Explorations in Temperament International Perspectives on Theory and Measurement

PERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

CECIL R. REYNOLDS, Texas A&M University, College Station ROBERT T. BROWN, University oj North Carolina, Wilmington

Current volumes in the series

THE CAUSES AND CURES OF CRIMINALITY Hans J. Eysenck and Gisli H. Gudjonsson

EXPLORATIONS IN TEMPERAMENT International Perspectives on Theory and Measurement

Edited by Jan Strelau and Alois Angleitner

HANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY Assessment, Research, and Theory

Edited by John A. Glover, Royce R. Ronning, and Cecil R. Reynolds

HANDBOOK OF MUL TlV ARIATE EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Second Edition

Edited by John R. Nesselroade and Raymond B. Cattell

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Edited by John A. Glover and Royce R. Ronning

THE INDIVIDUAL SUBJECT AND SCIENTIFIC PSYCHOLOGY Edited by Jaan Valsiner

LEARNING STRATEGIES AND LEARNING STYLES Edited by Ronald R. Schmeck

METHODOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

Edited by Cecil R. Reynolds and Victor L. Willson

THE NEUROPSYCHOLOGY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES A Developmental Perspective

Edited by Lawrence C. Hartlage and Cathy F. Telzrow

PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND AROUSAL Edited by Jan Strelau and Hans J. Eysenck

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY Edited by Hans J. Eysenck and Irene Martin

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Explorations in Temperament International Perspectives on Theory and Measurement

Edited by Jan Strelau University of Warsaw Warsaw, Poland

and

Alois Angleitner University of Bielefeld Bielefeld, Germany

Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

L i b r a r y o f Congress C a t a l o g i n g i n P u b l i c a t i o n D a t a

E x p l o r a t i o n s i n t e m p e r a m e n t : i n t e r n a t i o n a l perspect ives o n t h e o r y a n d measuremen t / ed i ted b y Jan S t re lau a n d A l o i s A n g l e i t n e r .

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© 1991 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Plenum Publishing Corporation in 1991 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1991

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Contributors

Manfred Amelang, Department of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, D-6900 Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany

Alois Angleitner, Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, D-4800 Biele­feld, Federal Republic of Germany

Arnold H. Buss, Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712

Stella Chess, Medical Center, New York University, New York, New York 10016

Hans J. Eysenck, Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, University of London, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom

Jochen Fahrenberg, Institute of Psychology, Albert-Ludwigs-University, D-7800 Freiburg i., Br., Federal Republic of Germany

H. H. Goldsmith, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1227

Jeffrey A. Gray, Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, University of Lon­don, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom

Charles F. Halverson, Jr., Department of Child and Family Development, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

Willem K. B. Hofstee, Department of Psychology, University of Groningen, 9712 HV Groningen, The Netherlands

Paul M. Kohn, Department of Psychology, York University, North York, Ontario M3J IP3, Canada

Jacqueline V. Lerner, Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

v

vi Contributors

Richard M. Lerner, Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

Roy P. Martin, Department of Educational Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602

Albert Mehrabian, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024

Judy Morrow, Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafa­yette, Indiana 47907

Petra Netter, Department of Psychology, University of Giessen, D-6300 Giessen, Federal Republic of Germany

Katherine Nitz, Human Development and Family Studies, Pennsylvania State Univer­sity, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

Rainer Riemann, Department of Psychology, University of Bielefeld, D-4800 Bielefeld, Federal Republic of Germany

Mary Klevjord Rothbart, Department of Psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 97403-1227

Elizabeth H. Siabach, Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

Jan Strelau, Department of Individual Differences, Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, 00-183 Warsaw, Poland

Rachna Talwar, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802

Alexander Thomas, Medical Center, New York University, New York, New York 10016

Ulrike U1lwer, Department of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, D-6900 Heidelberg, Federal Republic of Germany

Guus L. Van Heck, Department of Psychology, Tilburg University, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands

Theodore D. Wachs, Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907

Marvin Zuckerman, Department of Psychology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716

Preface

The growing interest in research on temperament during the last decade has been re­corded by several authors (e.g., R. Plomin; J. E. Bates) from such sources of informa­tion as the Social Sciences Citation Index or Psychological Abstracts. The editors' inquiry shows that the number of cases in which the term temperament was used in the title of a paper or in the paper's abstract published in Psychological Abstracts reveals an essential increase in research on temperament.

