withdrawn orremoved

Al&ert 'an$"ra:Social # O&servational Learning



• 'asic Preise

• :e learn behavior through observation

• Gicarious reinforcementP 9earn throughobserving consequences of behaviors of

others• Mo$elling

• Hbserve behavior of others and repeat thebehavior

• Jobo doll studies $+?74%• AisinhibitionP :ea(ening of inhibition

through exposure to a model

g

actors =nuencing 'odelingP=mpact "endency to =mitate



=mpact "endency to =mitate

• 5haracteristics of the modelsPsimilarity& age& sex& status& prestige&simple vs complex behavior

•

5haracteristics of observersP 9owself-conQdence& low self-esteem&reinforcement for imitation

• Ceward consequences of behaviorP

Airectly witnessing associatedrewards

"he Hbservational 9earning #rocessP, Steps



, Steps

• Kttentional processes• Cetention processes

• #roduction processes

• =ncentive and motivational processes

Step +P Kttentional#rocesses



#rocesses• Aeveloping cognitive processes to

pay attention to a model- moredeveloped processes allow for better

attention• 'ust observe the model accurately

enough to imitate behavior

Step 2P Cetention #rocesses



• "o later imitate behavior& mustremember aspects of the behavior

• Cetain information in 2 waysP

– =maginal internal representationP Gisualimage ExP orming a mental picture

– Gerbal systemP Gerbal description ofbehavior ExP Silently rehearsing steps inbehavior

Step 4P #roduction #rocesses



• "a(ing imaginal and verbalrepresentations and translating intoovert behavior- practice behaviors

•

Ceceive feedbac( on accuracy ofbehavior- how well have you imitatedthe modeled behavior;

• =mportant in mastering di*cult s(ills – ExP Ariving a car

Step ,P =ncentive and 'otivational#rocesses



#rocesses

• :ith incentives& observation morequic(ly becomes action& pay moreattention& retain more information

•

=ncentive to learn inuenced byanticipated reinforcements

Kspects of the SelfP Self-reinforcement and Self-e*cacy



reinforcement and Self e*cacy

• Self-reinforcementP Cewards orpunishments given to oneself for reaching&exceeding or falling short of personalexpectations – ExP #ride& shame& guilt

• Self-e*cacyP Jelief in ability to cope withlife –

'eeting standardsP Enhances self-e*cacy – ailure to meet standardsP Ceduces self-e*cacy

Self-E*cacy



• .igh self-e*cacy – Jelieve can deal e!ectively with life events

– 5onQdent in abilities

– Expect to overcome obstacles e!ectively

• 9ow self-e*cacy – eel unable to exercise control over life

– 9ow conQdence& believe all e!orts are futile

Sources of =nformation inAetermining Self-e*cacy



Aetermining Self e*cacy

• #erformance attainment – 'ost inuential

– Cole of feedbac(

–

'ore we achieve& more we believe wecan achieve

– 9eads to feelings of competency andcontrol

Sources of =nformation inAetermining Self-e*cacy



Aetermining Self e*cacy

•Gicarious experience – Seeing others perform successfully – =f they can& = can too

• Gerbal persuasion – Gerbal reminders of abilities

• #hysiological and emotional arousal – Celated to perceived ability to cope – 5alm& composed feelingsP .igher self-e*cacy – 0ervous& agitated feelingsP 9ower self-e*cacy

Aevelopmental Stages of 'odelingand Self-e*cacy



a d Se e cacy

• 5hildhood – =nfancyP Airect modeling immediately

following observation& develop self-e*cacy with control over environment

– Jy age 2P Aeveloped attentional&retention and production processes tomodel behavior some time after

observation& not immediately




y

• Kdolescence – =nvolves coping with new demands

– Success depends on level of self-e*cacy

established during childhood




y

• KdulthoodP 2 #eriods – Roung adulthoodP

• Kd1ustmentsP 5areer& marriage& parenthood

• .igh self-e*cacy to ad1ust successfully

– 'iddle adulthoodP• Kd1ustmentP Ceevaluate career& family life

• 0eed to Qnd opportunities to continue to

enhance self-e*cacy




y

• Hld ageP – Aecline in mental/physical function&

retirement

–

Cequires reappraisal of abilities – Jelief in ability to perform a tas( is (ey

throughout the lifespan

Kpplication of Social 9earning "heoryP Jehavior 'odiQcation



y

• ears and phobias – 3uided participationP Hbserve and

imitate

–

5overt modelingP =maginal• Knxiety

– ear of medical treatment

–

"est anxiety

Kssessment of JanduraDs "heoryPSelf-e*cacy



y

• Kge and gender di!erences• #hysical appearance

• Kcademic performance

• 5areer choice and 1ob performance• #hysical health

• 'ental health

• 5oping with stress

Assessent o( 'an$"ra,s Theor*:



"elevision and Kggressive Jehaviors

• Celationship between watchingviolence and imitating violence

Assessent o( 'an$"ra,s Theor*

• StrengthsP – ocus on observable behavior- research

support

– #ractical application to real-worldproblems

– 9arge-scale changes



T=n psychology we havewholes which& instead ofbeing the sum of parts

existing independently& give

their parts speciQc functionsor properties that can only

be deQned in relation to thewhole in questionT

T=n psychology we havewholes which& instead ofbeing the sum of parts

existing independently& give

their parts speciQc functionsor properties that can only

be deQned in relation to thewhole in questionT

:olfgang F\hlerP.uman #erception $9aperception humaine&

+?4@%

0ESTALTPS.C/OLO0.



PS.C/OLO0.

