evolutionary history
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E l ti Hi tEvolutionary History
AP Biology Rapid Learning Series
Rapid Learning Centerwww.RapidLearningCenter.com/
© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
AP Biology Rapid Learning SeriesWayne Huang, PhD
Andrew Graham, PhDElizabeth James, PhD
Casandra Rauser, PhD Jessica Habashi, PhD
Sara Olson, PhDJessica Barnes, PhD
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Learning Objectives
Evolutionary theory and the i i f lif
By completing this tutorial, you will learn about:
origin of life.
How Geology & Biology effect one another.
An understanding of today’s evolving world.
The evolution of modern
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The evolution of modern humans.
Concept Map
Origin of Earth
Time
Human Evolution
Fossil Record
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Origin of Life
Evolution
Proto-life(RNA)
Evolution of 5 Kingdoms
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Origin of Life on Earth
When did “evolution begin”?Darwin and the “Origin of Life” theoryDarwin and the “Origin of Life” theory.Fossil record.
Beginning of Evolutionary History
Earth was formed about 4.55 billion
years ago.
Advanced forms of life on earth existed at least 3.55 billion
years ago. Imprints of bacteria have been found in rock fromhave been found in rock from
that long ago!
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Basic structure of earth. Continents float on crust or
tectonic plates.Mantle: semi solid layer
between the crust and the core, which is made up of
heavy metals.
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Darwin & the Origin of LifeIn the Origin of the Species, I note that there are few fossils
that date back to the beginning of the earth.
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Because of a lack of fossil records dating that far back I cannot speculate on when or
how life began.
What would the earliest forms of life look like and fossilize like?
Search for Earliest Records of Life
Initial organisms gwere likely single celled & therefore microscopic. Such fossils
are not found in typical rock / shale. Formed from fine
sediment: minerals flow into mass of
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flow into mass of microorganisms Stromatolite rocks
Chain of cyanobacteria.Fossil evidence date to:
3.8 billion years ago.
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Oldest Fossils
Oldest stromatolite containing microorganisms d t i d t b 3 5 billi ld
Zeroing in on the inception of life
determined to be ~ 3.5 billion years old.
Consists of photosynthetic bacteria.
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Precambrian Stromolite Cyanobacteria were dominant for at least 2 billion years,
some forms still exist today.
How & When Did Life Start
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Proto LifeBeyond assuming that life just
“appeared”, how do biologists explain its emergence from the prebiotic world
four billion years ago?
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Steps to Life
If we assume life did not result from a seeding event from an asteroid or other interstellar body then:from an asteroid or other interstellar body, then:
Life had to have developed from inorganic materials.
Problem: Spontaneous animation (= life from non-life) does not happen today. So, how could this be?
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Miller Experiment
Early earth atmosphere = Reducing as opposed to oxidizing atmosphere of today
Earth’s early atmosphere spontaneous animation?
g p y
Miller experiment created a model system of early earth using only inorganic molecules; over time organic chemicals (nucleic acids, amino acids…)
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Prebiotic Conditions: Proto-life
Basic sequence Proto-Life:
With pre-biotic conditions set, Proto-life may occur according to many hypotheses:
Organic compounds polymers of repeating units
Lipids & others can and do organize into spheres based on inherent properties.
Lipid spheres can encapsulate organic molecules.
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Proto Life and RNA
Encapsulated organic molecules such as RNA can:
Self-replicate, are autocatalytic, can act as di t t l t f t i th irudimentary templates for protein synthesis
Compete for scarce resources such as RNA monomers
Competition natural selection of “fittest” RNA molecule reproduction of that RNA molecule
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Proto Life Evolves to Life ?Lipids can spontaneously form
bilayers (like a cell’s membrane).
These lipid bilayers (liposomes) can encapsulate organic polymers like RNA, sugars, proteins and fats.
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Could this have been the
beginning of the ancient cell?
We don’t really know for sure.
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Where is Darwin’s Evidence ?Evidence of earliest life via fossil record may not be possible.
Ability of fossils to record history limited
Organisms with cell membranes but without cell walls (for example mycoplasma) may not fossilize.
Organisms with exo / endoskeletons favor fossilization those without
less likely to be fossilized and found.
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This requires new methods of detecting earliest forms of life.
First life forms per fossil record are prokaryotic
Prokaryotic Evolution
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Prokaryote Preview
1 P k ti
Prokaryotes, also known as bacteria.
1. Prokaryotic description
2. Key adaptations in Evolution
3. Prokaryotic Relationships
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4. Geological & Biological relationships.
Prokaryotes
Prokayotes evolved about 2 billion years ago. It is estimated that there are about 10 000 species
80% of the history of life on earth
concerns are about 10,000 species of prokaryotes belonging to the Kingdom Monera.
prokaryotes.
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Sandstone: life in extreme environments. Blue bands are layers of algae, fungi, and bacteria know as cryptoendolithic organisms.