During the years 1975 to 1979, the term temperament was used in the title and/or summary of 173 abstracts (i.e., 34.6 publications per year); during the next five years (1980-1984), it was used in 367 abstracts (73.4 publications per year), whereas in the last five years (1985 to 1989), the term has appeared in 463 abstracts, that is, in 92.6 publications per year. Even if the review of temperament literature is restricted to those abstracts, it can easily be concluded that temperament is used in different contexts and with different meanings, hardly allowing any comparisons or general statements. One of the consequences of this state of affairs is that our knowledge on temperament does not cumulate despite the increasing research activity in this field.

This situation in temperament research motivated the editors to organize a one­week workshop on The Diagnosis of Temperament (Bielefeld, Federal Republic of Germany, September 1987). This was the first time that researchers representing so many disciplines (psychology, psychiatry, pediatrics, behavior genetics, neurophysiol­ogy) and the broadest spectrum of theoretical and methodological backgrounds in tem­perament research met together. Although a total of 50 temperament experts from 12 countries representing Europe (West and East), North America (the United States and Canada), and Japan were able to find a common language, the meeting also showed the lack of communication and the diversity of theoretical and methodological approaches in many areas of temperament studies.

These circumstances gave the editors the idea of compiling a volume aimed at presenting as many different theoretical and methodological approaches to temperament as possible, and this conception seems to be the most specific characteristic of Explora­tions in Temperament: International Perspectives on Theory and Measurement compared to other books recently published in this field.

Because of space limitations, we have been obliged to reduce the original number of authors as well as the length of chapters. However, the fact that we were able to

vii

viii Preface

recruit authors who are among the most competent and distinguished researchers in temperament helps to compensate for these limitations.

Originally planned as a two-volume set, Explorations in Temperament consists of two parts: the first, Contemporary Conceptualizations, and the second, Diagnosis and Methodological Issues.

It has to be stressed that Explorations in Temperament should not be regarded as an alternative title to "Proceedings from the Workshop: The Diagnosis of Temperament." Nevertheless, this meeting gave the editors the opportunity to obtain an overview of the current state of research on temperament, and-what is most important-it highly influenced the idea and content of this volume as well as the recruitment of its contribu­tors. These are just some of the reasons why we are greatly indebted to the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZIP) at the University of Bielefeld, the German Research Foundation (DFG), and the German Academic Exchange Program (DAAD), who fi­nanced the workshop.

We should also like to thank Urszula Chmurzynska for the preparation of refer­ences, Maria Stanko for extensive help in typing the manuscript, and Heide Meise for administering most of the correspondence concerned with editorial issues. Much of the editorial work was supported by a grant from the Polish Minister of Education (Grant RPBP m.25).

JAN STRELAU

ALOIS ANGLEITNER

Contents

Introduction .......••.....•...............•••...••....••... 1

Jan Strelau and Alois Angleitner

PART I. CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTUALIZATIONS

1. Temperament and the Concept of Goodness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas

The Goodness-of-Fit Concept .................................. 15 Diagnostic Fonnulation of Temperamental Categories .............. 16 Examples of Goodness and Poorness of Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Variability in the Goodness of Fit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Sociocultural Factors ......................................... 23 Other Theoretical Approaches and Goodness of Fit ................ 24 Goodness of Fit and Similarities of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Goodness of Fit, Self-Awareness, and Self-Esteem ................ 25 Generalization of the Goodness-of-Fit Model ..................... 26 Prevention and Treatment of Behavior Disorders .................. 27 Conclusion ................................................. 27

2. The Functional Significance of Organismic Individuality: The Sample Case of Temperament .............••.•.......•... 29

Rachna Talwar, Katherine Nitz, Jacqueline V. Lerner, and Richard M. Lerner

Features of a Developmental Contextual Perspective

ix

30

x Contents

Measuring the Dimensions of Temperament and of Ethnotheories of Temperamental Difficulty ................................. 32