"he term MgestaltN means MformN or

MconQgurationN #roponents are 'ax :ertheimer&:olfgang Fohler and Furt Fof(a "hey studied perception and

concluded that perceivers $or

learners% were not passive& but ratheractive

0ESTALT PRICIPLES



Law of Proximity

Law of Similarity

Law of Closure

Law of Good Continuation

Law of Good Pragnanz

Law of Figure / Ground



Law of

Proximity

Eleentsthat are closer

together 6ill&e 1erceive$as a coherent

o&ect;

Law of



Law of

Similarity Eleentsthat loo7

siilar 6ill &e

1erceive$ as1art o( thesae (or;

Law of



Law of

Closure <e ten$ to

9ll the ga1s orGcloseH the

9g"res 6e1erceive;

Law of GoodContinuation



In$ivi$"alshave the

ten$enc* tocontin"econto"rs

6henever theeleents o(the 1atternesta&lish an

i1lie$$irection;

L f G d



Law of Good

Pragnanz

The sti"l"s6ill &e

organiJe$ intoas goo$ a9g"re as1ossi≤

Law of



Law ofFigure /Ground

<e ten$ to1a* attention

an$ 1erceivethings in the(oregro"n$

9rst;

0estalt Princi1les an$the Teaching-Learning

Process



N"rt Le6in

GAn in$ivi$"al hasinner an$ o"ter

(orces that a%ecthis 1erce1tions

an$ also hislearning;H

Inner Forces



Motivation Attit"$es

Feelings

O"ter(orces



Attit"$e 'ehavior

'HA9E +4



'HA9E +4

=0HC'K"=H0 #CH5ESS=03



'RUER8SCOSTRUCTIVIST

T/EOR.

eroe 'r"nerBorn in +ew *ork $ity, ,ctober # .. He



y, #

received his "!0! degree from (uke %niversity in.12 and his )h!( in .32 from 4arvard.

He was on the faculty in the

(epartment of )sychology at 4arvard

%niversity from .5-.25. Next, he was at

,xford from .25-.67. ater, he !oinedthe +ew *ork %niversity of Law.

eroe 'r"nerIn .87, he "u#lished The )rocess of

Ed i l d % # % hi h l d h



Education$ a landmar% #oo% which led to much

ex"erimentation and a #road range of educational

"rograms in &'()*s.

Howard +ardner and other young

researchers wor%ed under Bruner and were much

influenced #y his wor%.

In the early 27s, he left Harvard to teachin %niversity of ,xford for several years. He

returned to 4arvard in .2..

h % l

09%+E9'S :"+ $,+$E)TS



-hree ways to re"resent %nowledge

S"iral Curriculum

rinci"les of instruction #y Bruner

Discovering earningFour ma!or as"ects that should address in

theory of instruction

Four things a#out o#!ect

Several /inds of Categories

4; Enactive Re1resentation

Three ;ays to 9epresent <nowledge



0t the earliest ages, children learn a#out theworld through actions on "hysical o#!ects andthe outcomes of these actions.

; Iconic Re1resentation

-his second stage is when learning can #eo#tained through using models and "ictures.

; S*&olic

Re1resentationIn this third stage, the learner hasdevelo"ed the a#ility to thin% in a#stractterms.

S1iral C"rric"l"



-eachers must revisit the curriculum

#y teaching the same content in

different ways de"ending on students*

develo"mental levels.



)rinciples of

instruction by

0runer

Rea$iness



Instruction must #e concerned with

the ex"eriences and contexts that

ma%e the student willing and a#le to

learn.

S1iral OrganiJation



Instruction must #e structured so

that it can #e easily gras"ed #y the

student.

0oing 'e*on$ the



In(oration 0ivenInstruction should #e designed to

facilitate extra"olation and or fill inthe ga"s.

Discovering Learning



1efers to o#taining %nowledge for

oneself.

=our ma>or



>

aspects that

should address

in theory of

i i

Pre$is1osition to Learn



He introduced the ideas of

2readiness for learning.3

Str"ct"re o( Nno6le$ge



-he ways in which a #ody of

%nowledge can #e structured so that it

can #e most readily gras"ed #y the

learner.

E%ective Se"encing



No one se4uencing will fit every

learner, #ut in general, the lesson can

#e "resented in increasing difficulty.

Rein(orceent



1ewards and "unishment should #e

selected and "aced a""ro"riately.



=our thingsabout ob>ect

Criterial Attri&"tes



1e4uired characteristics for

inclusion of an o#!ect in a category.



<eight to vario"s



1ro1erties-he third rule assigns weight to

various "ro"erties.

Sets acce1tance liits



on the attri&"tes-he fourth rule sets acce"tance

limits on attri#utes.



Several <indsof $ategories

I$entit* Categories



Categories include o#!ects #ased on

their attri#utes or features.

E"ivalent Categories



54uivalence can #e determined #y

affective criteria, which render

o#!ects e4uivalent #y emotional

reactions, functional criteria, #ased on

related functions.

Co$ing S*stes



Categories that serve to recogni6e

sensory in"ut.

R 8 S T I



R U - E

R

C O - S

T R U C

V I S T

E O R .

-he "rinci"les of Bruner launched

the notion that "eo"le inter"ret world



the notion that "eo"le inter"ret world

mostly in terms of similarities in

differences. -his is a valua#lecontri#ution to how individuals

construct their own models or view ofthe world.

David P Ausubel was born in 1918

Davi$ A"s"&el : Meaning("l Ver&alLearning 3 S"&s"1tion Theor*



David P. Ausubel was born in 1918

Grew up in Brooklyn, NY

Attended the niversity o! Pennsylvania, takin" the

pre#$edi%al %ourse and $a&orin" in Psy%holo"y

=n +?84 he retired from academic life to devote full timeto his psychiatric practice

.is principal interests in psychiatry have been generalpsychopathology& ego development& drug addiction& and

forensic psychiatry

=n +?87 he received the "horndi(e Kward from theKmerican #sychological Kssociation for TAistinguished#sychological 5ontributions to EducationT

=ntroduction



-Supported the theory that pupils form organise (nowledge by themselves

-Emphasi)ed the importance of verballearning / language-related learningwhich he consider to be very e!ectivefor pupils of the age ++ or +2 above



-#upils gradually learn to associatenew (nowledge with existingconcepts in their mental structures