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Prokaryotes Evolutionary Adaptation
Most Prokaryotic adaptations revolve around metabolic
capacities as opposed to
Major metabolic adaptations include: Glycolytic pathway, Oxidative Phosphorylation, Photosynthetic enzymes.
phenotypic changes.y y
Each new metabolic capacity
bl d b t i t
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enabled bacteria to occupy new niches
Prokaryotic Relationships
Working backward from extinct species, most important speciation event is between archaebacteria & eubacteria.
First Life Forms
Archaebacteria: Extremophiles
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ArchaebacteriaArchaebacteria
Eubacteria
p(live in extreme
conditions), likely most
ancient recordable
forms of life
Eubacteria: Ancestors to
almost all contemporar
y bacteria today
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Eubacteria
Eubacteria is one of the three clades into which biological life on earth
Eubacteria have many
is divided.y
characteristics in common with
Domain Archaea. Archaea and
Eubacteria together are known as the
prokaryotes.
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Proteobacteria is a major group of eubacteria and
has several subdivisions.
Fusobacterium
Evolution of Photosynthesis
02 atmosphere shifted from a reducing environment to an oxidizing atmospherean oxidizing atmosphere.
Life had to adapt or go extinct (most
went extinct).
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The evolution of photosynthesis is
the most important event occurring
after life evolved.Niches were solidified. That is species became anaerobes or aerobes.
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Protist Evolution
The First Eukaryotes
Protists Preview
Protists are the first
eukaryotesProtists are diverse
and made up of thoseeukaryotes. and made up of those eukaryotes that cannot be classed into any of the other kingdoms as
fungi, animals or plants.
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AmoebaAmmonia tepida
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Major Groups of Protists
Protists have been traditionally divided into groups based on their
So they have been thought of as: plant like, fungus like or animal like.
g pmorphology, and ecology and similarities to higher
kingdoms.
This has been replaced by phylogenetic classification but is
useful for describing protists.
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Examples of protists include: amoebas, algae
and slime molds.
Giardia
Primary Adaptations of Protists
Primary evolutionary adaptations of protists include:
Endosymbiosis: which evolved into eukaryotic organellesy g
Colony behavior: which let to multicellular organisms.
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Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
Endosymbiotic hypothesis: Attempts
~ 2100 million years ago, protists arose in a unique way.
hypothesis: Attempts to account for the major evolutionary
leap from prokaryotes to protists, the first
eukaryotes.
In a nutshell, hypothesis proposes a larger prokaryote ingested a smaller
prokaryote organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.
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Much evidence comparing similarities of mitochondria to
prokaryotes supports this idea.
Plant Evolution
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Plant Preview
Chloroplasts in eukaryotic plants evolved from an endosymbiotic
relationship between cyanobacteria and another
Plant evolution involves the
adaptation of plants suited to live on land
yprokaryote. This evolved to a photosynthesizing eukaryotic
organism in water environments.
Early plants were
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suited to live on land. This led to the
greening of land masses and plant
diversification.
Early plants were unicellular or filamentous.
It is estimated the first plants evolved around 3000 million
years ago.
Plants From Protist Algae
Aquatic protists terrestrial plants (i.e., moss)i d t ti i l di
All plants are multicellular eukaryotes with the capacity for photosynthesis.
species adaptations including:
Cuticles to prevent drying
System of specialized cells vascular conduits more efficient water transport new niches further away from water sources
The vascular adaptation pivotal speciation
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The vascular adaptation pivotal speciation event dividing vascular & nonvascular plant life.Moss
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Plants Reproductive Adaptations
Early terrestrial plants such as ferns, were seedless
Seeds
Gametes were dispersed via spores
One reproductive adaptation
Seeds carry plant gametes further from parents increased opportunities for uncontested resources
Seed adaptation speciation event
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Gymnosperms Naked Seed
Ferns Gymnosperms
Leaf, Flower Adaptations
Modified Leaves Flowering plants more efficient d di l d lli ti d t lli t
Flowers
seed dispersal and pollination secondary to pollinators
Flowering plants = speciation event Angiosperms
Angiosperms
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Fungi Evolution
Fungi Preview
Fungi are a group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. These include mushrooms, molds, yeast and other
microscopic formsmicroscopic forms.
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Fungi OverviewFungi is evolved from protists by unknown mechanisms.
Fungi traits includeinclude
Branched hyphae
Cell wall of chitin
Dual Reproduction modes
Digest food outside body absorption
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Fungi Importance
Medically, it causes diseases like histoplasmosis (pneumonia)
and candidiasis (urinary tract infections).
Some fungi are extremely poisonous for which there
is no antitoxin.
Fungi are important in the environment because they decompose organic matter so it may be recycled and used by other organisms.
infections).
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Fungi are very important in the environment, for
nutrition and can cause disease.
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Animal Evolution
Vertebrate Evolution
Animal Preview
Animals are thought to have evolved from
flagellated eukaryotes.
First animal fossils appear around 575 million years ago and are called Ediacaran. They may or may not
belong to the animal kingdom.