The Dimensions of Temperament .......................... 32 Contextual Demands Regarding Temperament ................ 33

The Pennsylvania Early Adolescent Transitions Study (PEATS) ...... 36 Conclusions and Future Directions .............................. 39

3. The EAS Theory of Temperament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Arnold H. Buss

Activity .................................................... 43 Components ........................................... 43 Measures .............................................. 44 Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Learning .............................................. 46 Person and Environment ................................. 47

Emotionality ................................................ 47 Components of Fear ..................................... 48 Components of Anger ................................... 49 Measures .............................................. 49 Sex Differences .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Learning .............................................. 51 Person and Environment ................................. 52 Positive Emotionality .................................... 53

Sociability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Components ........................................... 53 Measures .............................................. 54 Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Learning .............................................. 56 Person and Environment ................................. 57

Problem Behaviors ........................................... 58 Shyness. . . .. . . . . . . . ... . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . . .. . .. . 58 Hyperactivity .......................................... 58 Difficult Children ....................................... 58

EAS Theory ................................................ 59

4. Temperament: A Developmental Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Mary Klevjord Rothbart

The Newborn Period ......................................... 62

Contents xi

Infancy .................................................... 64 The Preschool Period ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Effortful Control and Ego-Control and Resiliency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Similarities between Temperamental Dimensions Identified in Infancy

and Early Childhood and Those Identified in Adult Subjects . . . . . . . 69 A Developmental Model for Temperament ....................... 69

S. Outline of a General Emotion-Based Theory of Temperament. • • . . 75

Albert M ehrabian

Emotion States: Core Mediating Variables of the Theory ............ 76 Personality Described in Terms of Three Basic Temperament

Variables ................................................. 77 Description and Measurement of Temperament ............... 77 The Three-Dimensional Temperament Space

in Relation to Existing Personality Measures .......... . . . . . 79 Situations Described in Terms of Their Emotion-Eliciting Qualities ... 81 Hypotheses Outlining Answers to the Contemporaneous Questions ... 82 Hypotheses Outlining Answers to the Longitudinal Questions . . . . . . . . 83

6. Dimensions of Personality: The Biosocial Approach to Personality 87

Hans J. Eysenck

A Paradigm of Personality Description .......................... 87 Biological Theories of Personality .............................. 89 Problems in Theories Testing .................................. 90 EEG Studies and Personality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Electrodermal Studies of Personality ............................ 94 Miscellaneous Measures of Personality .......................... 96 Biochemical Determinants of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

7. The Neuropsychology of Temperament • • • . . . . • • . . . • • • . • • • . . . . • • 105

Jeffrey A. Gray

Some General Background .................................... 105 The Analysis of Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 106 The Model: I-The Behavioral Inhibition System ................. 109

xii Contents

The Model: II-The Fight/Flight System ........................ 114 The Model: III-The Behavioral Approach System. ... ..... ... .... 114 Personality ................................................. 122

8. Biotypes for Basic Personality Dimensions? ''The Twilight Zone" between Genotype and Social Phenotype ....................... 129

Marvin Zuckerman

Personality Traits ............................................ 130 Cognitive Affective and Behavioral Mechanisms .................. 132 Psychophysiology ............................................ 133

Autonomic Arousal and Arousability ....................... 134 Biochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135

Catecholamines (Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Epinephrine) .. 135 Benzodiazepine-GABA System .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 136 Serotonin .............................................. 137 Testosterone ........................................... 137 Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) .............................. 138

Neuropsychology ............................................ 139 Reward and Activity .................................... 139 Behavioral Inhibition .................................... 139 Emotionality ........................................... 140

Behavior Genetics ........................................... 141 Personality Traits ....................................... 141 Biological Traits ........................................ 142

Conclusions ................................................ 142

9. Biochemical Variables in the Study of Temperament: Purposes, Approaches, and Selected Findings ............................ 147

Petra Netter

Introduction ................................................ 147 Approaches to the Study of Biochemical Variables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 148 Explanation of Theories on Temperament ........................ 148