-"o ensure meaningful teaching&necessary to avoid rote memorisingof facts #upils need to manipulateideas actively

Kdvance Hrgani)er



-#resents an overview of theinformation to be covered in detailduring the exposition that follows

-5an be classiQed P exposition orcomparison type

Kdvance Hrgani)er of theExposition "ype



-:hile presenting new material

-se beginning of lesson

-#resents several encompassinggeneralisations where detailedcontents will be added later

Kdvance Hrgani)er of the 5omparison "ype

-seful when the (nowledge to be



seful when the (nowledge to be

presented is new to pupils-5ompares new material with (nowledge

already (nown by emphasising thesimilarities between 2 types of material

showing the information that is to belearnt

-KusubelDs teaching approach isdeductive in nature

S 4 "h h

Step ,P"he pupils studyspeciQc examples

S#E5==5



Step 4P"he teacherpresents examples

KAGK05E HC3K0=IEC

3E0ECK9

Step 2P"he teacherexplains important terms

Step +P"he teacherpresents general statement

or abstraction of lesson

Aeductive "eaching 'odelP Kdvance Hrgani)er as thebasis of the lesson

K concerned with howstudents learn large amountsof meaningful material fromverbal/textual presentationsin a learning activities

9earning is based on therepresentational&superordinate andcombinatorial processesthat occur during thereception of information



Meaning("lRece1tion

Learning Theor*

reception of information

K primary process in learningis s"&s"1tion in whichnew material is related torelevant ideas in the existing

cognitive structure on a non-verbatim basis $previous(nowledge%

'eaningful learning resultswhen new information isacquired by lin(ing the new

information in the learner>sown cognitive structure

A"s"&el,s Meaning("l Learning

The 1rocesses o( eaning("llearning



Kusubel proposed four processes bywhich meaningful learning can occur P

Aerivative subsumption

5orrelative subsumption

Superordinate learning

5ombinatorial learning

Derivative subsuption

• Aescribes the situation in which the new information



pupils learn is an instance or example of a conceptthat pupils have already learned

E2a1le ?Stage 4 :

PREVIOUS NO<LED0E : Let8s s"11ose Ali

have ac"ire$ a &asic conce1t s"ch as treeH have green leave &ranch (r"its

Ali learn a&o"t a 7in$ o( tree that he havenever seen &e(ore G1ersion treeH -con(ors to his 1revio"s "n$erstan$ing o(

Gtree,, /is ne6 7no6le$ge o( 1ersion trees isattache$ to the conce1t o( tree 6itho"ts"&stantiall* altering that conce1t in an*6a*

Correlative subsuption

more TvaluableT learning than that of derivative



more TvaluableT learning than that of derivativesubsumption& since it enriches the higher-levelconcept

E2a1le ?Stage :

•o6 let8s s"11ose Ali enco"nter a ne67in$ o( tree that has re$ leaves rather

than green

• Accoo$ate this ne6 in(oration Alihave to alter or e2ten$ *o"r conce1t o(

Gtree,, to incl"$e the 1ossi&ilit* o( re$leaves

!uperor"inate learning

E2a1le ?Stage :



=n this case& you already (new a lot of examples ofthe concept& but you did not (now the concept itselfuntil it was taught to pupils

• Ali 6as 6ell ac"ainte$ 6ith a1les oa7sa11le trees etc; &"t 1"1ils still $i$ not

7no6 "ntil the* 6ere ta"ght that these6ere all e2a1les o( $eci$"o"s trees

Cobinatorial learning

E2a1le ?Stage :



• =t describes a process by which the new idea is derivedfrom another idea that is comes from his previous(nowledge $in a di!erent& but related& TbranchT%

• Students could thin( of this as learning by analogy

•Ali learn a&o"t o$i9cation on the 1lants1art Ali ight relate it to 1revio"sl*

ac"ire$ 7no6le$ge o( ho6 1a1*r"s tree"se$ to 1ro$"ce 1a1er

%rinci&le' o A#'#(el)'

Meanin"#l Rece&*ion

Learnin" Theor+ wi*hin a

cla''room 'e**in"


Meanin"#l Rece&*ion


cla''room 'e**in"



• 0eneral i$eas o( a s"&ect ?general stateent: – M"st &e 1resente$ 9rst – then 1rogressivel* $i%erentiate$ in ters o(

$etail an$ s1eci9cit*;

• Instr"ctional aterials : – sho"l$ atte1t to integrate ne6 aterial 6ith

1revio"sl* 1resente$ in(oration – Using co1arisons an$ cross-re(erencing o(

ne6 an$ ol$ i$eas;

cla''room 'e**in""


Meanin"#l Rece&*ion


cla''room 'e**in"


Meanin"#l Rece&*ion


cla''room 'e**in"



• A$vance organiJers : – Instr"ctors sho"l$ incor1orate a$vance

organiJers 6hen teaching a ne6 conce1t

• E2a1les : – Instr"ctors sho"l$ "se a n"&er o( e2a1les

an$ (oc"s on &oth siilarities an$ $i%erences;

cla''room 'e**in""



The ostiportant singlefactor in#uencing

learning is whatthe learner

alrea"y $nows..

