Evolutionary Approaches to Culture: !

Lessons from Africa!Approches évolutives de la culture: quelques

leçons empruntées à l’Afrique!

Barry S. Hewlett"

Washington State University, Vancouver!

INTEGRATIVE BIOCULTURAL

APPROACH!

Evolutionary"

Psychology!

Evolutionary

Ecology!

Evolutionary"

Cultural Anthropology !

HUMAN BEHAVIOR"

Universals/Biology"

Cooperative Breeding"

Language"

Theory Mind/empathy"

Inclusive Fitness!

Natural ecology"

Inf diseases"

Mortality !

Niche Construction!Artifacts"

Institutions!

Ethnoecology"

Modes and processes"

of transmission"

Cultural schema, "

models!

Definition"

Socially transmitted and learned knowledge and behavior

shared by members of a group. (GENERATION TO

GENERATION THEME IS CENTRAL TO DEFINITION OF

CULTURE).

Major components of culture in humans--in mind and in public"

Habits and practices"

Knowledge/schema"

Technology"

Institutions (mode of production, education, political, social)!

Culture!

Culture and social learning are not unique to humans; they "

are most likely in species that are long-lived and experience"

large climatic variations over long time-scales"

(Whitehead 2007)."

Evolutionary Cultural Anthropology"Anthropologie culturelle évolutionnaire!

•! Cultural transmission (Cavalli Sforza and Feldman

1981)"

•! Dual transmission (Boyd and Richerson 1985, 2007)"

•! Coevolution (Durham 1992)"

•! Mimetics (Blackmore 1999)"

•! Niche construction (LaLand, Odling-Smee and

Feldman 2000) "

•! Evolutionary archaeology (Lyman 1997)"

Sickle-Cell Genetic Evolution (Durham 1992)

Generation 1!Generation 2"

Genetic system" Cultural system"

Units of transmission"

--variant forms"

Genes"

--alleles"

Memes/semes"

--allomemes/semes"

--cultural variant"

Prime source of

variation"

--secondary"

Random mutation"

--recombination"

--migration"

Deliberate or random

innovation"

--synthesis"

--migration and diffusion"

Mechanisms of

transmission"

A. Processes"

B. Mode"

C. Ratio of receivers to transmitters"

Reproduction"

A. Gametogenesis,

syngamy"

B. Vertical"

C. Fixed: 1:2"

Communication"

A. Learning, teaching"

B. Vertical, horizontal,

conformist, other"

C. Variable "

REVOLUTION"

Genetic Analogy Applied to Cultural Systems!

Basic Assumptions of ECA"

1.! Culture exhibits characteristics required by natural"

selection: 1) production of variation, 2)competition and "

fitness effects of cultural variants, 3) inheritance (i.e., "

transmission) of cultural variants, 4) accumulation of "

modifications."

2.! Cultural inheritance differs in key ways from genetic"

inheritance so the evolutionary dynamics of culture"

will differ in important but analytically understandable

ways."

3.! Genetically nonadaptive cultural evolution is possible.

Maladaptation is more likely to occur when marked

differences exist between genetic and cultural inheritance.!

Vertical Horizontal Many-One One-Many Conformist Prestige Bias!

Nature" Parent-child!

Mom-dau!

Peers, Neighbors! Ritual Initiation!

Age grade!

Teacher, Media! Copy Most

Common!

Copy

Successful!

Variation"

Between "

Individuals"

High! Varies! Low! Low! Low! Low!

Variation"

Between"

Groups"

High! Varies! High! High! High! High!

Culture"

Change"

Slow! Can be rapid! Slow! Rapid! Slow! Rapid!

Adaptive"

Environment"

Stable! Changing! Stable! Changing! Stable! Changing!

Author" CS+F! CS+F! CS+F! CS+F! B+R! B+R!

MODES OF CULTURAL TRANSMISSION!

FUTURE OF HUMANKIND!

Modes of transmission with the greatest risk of

contributing to maladaptive cultural variants!

•! Imposition of culture (imposed monogamy)"

•! One-to-many (teacher, media)"

•! Prestige bias (copy successful)"

PROCESSES OF CULTURAL TRANSMISSION!

•! “True” imitation--observe conspecific and reproduce

behavior of the model; also called “observational

learning”; high fidelity, faithful copying (theory mind)"

•! Teaching--active donation of information; rare in

chimps and hunter-gatherers "

•! Collaborative learning--no experts, peers work together

to obtain solutions "

•! Symbolic communication, language to transmit "

•! Lived experiences “doing”"

•! Trial-and-error--independent learning; sometimes

distinguished from social learning (cost-benefit

analysis)!

WHY IS AN EVOLUTIONARY STUDY OF "

CULTURE IMPORTANT?"

1. The ECA approach provides insight into classic anthropological"

issues--is culture adaptive, how does culture change, when is culture"

dynamic or conservative, how does culture influence biology?"

2. A better understanding of the nature of cultural transmission (e.g., modes"

and processes) (“GENERATION TO GENERATION”) could revitalize "

cultural anthropology and other social sciences. "

3. ECA has implications for applied research and can be used to"

solve contemporary global issues."

4. ECA can encourage more detailed understanding of children’s"

cultures. "

5. The ECA approach is essential for understanding the future of "

humankind."

Research Problem #1: "

How is culture transmitted among Aka hunter-gatherers?!

Aim: Evaluate cultural transmission models of Cavalli "

Sforza and Feldman (1981)"

Hypothesis: Aka culture is transmitted communally!