Theories Based on Psychological Observations in Humans ..... 148 Theories Based on Biochemical Observations in Animal

Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 Theories Based on Psychopathology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151

Explanation of Underlying Biochemical Processes of Psychological Functions Indicative of Differences in Temperament. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152

Contents xiii

Psychomotor Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 152 Cognitive Functions ..................................... 153 Emotional Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 153 Coping Processes ....................................... 154

Explanation of Underlying Biochemical Processes of Somatic Response Differences Related to Temperament .................. 154

Drug Responses ........................................ 154 Psychophysiological Responses ............................ 155

Detection of Psychochemical Relationships in the Development of Psychosomatic Diseases Related to Temperament. . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155

Heuristic Purposes ........................................... 156 Considerations of Validity ..................................... 156 Conclusions ................................................ 157

10. Temperament and the Person-Situation Debate ................. 163

Guus L. Van Heck

A Paradigm Crisis in Personality Psychology ..................... 163 Mischel's Attack on the Generality of Behavior ................... 163 Outcomes of the Person-Situation Debate ........................ 164 Stability of Temperament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 Transsituational Consistency of Temperament ..................... 166 Temperament and the Interactionist Approach to Personality ......... 167 "Niche Picking": Temperament and Situation Selection ............. 168 Temperament, Response Preferences, and Situation Transformation ... 169 An Illustrative Study ......................................... 170 Final Remarks .............................................. 171

11. The Concepts of Personality and Temperament ................. 177

Willem K. B. Hofstee

The Personological Twist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 177 The Alleged Circularity of Personological Explanation . . . . . . . .. 178 The Alleged Invalidity of Personological Explanation ......... 179 The Alleged Atheoretical Nature of Personological Explanations. .. 180

Temperament and Personology ................................. 181 Strelau on Temperament and Personality .................... 182 The Role of Biological Explanations ....................... 184 A Judgmental Conception of Temperament .................. 185

Conclusion ................................................. 187

xiv Contents

PART II. DIAGNOSTIC AND METHODOWGICAL ISSUES

12. What Can We Learn from the Discussion of Personality Questionnaires for the Construction of Temperament Inventories? ................................................ 191

Alois Angleitner and Rainer Riemann

Personality and Temperament: Where Are the Differences? .......... 191 How to Find the Real Temperament Traits ....................... 192 Temperament and the Item Content of Temperament Scales ......... 194 Steps in the Construction of a Temperament Scale ................. 199 The Cross-Cultural Adaptation of Temperament Scales ............. 202 Conclusions ................................................ 202

13. Questionnaire Measurement of Infant and Child Temperament: Current Status and Future Directions ......................... 205

Elizabeth H. Slabach, Judy Morrow, and Theodore D. Wachs

Introduction ................................................ 205 Reliability .................................................. 209

Internal Consistency ..................................... 209 Test-Retest Reliability ................................... 210 Stability of Temperament. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 211 Interrater and Interparent Agreement ....................... 212

Validity Issues .............................................. 213 Weak Validity Studies ................................... 214 Strong Validity Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 218

Summary and Conclusions .................................... 225 The Psychometric Adequacy of Temperament Questionnaires ... 225 The Utilization of Questionnaires .......................... 227

14. Mother-Father Agreement in Temperament Ratings: A Preliminary Investigation ••................................ 235

Roy P. Martin and Charles F. Halverson, Jr.

Method .................................................... 236 Participants ............................................ 236

Contents xv

Instrument ............................................. 237 Data Analysis Procedures ................................ 238

Results .................................................... 238 Mean Differences in Ratings of Mothers and Fathers .......... 238 Differences in Variation of Mothers' and Fathers' Ratings ...... 240 Correlations between Ratings of Mothers and Fathers . . . . . . . . .. 240 Absolute Differences between Ratings of Mother and Father .... 243 Intraclass Correlations between Ratings of Mother and Father . .. 244

Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 245

15. Contemporary Instruments for Assessing Early Temperament by Questionnaire and in the Laboratory ....................... 249