0agnQ,s Con$itionso( Learning



<hat islearning=

• 3agn] believed that an external observercould recogni)e learning by noting behavioralchanges that remains persistent over time$3agn]& +?8,%

• .e also stated that maturation is not learning

because the individual does not receivestimulation from the outside environment$3agn]& +?8,%

• 9earning has two parts& one that is external to

o( Learning

3agn^Ds 5onditions of9earning



5onditions of 9earning

•



•

9earning is an important causal factor indevelopment

• .uman learning is cumulative9earning of certain s(ills contributes to the

learning of more complex s(ills• .uman learning is both complex and

diverse

• 9earning is set of cognitive processes thattransforms the stimulation from theenvironment into capabilities

3agneDs #rinciple



ive Garieties of 9earning



"he Qve varieties of9earning



0ine =nstructional Events+ 3aining attention $reception%

2 =nforming learners of the ob1ectives



$expectancy%4 Stimulating recall of prior learning

$retrieval%

, #resenting the stimulus $selective

perception%6 #roviding learning guidance $semantic

encoding%

7 Eliciting performance $responding%

8 #roviding feedbac( $reinforcement%< Kssessing performance $retrieval%

? Enhancing retention and transfer$generali)ation%

5H0S"C5"=G=S'PF0H:9EA3E



Constr"ctivis- is a theory of learning based on the

idea that learnerDs construct(nowledge for themselves

5H0"C5"=H0/5H05E#" 9EKC0=03



":H G=E:S H5H0S"C5"=G=S'



=0A=G=AK9 5H0S"C5"=G=S' $5H30="=GE 5H0S"C5"=G=S'%- it emphasi)es individual& internal

construction of (nowledgeSH5=K9 5H0S"C5"=G=S'- it emphasi)es that (nowledge exists in

a social context and is initially sharedwith others



5.KCK5"EC=S"=5S H5H0S"C5"=G=S'

+ 9earners construct understanding2 0ew learning depends on current

understanding4 9earning is facilitated by social

interaction

HC3K0=I=03



F0H:9EA3E#eople store (nowledge in

many di!erent ways5H05E#"S- is a way of grouping or

categori)ing ob1ects or eventsin our mind

5oncepts as feature lists- involves learning speciQc features that



characteri)e positive instance of theconcept

AE=0=03 EK"CE- characteristics

present in all instances 5HCCE9K"=H0K9 EK"CE- is one

that is present in many positive instances

but not essential for conceptmembership

5oncepts as prototypes



prototype- is an idea or avisual image of a MtypicalexampleN

5oncepts as exemplars

exemplars- represent avariety of examples

S5.E'K



- is an organi)ed body of (nowledgeabout something

S5C=#"- is a schema that includes a series of

predictable events about a speciQc

activity

:hat is transfer of learning;

• M"ransfer of learning is about how teachers



gwant their students to apply the (nowledge andthe s(ills they learn in class to other situationN

"ransfer of learning is aboutU• :hen one recogni)es a situation as somethingsimilar in a way to what he has learned before&

his tendency is to use the (nowledge and s(illshe has learned to this situation



"CK0SEC H 9EKC0=03

"R#ES H9EKC0=03

5H0A="=H0S K0A#C=05=#9ES H

9EKC0=03

• .appens when learning in one



context or with one set of materialsa!ects performance in anothercontext or with other related

materials

• =t is applying to another situation

what was previously learned

• "he circumstance of learning di!ers



signiQcantly from situations whenwhat is learned is to be applied

•

"he educational goals are not metuntil transfer occurs that>s whytransfer of learning is a veryimportant aspect of instruction

• #ositive transfer

occurs when learning in one context improvesperformance in some other context



• 0egative transfer

Cefers to transfer between very similarcontexts Klso referred to as speciQc transfer

• ar transfer

• Cefers to transfer between context that on

appearance seem remote and alien to oneanother Klso called as general transfer

"hese principles are based on thefactors that a!ect transfer of learningCon$itions# (actorsa%ecting trans(er

o( learningPrinci1le o(

trans(erI1lication



Similarity betweentwo learningsituations

"he more similar thetwo situations are&the greater thechances that learningfrom one situation willbe transferred to

other situation

=nvolve students inlearning situationsand tas(s that aresimilar as possible tothe situations wherethey would apply the

tas(

Aegree ofmeaningfulness/relevance of learning

'eaningful learningleads to greatertransfer than rotelearning

Cemember to provideopportunities forlearners to lin( newmaterial to what they

learned in the past9ength ofinstructional time

"he longer the timespent in instruction&the greater theprobability of transfer

"o ensure transfer&teach a few topics indepth rather thanmany topics tac(ledin a shallow manner

Con$itions# (actors

a%ecting trans(er o(learning

Princi1le o( trans(er I1lication

Gariety of learningexperiences

Exposure to manyexamples andopportunities for

=llustrate new conceptsand principles with avariety of examples



practice to encouragetransfer

#lan activities thatallow your learners topractice their newlylearned s(ills

5ontext for learnerDs

experiences

"ransfer of learning is

most li(ely to happenwhen learners discoverthat what they learnedis applicable to variouscontexts

Celate topic in one

sub1ect in one sub1ectto topics in othersub1ects or disciplinesCelate it also to real lifesituation

ocus on principles

rather than tas(

#rinciples transfer

easier that facts

Iero in on principles

related to each topictogether with strategiesbased on thoseprinciple s

Emphasis onmetacognition

Student reectionimproves transfer of

Encourage students tota(e responsibility for



MODULE 4BFacilitating Learning an$'loo,s Ta2ono*,s o(

O&ectives

9evels of JloomDs "axonomy



Fnowledge 5omprehension

Kpplication Knalysis Synthesis

Evaluation

Fnowledge•



remembering•'emori)ing

•Cecogni)ing

•

Cecalling identiQcation and•Cecall of information

5omprehension

•



=nterpreting• "ranslating from one medium to

another

•

Aescribing in ones own words• Hrgani)ation and selection of facts

and ideas



Kpplication• #roblem solving

• Kpplying information to producesome result

• se of facts& rules and principles



Knalysis• Subdividing something to show how it is

put together• inding the underlying structure of a

communication

• =dentifying motives

• Separation of a whole into component parts



Synthesis

•5reating a unique& original productthat may be in verbal form or may bea physical ob1ect

•

5ombination of ideas to form a newwhole



Evaluation• 'a(ing value decisions about issues

•

Cesolving controversies ordi!erences of opinion

• Aevelopment of opinions& 1udgements or decisions

E!ective Yuestioning "echniques



• #ose the question Qrst& before as(inga student to respond

• Kllow plenty of Mthin( timeN bywaiting at least 8-+@ seconds beforeexpecting students to respond

•

( i ll d h



'a(e sure you give all students theopportunity to respond rather thanrelying on volunteers

• .old students accountable by

expecting& requiring& and facilitatingtheir participation and contributions

• Establish a safe atmosphere for ris(

ta(ing by guiding students in theprocess of learning from their mista(es

"orranceDs 5reativity ramewor( "orranceDs 5reativity ramewor(



• Mfather of 5reativityN

• Mprofessor of emeritusN

of educationalpsychology

• "he M"orrance "ests of

5reative "hin(ingN

• Mfather of 5reativityN

• Mprofessor of emeritusN

of educationalpsychology

• "he M"orrance "ests of

5reative "hin(ingN

•

' i hi

FLUEC.



