Respiration: › exchange of gases (O2 & CO2) essential to life

Types:1. External 2. Internal

Functions:– Acquire O2 from the environment into body

cells for metabolism– Expel CO2 as a metabolic product into the

environment– For higher vertebrates, this system aids in

language

Ventilation › Breathing› Inspiration + expiration

Inspiration› Breathing in in terms of air› Taking-in of O2-rich water for aquatic

vertebrates

Expiration› Breathing out› Expulsion of O2-rich water from the gills

This measurement served as the baseline for all subsequent measurements during the experiment. The tracing resembles a simple wave where the amplitude above the point of equilibrium (inhalation) is greater than the amplitude below (exhalation).

Relative to the normal respiratory pattern, the pattern of breathing during hyperventilation and breath holding was observed to have a larger amplitude with longer intervals after hyperventilation and shorter intervals after breath-holding.

Also, the respiratory rate after hyperventilation is less than the normal respiratory rate while the respiratory rate after breath-holding was faster than the baseline.

The observed breathing pattern was shallower compared to the normal respiratory and with a slightly faster interval in between breaths when the calculation was solved.

While reading aloud, it was observed that the waves in the kymograph were larger in amplitude and had longer intervals in between the waves or breaths. Also, irregularities were observed.

While reading silently, the breathing pattern was similar to the normal respiratory pattern.

The breathing response was a very few and shallow breaths followed by one deep breath after consuming the water.

After 100 jumping jacks, the observed breathing pattern was deep breaths at faster intervals.

Sensory neurons that are responsive to chemicals

Function: Monitor and maintain levels of CO2, O2 and H+

Types: › Central

Location: medulla oblongata in CNS Respond to changes in [H+] or PCO2 or both in cerebrospinal

fluid

› Peripheral Location: aortic (clusters at wall of aortic arch) or carotid

(oval nodules in walls of L and R common carotid arteries) bodies

Respond to changes in CO2, O2 and H+ in the blood

A body part innervated by motor neurons› x. Respiratory muscles

Muscles of inhalation Sternocleidomastoid Scalenes External intercostals

Muscles of exhalation Internal intercostals External oblique Internal oblique Transversus abdominis Rectus abdominis

EVENTS CHEMICAL STIMULI RECEPTORS CENTRAL CONTROLLER

EFFECTS

After hyperventilation

Decrease CO2 Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid

bodies

Pons –inhibit Decrease RR

After breath holding Increase CO2 Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid

bodies

Pons – stimulate Increase RR

Mental addition - Cortex More cortex / pons – inhibit

Decrease RR

Reading silently Same with normal respiratory pattern

Reading aloud / talk - Cortex More cortex / pons – inhibit

Irregular RR

Drinking H2O - Closing of epiglottis More cortex / pons – inhibit

Irregular RR to decrease RR

Exercise Increase CO2 Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid

bodies

Pons – stimulate Increase RR

Obstruction of Respiratory Passageway

Increase CO2 Peripheral chemoreceptors: aortic and carotid

bodies

Pons – stimulate Increase RR

TIDAL VOLUME (TV): Volume inspired or expired with each normal breath. The average tidal volume is 500 mL, but is less for shallow breathing.

INSPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (IRV): Maximum volume that can be inspired over the inspiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. Used during exercise/exertion. This averages 2 to 3 liters.

EXPIRATORY RESERVE VOLUME (ERV): Maximal volume that can be expired after the expiration of a tidal volume/normal breath. The average is 1 to 1.5 liters.

RESIDUAL VOLUME (RV): Volume that remains in the lungs after a maximal expiration.  CANNOT be measured by spirometry.

INSPIRATORY CAPACITY ( IC): Volume of maximal inspiration:

IRV + TV

FUNCTIONAL RESIDUAL CAPACITY (FRC): Volume of gas remaining in lung after normal expiration, cannot be measured by spirometry because it includes residual volume:

ERV + RV

VITAL CAPACITY (VC): Volume of maximal inspiration and expiration:

IRV + TV + ERV = IC + ERV

TOTAL LUNG CAPACITY (TLC): The volume of the lung after maximal inspiration.  The sum of all four lung volumes, cannot be measured by spirometry because it includes residual volume:

IRV+ TV + ERV + RV = IC + FRC

Measurement Value

Total Lung Capacity (TLC) 6.0 L

Vital Capacity (VC) 4.6 L

Tidal Volume (TV) 500 mL

Residual Volume (RV) 1.2 L

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) 1.2 L

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) 3.6 L

Functional Residual Capacity (FRC) 2.4 L

Inspiratory Capacity (IC) 4.1 L

Normal breathing› Inhalations and exhalations at uniform

intervals Inhale normally and exhale maximallyInhale normally and exhale maximally

› Deeper troughsDeeper troughs May lead to oxygen debtMay lead to oxygen debt

› Height of crest is the same as that of Height of crest is the same as that of normal breathingnormal breathing

Inhale and exhale maximally› Higher crests and deeper troughs

Increase amount of air that can be expelled

The ratio of the actual lung volumes do correspond to the ratio of the acquired tracings. This is because tracings are representatives of the actual graphs or volume-time curves of the actual lung volumes. By using an appropriate scale of measurement and conversion, the actual lung volumes and capacities can be computed by using the tracings.

Spirometry› Technique where the volume movement

of air into and out of the lungs are recorded

Spirometer› Instrument used to measure pulmonary

ventilationSpirogram

› The record of pulmonary ventilation

records the amount of air and the rate of air that is breathed in and out over a specified time

can measure all lung volumes except residual volume (RV)

to determine how well the lungs receive, hold, and utilize air

to monitor a lung disease to monitor the

effectiveness of treatment to determine whether the

lung disease is restrictive or obstructive

restrictive respiratory disease: inability of the lungs to expand fully difficulty in breathing air in

obstructive respiratory disease: inability of the lungs to fully contract difficulty in getting the air out

A restrictive respiratory disease is any respiratory condition resulting in the inability of the lungs to expand fully. People with restrictive respiratory diseases have difficulty in breathing air in.

Obstructive respiratory diseases are any respiratory condition resulting in the inability of the lungs to fully contract or get the air all out.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND CHEST BELLOWS

LUNGS

Polio PneumoniaObesity Sarcoidosis

Myasthenia gravis Lung fibrosisGuillain Barré syndrome Acute respiratory failure

associated with pulmonary edema

Flail chest (multiple broken ribs) Hyaline membrane diseaseDiaphragm paralysis Advanced lung cancerSpinal cord disease Congestive heart failure

Pickwickian syndromePleural effusion and pleural

disease

Asthma

Chronic bronchitis

Lower Airway Obstruction Emphysema

Cystic fibrosis

Sarcoidosis

Croup

Laryngotracheobronchitis

Upper Airway Obstruction Epiglottitis Various tumors and foreign bodies that may involve the upper airway