Most known animal phyla appear almost simultaneously about 542 million years
ago during the “Cabrian explosion”.
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Animal PhylogenyAncestral Protists
Eumetazoa
Bilateria
Nematodes
Parazoa
RadiataSponges
Cnidaria
Jellyfish
Acoelomates
CoelomatesFlatworms
Pseudocoelomate
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Coelomates
ProtostomesDueterostome
ChordatesEchinoderms
VertebratesInvertebrates
MollusksAnnelids
Arthropods
Major Phyla & RelationshipsTaxonomic relationships based on comparative anatomy & embryology Ancestral
Protists
Eumetazoa
Bilateria RadiataMajor change in body plan: Radial Vs Bilateral
Coelomates
D t t
All members in this group have “radial” cleavage patterns in embryogenesis
Inner body cavity tube lined
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Dueterostomes
Chordates
Vertebrates
patterns in embryogenesis
All members have:
-Notochord, nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post anal tail
All members have back bone / vertebral column
completely by mesoderm
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How have the major changes in body plan and defining major taxonomic groups developed?
Major Morphologic Changes
One major cause is paedogenesis
Paedogenesis: Larvae reaches reproductive
maturity before reaching adulthoodmaintenance of larval
life cycle and Hypothesis:
One major cause is paedogenesis.
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life cycle and morphology major change in body plan
yppaedogenesis of early
larval chordates maintenance of motile
organism with chordate features, favored by selection pressure.
Paedogenesis & Urochordates
Normal urochordates mature into sedentary, amotile life forms, keeping
only 1 of 4 chordate traits.
Hypothesis: Paedogenesis of early larval urochordates led to
maintenance of motile organism with all chordate features.
Their larvae are motile, & possess all 4 traits of chordates.
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Progenetic organisms are
able to reproduce in the larval form.
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Vertebrate Evolution PaedogenesisSelection acts on the
paedogenic larval urochordates resulting
in modifications of chordate traitschordate traits. Traits modified include:
1. Pharyngeal slits for terrestrial gas exchange.
2. Hollow nerve cord for specialized sensory organs, concentrated in the head region.
3. Notochord for primitive axial support and that is eventually
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Urochordate
support and that is eventually replaced by the vertebral column.
4. Finally selection for more powerful swimming apparatus.
trochophore larva
Morphologic Evolution
Extinction events:There have been several in the Triassic period alone, not the least of which being the dinosaur extinction.g
Some estimate that 90% of all animal species were lost during this time period.
What caused this extinction is still up for debate.
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Geological Effects on MorphologySuch events represent the interplay between
geological and evolutionary events biological speciation
Land mass shifts
The first known super continent = Rodinia ~ 1000
– 750 million years ago
Super continent Pangaea forms and
breaks-up ~ 300 – 180
g p
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breaks up 300 180 million years agoGeographic
isolation of populations isolated gene pools new
environments new adaptations
Vertebrate Subphylum
Fishes
Amphibians
Classes of vertebrate subphylum include:
Amphibians
Reptiles
Mammals
Avians
As it turns out, the order here is the general chronology of the evolutionary record
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of the evolutionary record.
Each class being derived from the one above, with the exception of avians and reptiles both being derived from reptiles.
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Reptiles -> Mammalian Class
Mammals speciated from reptiles during the Triassic period.
During this period many new “Orders” of mammal
evolved. Humans are in the order “Primate”
There are at least 14 major
orders of mammals.
order Primate .
Early mammals were small, insectivorous, nocturnal, hairy and warm blooded.
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Primate EvolutionOld world monkeys
New World Monkeys
Gorillas OrangutansGibbons
Prosimians
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Hands & Feet of Primates
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Lineage of Modern HumansDashed lineage
represents debate over evolutionary chronology Some of these genus / Australopithecus afarensis :
Ramapithicus
species may have co-existed.
Walked erect
Australopithecus africanus : HominidHomo habilis : “handy man”
Likely used simple stone tools
Homo erectus : “upright ” 2 l b i th
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Homo sapiens
man” 2x larger brain then earliest predecessor
Modern Humans: Brain size 3x larger then Australopithecus,
oldest fossil ~ 90,000 years oldNeanderthals: Brain size larger
then modern humans but extinct
Question: Review
____ first appeared on earth around 3.55 billion years ago. ___________Life
F i i t t b ___________
___________
Recycle
Prokaryotes
Fungi are important because they _____ nutrients.
Lipids can spontaneously
Eubacteria and Archae together make up of this doman.
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___________Encapsulatep p y
form micelles and _____ organic compounds.
_____ are the first eukaryotes. ___________Protists
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Brief Evolutionary
Brief Evolutionary Origin of Life Origin of Life Vertebrate & Vertebrate &
Learning Summary
History of other
kingdoms
History of other
kingdoms
according to Fossils
according to Fossils
Human Evolution
Human Evolution
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Prokaryotic Evolution
Prokaryotic Evolution
How Life started
How Life started
Congratulations
You have successfully completed the core tutorial
Evolutionary History
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