'any responses within a category=or example?

UtypingstylesUtypingstyles

Utyping stylesUtyping styles



Utyping styles

•

S hi hif i h i d

FLEI'ILIT.



Stretching or shifting the mind togenerate a variety of categories

=or example?

Utyping si)esUtyping si)es


Utyping casesUtyping cases

•

Kddi d t il f i t t

ELA'ORATE



Kdding details for interest orclarity=or example?

:hat speciQc idea willma(e the idea easier to

understand or more

interestinginteresting

•

i id th t l t

ORI0IALIT.



nique ideas that are relevant&but not obvious

=or example?

Jeginning of Mthe greatestN tea [ ;

Aesign a new ______ that is better than the

one you have



Creative Pro&leSolving

7s#orn*s Chec%list the origin of ClassicalBrainstorming is the root of creative"ro#lem solving 8CS9.

•

K b i l f ' i t i i b ild



K basic rule of 'rainstoring is buildonto ideas already suggested Ale2Os&orn& the originator of classicalbrainstorming& Qrst communicated

this K chec(list was formulated as ameans of transforming an existingidea into a new one "he chec(list is

designed to have a exible& trial anderror type of approach

"he 5hec(listP "he 5hec(listP

• Kdapt; =s there anything else li(e this; :hatd thi t ll ; = th t bl ;



does this tell you; =s the past comparable;

• 'odify; 3ive it a new angle; Klter the colour&sound& odour& meaning& motion& and shape;

•

'agnify; 5an anything be added& time&frequency& height& length& strength; 5an itbe duplicated& multiplied or exaggerated;

• 'inify; 5an anything be ta(en away; 'ade

smaller; 9owered; Shortened; 9ightened;Hmitted; Jro(en up;

• Substitute; Ai!erent ingredients used; Hther

material; Hther processes; Hther place; Hther



material; Hther processes; Hther place; Htherapproach; Hther tone of voice; Someone else;

• Cearrange; Swap components; Klter the pattern&sequence or layout; 5hange the pace or

schedule; "ranspose cause and e!ect;• Ceverse; Hpposites; Jac(wards; Ceverse roles;

5hange shoes; "urn tables; "urn other chee(; "ranspose `L/-`;

• 5ombine; 5ombine units& purposes& appeals orideas; K blend& alloy& or an ensemble;

5lassical Jrainstorming5lassical Jrainstorming• Kvoid criticising ideas / suspend 1udgement Kll

ideas are as valid as each other

• 9isten to other ideas& and try to piggy bac( on

them to other ideas



them to other ideas• ree-wheeling Aon>t censor any ideas& (eep the

meeting ow going

• Kvoid any discussion of ideas or questions& asthese stop the ow of ideas

• 3enerate ideas - either in an unstructured way$anyone can say an idea at any time% or structure$going round the table& allowing people to pass ifthey have no new ideas%

• 5larify and conclude the session =deas that areidentical can be combined& all others should be(ept =t is useful to get a consensus of which ideas

Th f ll i b d &Th f ll i b d &



The following# based on &an@undy A.66sB description# isa very brief skeleton of a

very rich process# showing itin its full C8 x 5 stages form

The following# based on &an@undy A.66sB description# isa very brief skeleton of a

very rich process# showing itin its full C8 x 5 stages form

• Stage 1: ess !nding: Sensitise yourself$scan& search% for issues $concerns&challenges& opportunities& etc% that need tobe tac(led



– Aivergent techniques include `:ouldnDt =t Je 0ice=fUD $:=J0=% and `:ouldnDt =t Je Kwful =fUD $:=JK=%– 'RAISTORMI0 to identify desirableoutcomes& and obstacles to be overcome

– 5onvergent techniques include the identiQcationof hotspots $ .ighlighting %& expressed as a list of=::'s $`=n :hat :ays 'ightUD%& and selection interms of ownership criteria $eg problem-ownerDs

motivation and ability to inuence it% and outloo(criteria $eg urgency& familiarity& stability%

• Stage 2: "ata !nding: 3ather informationabout the problem – Aivergent techniques include ive :s and .

$:ho :hy :hat :hen :here and .ow% and

http://www.mycoted.com/Brainstorming

http://www.mycoted.com/Highlighting


http://www.mycoted.com/Brainstorming



$:ho& :hy& :hat& :hen& :here and .ow% andlisting of wants& sources and dataP 9ist all yourinformation `wantsD as a series of question foreach& list possible sources of answers thenfollow these up and for each source& list whatyou found

– 5onvergent techniques again includePidentifying hotspots $.ighlighting% 'ind-mapping to sort and classify the information

gathered and also restating the problem in thelight of your richer understanding of it

• Stage 3: #ro$lem !nding: convert a fu))ystatement of the problem into a broadstatement more suitable for idea Qnding –

Aivergent techniques include as(ing `:hy;D





Aivergent techniques include as(ing :hy;etc – the repeatable questions andive :>s and .