H. H. Goldsmith and Mary Klevjord Rothbart

The Infant Behavior Questionnaire .............................. 251 Development of the IBQ ................................. 251 Household Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253 Content of the IBQ ...................... i . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253 Intercorrelations Among Scale Scores ...................... 254 Theoretical Approach to Temperament ...................... 254 Stability ............................................... 255 Validation of the IBQ .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 255 Advice to Potential Users. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 257

The Toddler Behavior Assessment Questionnaire .................. 258 Rationale .............................................. 258 Construction ........................................... 258 Validity Scales ......................................... 258 Scale Definitions and Sample Items ........................ 259 Reliability and Validity .................................. 260 Relation between IBQ and TBAQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 262 Applicability ........................................... 262

Companion Instruments Developed by Rothbart ................... 263 Questionnaire for Preschoolers and Early School-Age Children.. 263 Questionnaire for Adolescents ............................. 263 Questionnaire for Adults ................................. 263 Need for Non-Questionnaire Measures ...................... 264

Behavioral Assessment of Early Temperament in the Laboratory: The Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery ................... 264

Terminology ........... :............................... 264 Physical Setting, Equipment, and Laboratory Routine ......... 265 Carryover Effects and Sequencing of Episodes ............... 265 Maternal Interview ...................................... 266

xvi Contents

Summary of Research ................................... 267 Anticipated Use ........................................ 269

Conclusion ................................................. 269

16. Reactivity and Anxiety in the Laboratory and Beyond ........... 273

Paul M. Kohn

Psychometric versus Experimental Measures of Reactivity .......... 273 Reactivity and Response to Pain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274 Reactivity, Anxiety, and Adverse Reactions to Stress ............... 278

A Psychometric Detour .................................. 279 Predicting Adverse Reactions to Stress .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 280

Overview .................................................. 283

17. Correlations between Psychometric Measures and Psychophysiological as Well as Experimental Variables in Studies on Extraversion and Neuroticism ............................. 287

Manfred Amelang and Ulrike Ullwer

Theoretical Outline, Methodological Criticisms, and Some Unresolved Questions ...................................... 287

Psychometric Studies: Pro-Eysenck Findings ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 290 Psychophysiological and Experimental Variables: A Selective

Literature Overview ........................................ 293 Multivariate Studies ..................................... 293 The "Dual Nature of Extraversion": Rediscovered . . . . . . . . . . . .. 296 Neuroticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 298

Report of a (Nearly) Comprehensive Study ....................... 300 Method ............................................... 300 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303 Discussion and Concluding Remarks ....................... 310

18. Differential Psychophysiology and the Diagnosis of Temperament............................................ 317

lochen Fahrenberg

Introduction ................................................ 317

Contents xvii

Multivariate Activation Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 318 The Search for Psychophysiological Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 320

Basic Assumptions ...................................... 320 The Psychophysiology of Neuroticism and Anxiety ........... 321 Relevant Issues in Testing Psychophysiological Trait Postulates .. 322

Generalizability of Psychophysiological Assessments ............... 323 An Extension from the Laboratory to the Field ............... 323 The First Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 324 The Second Study ...................................... 328

Conclusions ................................................ 330

PART III. ADDENDUM

19. Renaissance in Research on Temperament: Where to? ...•••••••. 337

Jan Strelau

Introduction ................................................ 337 The Last Three Decades in Studies on Temperament ............... 338 Invation of Traits (Dimensions) and Diagnostic Tools

in Temperament Research ................................... 342 One versus Many Temperament Dimensions ................. 342 The Many Traits and Cumulative Value of Temperament

Research ............................................ 343 The Structure of Temperament Needs to Be Described by Traits

Representing the Same Level of Behavior Organization ...... 343 The Temperamental Traits Less Diverse Than Names

Suggest ............................................. 344 Not All So-Called Temperament Traits Pertain

to Temperament ...................................... 344 Temperamental Traits Differ in Evidence for Heritability ....... 346 Different Temperamental Traits under the Same Label

and Differences in Their Popularity ...................... 346 Neutral Traits versus Traits with Evaluative Loading .......... 347 Uncontrolled Growth of Psychometric Methods

in Temperament Research .............................. 348 Final Remarks .............................................. 349

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 359