– 5onvergent techniques include .ighlighting

again& reformulation of problem-statements tomeet the criteria that they contain only oneproblem and no criteria& and selection of themost promising statement $but 0J that themental `stretchingD that the activity gives to

the participants can be as important as theactual statement chosen%

• Stage 4: %dea &inding: generate as manyideas as possible – Aivergence using any of a very wide range of

idea generating techniques "he general rules

http://www.mycoted.com/Five_Ws_and_H

http://www.mycoted.com/Five_Ws_and_H



idea-generating techniques "he general rulesof 5lassic Jrainstorming $such as deferring

1udgement% are li(ely to under-pin all of these

– 5onvergence can again involve hotspots or

mind-mapping& the combining of di!erentideas& and the short-listing of the mostpromising handful& perhaps with some thoughtfor the more obvious evaluation criteria& butnot over-restrictively

• Stage ': Solution !nding: 3enerate andselect obvious evaluation criteria $using an

i / t ti l % d d l

http://www.mycoted.com/Classic_Brainstorming

http://www.mycoted.com/Classic_Brainstorming



expansion/contraction cycle% and develop$which may include combining% the short-listed ideas from =dea inding as much as

you can in the light of these criteria "henopt for the best of these improved ideas$eg using 5omparison tables%

• Stage (: cceptance !nding: .ow can thesuggestion you have 1ust selected be made up to

standard and put into practice; Shun negativity



standard and put into practice; Shun negativity&and continue to apply deferred 1udgement –problems are exposed to be solved& not todishearten progress Kction plans are better

developed in small groups of 2 – 4 rather than ina large group $unless you particularly wantcommitment by the whole group% #articularly for`peopleD problems it is often worth developingseveral alternative action plans

H ther model for #roem

Solving

•

JranfordDs =AEK9 model



Jranford s =AEK9 model – Identify the #roblem

–DeQne the problem

–

Explore solutions –Act on the strategies

–Loo( bac( and evaluate the e!ects of your

activity



GMeaning an$ T*1es

o( MotivationH

Motivation

is an inner drive that causes you toP



• do something

• persevere at something

•

energi)es you to do something• initiate

• direct

•

become intense• persistence of behavior

GIn$icator,s o( a /igh Level o(MotivationH

She/he ta(es the initiative to underta(e learning



She/he ta(es the initiative to underta(e learningtas(s& assignments and pro1ects without beingpushed by his/her teachers and parents

She/he has goals to accomplish and dreams toreali)e

She/he is convinced that accomplishing the

things she/he as(ed is to accomplish in classhelps her/him reali)e the goals she/he has set forherself/himself and their dream in life

In$icator,s o( a /igh Level o(MotivationH

She/he willing to give up the satisfaction of

immediate goals for the sa(e of morei t t t l K l i h /h



immediate goals for the sa(e of moreimportant remote goals Kn example is she/heis willing to give up 1oining her/his bar(ada towatch a movie in order to prepare thoroughly

for Qnal examinations

She/he persists and perseveres in her/hisstudies even when things turn out to be

di*cult

She/he does not give up easily

In contrast an "notivate$



In contrast an "notivate$st"$ent:

• does not en1oy learning• does not study unless pushed

• easily gives up

• lac(s of perseverance

GT*1es o( MotivationH



• Intrinsic Motivation – the source ofmotivation is from within the person

herself/himself or the activity itself

• %&aple' K student reads

poc(etboo(s because it is en1oyable

• E2trinsic Motivation – the source ofmotivation is something outside

herself/himself or the rewards and



herself/himself or the rewards andincentives

• %&aple'K student studies becauseshe/he was told by her/his teacher or

because she/he is afraid to fail andher/his parents ma(es her/him stop

schooling

GT*1e o( Motivation 6hichis

More 'ene9cialH



=t is obviously that intrinsicmotivation is more beneQcial

because it comes from within theperson and it is not after theincentives or rewards =t is shown in

the en1oyment of the activity itselfand the inner conviction of thelearner that such things are the right

GThe Role o( E2trinsic MotivationH

• Extrinsic 'otivation factors



Extrinsic 'otivation factorsincludeP

• Cewards

• =ncentives

• #raises or words ofencouragements

• Kpproval of signiQcant others li(eteachers& parents& peer group

O11osites:

•

#unishment



#unishment• :ithdrawal

• #rivileges

• 5ensure

• Hstracism

:e may begin employing

extrinsic motivation at the startb t thi h ld f d



extrinsic motivation at the startbut this should fade away asthe students get intrinsically

motivated themselves =t playsa signiQcant role in thedevelopment of motivated

students



GTheories on Factors

A%ectingMotivationH

Factors A%ecting



Factors A%ectingMotivation

these are the elements thatcontributes to a particular

result that a!ects motivation

Attri&"tion Theor*

- explains that we attribute our successes or

failures or other events to several factors. For

instance you attribute your popularity to your



instance, you attribute your popularity to your popular parents or to your own sterling

academic performance. Or you attribute the

poor economic condition you are in to the LandReform of the Phil. Govt. !your lands were

sub"ected to land reform# or to the vices of your

father. $hese attributions differ from oneanother in three ways % locus, stability, and

controllability !Ormsrod, &''(#.

Locus !)place*#+ nternal vs. external.

f your student traces his good grade to



f your student traces his good grade tohis ability and to his wor-, he attributes

his good grade to internal factors. f your

student, however, claims that his goodgrade is due to the effective teaching of

his teacher or to the adeuate library

facilities, he attributes his good grades to

factors external to himself.

Stability /table vs. unstable.

f you attribute your poor eyesight to what

you have inherited from your parents, then

you are attributing the cause of your sic-ness



you are attributing the cause of your sic-ness

to something stable, something that cannot

change because it is in your genes. f you

attribute it to excessive watching of tv, then

you are claiming that your poor eyesight is

caused by an unstable factor, something that

can change. !0ou can prolong or shorten your

period of watching tv#.

Controllability: 1ontrollable vs.uncontrollable.

f your student claims his poor academic

performance is due to his teachers in



performance is due to his teacher s in2

effective teaching strategy, he attributes his

poor performance to a factor beyond his

control. f, however, your student admits that

his poor class performance is due to his poor

study habits and low motivation, he attributes

the event to factors which are very much

within his control.



Theories on Factors

A%ecting Motivation

Kttribution "heory

• Explains that we attribute oursuccesses or failures or other events



successes or failures or other eventsto several factors

4 :ays of Kttribution from HneKnother

+% 9ocus MplaceNP =nternal vs external

2% StabilityP Stable vs unstable



2% StabilityP Stable vs unstable

4% 5ontrollabilityP 5ontrollable vsuncontrollable

.ow does attribution a!ect

motivation;

Self-e*cacy "heory

• =s the belief that one has thenecessary capabilities to perform a



necessary capabilities to perform atas(& fulQll role expectations&or meeta challenging situation successfully

Self-e*cacy enhancingstrategiesP• 'a(e sure students master the basic

s(ills



s(ills

• .elp them ma(e noticeable progresson di*cult tas(s

• 5ommunicate conQdence instudentsD abilities through bothwords and actions

• Expose them to successful peers

Self-determination and regulationtheories

• Students are more li(ely to beintrinsically motivated when they



intrinsically motivated when theybelieve they can determine theirlearning goals and regulate their

learning

.ow to enhance studentsD sense of self-determination about school activities;



Self Cegulation



5hoice "heory

• =t is a biological theory that suggestswe are born with speciQc needs that



we are born with speciQc needs thatwe are genetically instructed tosatisfy

our Jasic #sychological0eeds



Maslo6,s /ierarch* o( ee$s



3oal "heory



Learning 0oal vs; Per(orance 0oal

9EKC0=03 3HK9

• K Mdesire to acquire additional (nowledge

or master new s(illsN



#ECHC'K05E 3HK9

• K Mdesire to loo( good and receive

favorable 1udgments from others or elseloo( bad and receive unfavorable 1udgments

Self-determined 3oals

• :hen the lesson ob1ectives arerelevant to the life of students& then



&students turn out to be moremotivated to learn

3oal Setting

'a1or ElementsP

+ 3oal acceptance



+ 3oal acceptance

2 SpeciQcity

4 5hallenge, #erformance monitoring

6 #erformance feedbac(

Lesson O&ectives "st &e:

S - sart&l



S sartM - eas"ra&le

A - attaina&le

R - res"lt-oriente$

T - tie-&o"n$



• Students are more li(ely to beintrinsically motivated when they are



y ymotivated towards deep mastery of atopic& instead of 1ust rote-learning

performance to get good grades

StudentsDdi ersit in



Studentsdiversity in

motivation

:hat are the factors that



:hat are the factors thatinuences studentsmotivation;

Students who& by themselves arealready as diverse& also di!er in

motivation"hese diversity in motivation may



"hese diversity in motivation maybe traced to di!erences in age&developmental stage& gender& socio-

economic and cultural bac(ground

.ow these factors



.ow these factorsinuences studentDs

motivation;

Hur class is a conglomerate ofstudents with varying ages& andgender and cultural and

socioeconomic bac(ground"heir motivational drives reect the



"heir motivational drives reect theelement of the culture in which theygrow up – family& their friends& school&

boo(s and even church "o motivate all of them for learning&

it is best to employ di!erentiated

approaches

Ks the adage goes

MAi!erent fol(s& di!erent



&stro(esN

meaning

:hat is medicine for one may

be poison to others

"here are two principles toconsider regarding social andcultural inuences on motivation

+ Students are most li(ely to model



+Students are most li(ely to modelthe behaviors they believe are

relevant to their situation2Students develop greater e*cacyfor a tas( when they see othersli(e themselves performing thetas( successfully$Hrmrod& 2@@,%

+ Students need models who aresimilar to themselves in terms of

race& cultural bac(ground&socioeconomic status gender and $



socioeconomic status& gender& and $if applicable% disability$Hrmrod&2@@,%

2 =t must be good to expose ourstudents to models of their age andto models who come from similarcultural& socioeconomicbac(grounds

Ao we have to limit ourselvesto live models;

0ot necessaril :e can ma(e



0ot necessarily :e can ma(eour students read biographies and

autobiographies of successfulindividuals who were in situationssimilar to them

'HA9E 2,.uman Environmental actors K!ecting 'otivation



The Classroo

cliate#oints to #onder



cliate#oints to #onder

+:hat is a classroom

climate that facilitateslearning;

2 :hat ta(es place in aclassroom where a business-

-

:hat is a classroom;=t is a physical space where

learning is facilitated =t is a place



g pwhere classes meet

:hat is climate;=t is the prevailing inuence or

environmental conditionscharacteri)ing a group or period =tis synonymous to atmosphere

:hat is a classroom climate;

"he classroom climate is more a product

of the interaction between and amongteacher and students than that of the



teacher and students than that of thephysical condition of the classroom

"he physical condition of the classroommay exert an inuence on the socialinteraction among the personalities in

class but it may not contribute as muchas the classroom social interaction does

3oing bac( to question number +P

:hat then is the classroomclimate that is conducive for



climate that is conducive forlearning;

- is one that is non-threatening yetbusiness-li(e

=n answering question number 2P

:hat ta(es place in a



:hat ta(es place in aclassroom where a business-

li(e and a non-threateningatmosphere prevail;

=t is a classroom whereP

•rules and procedure are discussedon the Qrst day of class



on the Qrst day of class

• students are involved in the design

of rules and procedures• techniques to ac(nowledge and

reinforce acceptable behavior and

provide negative consequences areemployed

• clear limits for unacceptablebehavior are established

• there is a healthy balancebetween dominance and



cooperation

• the teacher is aware of the needsof di!erent types of students

• the teacher is fully aware of thehappenings in class and

• studentsD responsibility for their

own behavior is enhanced

"o summari)e

+ "he classroom climate is a by-productof the social interaction between and

among teacher and students2 "h d i l li t i



2 "he conducive classroom climate isone that is business-li(e yet non-

threatening4 =t is a (ind of classroom whereP

a expectations& rules and procedures&limits on behavior are made from thevery Qrst day of school

b the teacher& who is the leader& is

fully aware of what is happeningand is in control of the classroom



and proceedings and yet conveysthe message that he/she is

interested in the concerns of thestudents as an individual and theclass as a whole

c students are responsible fortheir own behavior

The )hysical Learning



The )hysical Learning

Environment" conducive physical learning

environment is one thatD



0llows maximum interaction #etweenteacher and student and among

students.0llows student movement without

unnecessary distraction.0llows teacher to survey the

whole class. It is safe, clean, orderly



It is wellventilated, s"acious,

and ade4uately lighted It ma%es "ossi#le re

arrangement of chairs as the

need arises.

"ssessment for Learning"SSESS:E+T is #asically the

"rocess of gathering information a#out

the students* learning$ then analy6ing andinter"reting them for the "ur"ose of



inter"reting them for the "ur"ose ofma%ing decision.

)%9),SE ,= "SSESS:E+T &. Diagnosis:. lacement

;. 5ffectiveness of the rogram<. Student Feed#ac%=. 1esearch

9esearched-0ased )rinciple of"ssessment for Learning

"ssessment for learningD0ssessment for learning should #e



0ssessment for learning should #e"art of effective "lanning and learning

=ocuses on how students learn!0ssessment for learning should focuson how student learn.s central to classroom practice!

0ssessment of learning should #econsidered central to classroom "ractice.

s a key professional skill!0ssessment of learning should #e



0ssessment of learn ng should #econsidered as a %ey "rofessional s%illfor teachers.

s sensitive and constructive!

0ssessment of learning must #esensitive and constructive #ecause

assessment has an emotional im"act.

=,STE9 :,T&"T,+!

0ssessment of learning shouldconsider the im"ortance of learner



motivation.

)romotes understanding of goals and

criteria!0ssessment of learning should

"romote commitment to learning goals

and a shared understanding of thecriteria #y which they are assessed.

4elps learners to know to improve!

0ssessment of learning should include

constructive guidance on how learners canim"rove.



(evelops the capacity for

self-assessment!

0ssessment of learning develo"slearners* s%ills on selfassessment.

9ecognies all educational achievement!

0ssessment of learning shouldrecogni6e the full range of achievementof all learners.

Co$e o( Ethics (or Pro(essionalTeachers

PREAM'LE

Teachers are $"l* license$



1ro(essionals 6ho 1ossess $ignit* an$re1"tation 6ith high oral val"es as

6ell as technical an$ 1ro(essionalco1etence; In the 1ractice o( theirno&le 1ro(ession the* strictl* a$hereto o&serve an$ 1ractice this set o(ethical an$ oral 1rinci1les stan$ar$

an$ val"es;

Kssessment for learning is more inline with A"thentic Assessent;

Sometimes referred to as

alternative assessentauthentic assessment see(s to



directly assess student performancethrough real-life tas(s or products

ExampleP tas(s and rubrics& andportfolios

ARTICLE 4

!cope an" Liitations

Section : This Co$e covers all 1"&lic

an$ 1rivate school teachers in alle$"cational instit"tions at the



1reschool 1riar* eleentar* an$secon$ar* levels 6hether aca$eic

vocational s1ecial technical or non-(oral; The ter GteacherH shallincl"$e in$"strial art or vocationalteachers an$ all other 1ersons1er(oring s"1ervisor* an$ # or

a$inistrative ("nctions in all schoolat the a(oresai$ levels 6hether on("ll-tie or 1art-tie &asis;



Diagnosis "se$ to $eterine an*

s1ecial learning nee$ that a learner a*have

Placeent the learner can &e 1lace$ inthe &est learning environent 6here he

can &etter learn an$s $evelo1;

E%ectiveness o( the Progra can also



E%ectiveness o( the Progra can also1rovi$e $ata a&o"t ho6 a 1artic"larc"rric"l" or 1rogra is e%ective in

eeting its goals

St"$ent Fee$&ac7 "se$ toco"nicate to the learner his c"rrentlevel o( 1er(orance s1eci9call* hisstrong an$ 6ea7 1oints;

Research can also &e "se$ as a so"rceo( ver* "se("l $ata in a 6i$e rangeto1ics in the 9el$ o( e$"cational

Researche$-'ase$ Princi1les o(Assessent (or Learning

The gro"1 1ro1ose$ 4>1rinci1les; Accor$ing toth t (



the assessent (orlearning:

4; Is 1art o( e%ective 1lanning; "hereshould be an opportunity for both the learner and theteacher to use the assessment of progress in loo(ing

at the learning goals

; Foc"ses on ho6 st"$ents learn; "heteacher should understand the nature of learning



5; Is a 7e* 1ro(essional s7ill; It is vital that

teachers acquire the necessary (nowledge& s(ills andvalues about the entire assessment process

; Is central to classroo 1ractice; "eachers would come to reali)e that a lot of what they

do inside the classroom can be seen as a form ofassessment

; Fosters otivation; Kssessment shouldfocus on progress and achievement rather than failure

; Is sensitive an$ constr"ctive; Ks futureteacher& bear in mind that your comments& mar(s andgrades& as well as the manner you communicate them

to students can a!ect their self-conQdence



+; Prootes "n$erstan$ing o( goals an$

criteria; Kssessment of learning should promotecommitment to learning goals and a shared

understanding of the criteria by which they areassessed

@; /el1s learners 7no6 ho6 to i1rove;Kssessment of learning should include constructive

guidance on how learners can improve

B; Develo1s the ca1acit* (or sel(-assessent; Kssessment should allow learners

to apply metacognitive s(ills =n this way& assessmentempowers the student to ta(e a more active role in

his own learning process



4>; RecogniJes all e$"cationalachieveent; Kssessment should be able to

integrate the totality of the learnerDs achievement

(&+E 4E( @! $"0@%+0SE F E/ 1 F 99E@!



)9,=! "+"0ELL" $! @,:EG E(%$ 16 ="$LT"T,9

facilitating learning

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