PEERS AND OTHERS? Agta

As a child learns to walk he turns more and more towards

the companionship of peers, who are not only playmates but also

teachers…they teach games of skill and dexterity which prepare a

child for his adult economic roles. (Peterson 1979).

Mbuti

Young married couples are held responsible for reproduction, but

only to a limited extent for the rearing and education of their children

beyond the age of three or four a child becomes the responsibility of the

band as a whole…The age group functions as a major institution of education.

(Turnbull 1965)

Siriono

In contrast to many primitive societies, where a maternal or paternal

relative often assumes the responsibility of formally educating the child,

the system of education among the Siriono may best be characterized as

informal, random, and haphazard. (Holmberg 1969)

Methods!

40 adults, 16 adolescents, 16 children asked if and how they"

Learned 50 skills (subsistence, childcare, sharing, dancing)"

Results!

1.! Most skills transmitted vertically--about 80% skills learned "

from one or both parents"

2. Many skills gender specific, boys learn from fathers, girls"

from mothers "

3. Few skills transmitted horizontally--dancing, singing"

4. Most skills learned by age 10"

All skills" Net hunt" Dance/Sing"

Parents" 81%" 85%" 52%"

Grandparents" 4" 4" 3"

Other Family" 1" 0" 1"

Friend" 1" 0" 2"

Villager" 2" 0" 0"

Watch others" 10" 10" 42"

Self" 1" 1" 0"

Contributors to Aka Learning!

EDUCATORS"

Male" Female"

Primarily parents but one or two

categories of other frequent or

occasional educators"

28" 32"

Other categories of educators more

important than parents or no

parental education"

12" 8"

Primary educators in 40 hunting-gathering cultures!

Martu Aborigines!

Other Studies Show Strong

Vertical Transmission!

Note: Few Field Studies !•! Hunting and fishing techniques among the

James Bay Cree (Ohmagari and Berkes 1997)"

•! Ethnomedicine among the Mapuche of NW

Patagonia (Lozada et al. 2006)"

•! Food taboos in the Ituri Forest in the DRC

(Aunger 2000)"

•! Carpet weaving in Iran (Tehrani and Collard

2009)"

PROBLEMS!

•! Units of culture--memes--need to view in cultural context"

•! Interviews rather than actual observation"

Research Problem #2!

Processes of Cultural Transmission in

Hunter-Gatherers!

•! Existing hunter-gatherer literature

indicates observational learning and

learning by doing are the primary

processes of cultural transmission. The

literature indicates teaching does not

exist or is very rare."

Observation vs Teaching Among Aka!Mean

% of timeMean mins/

daySD

observation 9.98 ~72 7.19

receives instruction 1.90 ~14 2.37

gives instruction 0.64 ~4 1.10

353535N =

Gives Inst.Receives Inst.Observation

Pro

port

ion o

f observati

ons

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

-5

-10Adam Boyette!

5-12 year olds!

# 3 Why do cultures share beliefs and practices?"

36 cultures:"

Use genes, language,"

and geography to"

understand cultural"

variability!

Macroevolution"

EXPLANTORY"

MODEL (macro)"

Modes of cultural

transmission

(micro)"How to evaluate?"

CULTURAL

DIFFUSION"

(Dominant Model)"

Horizontal"

Geographic

distance"

Clustering index"

DEMIC

DIFFUSION"

Vertical"

Conformist"

Language"

Genes"

ADAPT TO

SIMILAR

ENVIRONMENT"Trial and error"

Ecology"

(not evaluated in

this study)"

PREDICTIONS"

DEMIC DIFFUSION"

Genetically similar, linguistically similar, geographically distant"

Genetically similar, linguistically different, geographically distant"

Genetically different, linguistically similar, geographically distant"

CULTURAL DIFFUSION"

Genetically similar, linguistically different, geographically close"

Genetically different, linguistically similar, geographically close"

Genetically different, linguistically different, geographically close"

LOCAL INNOVATION"

Genetically different, linguistically different, geographically distant!

Cultures

Share

Genetic

Dist

Ling

Dist

Clust

Index

MEME

Bridewealth 29 .039 0.86 .33

Brideservice 3 .031 0.67 .27

Large extended families 6 .023 0.78 .28

Small extended families 9 .052 0.94 .28

Patrilocal 24 .039 0.86 .19

Hawaiian terms 4 .022 0.84 .46

Iroquois terms 8 .014 0.53 .53

Hereditary slavery, at least some 13 .041 0.82 .39

Examples of Meme Analysis!

No. Cultures"

Share" DEMIC DIFFUSION " Group"

3" Brideservice" KIN"

6" Large extended families" KIN"

12" Independent polygynous families, wives with separate rooms" KIN"

10" Agamous communities" KIN"

11" Exogamous clan communities" KIN"

15" No marriage with first or second cousins" KIN"

3" Inheritance of real property: to children, sons more" KIN"

3" Inheritance of moveable property: patrilineal heirs over sons" KIN"

5" Inheritance of moveable property: to children, sons more" KIN"

24" Level of community organization: clan neighborhoods" KIN"

4" House making: m+f different tasks, equal participation" SEX"

8" Fishing: men only" SEX"

5" Fishing: both genders participate, men do more" SEX"

4" House wall material: wattle or mats" HOUSE"

3" Slavery, not identified if hereditary or not" STRAT"

9" Hierarchy above community, stateless" STRAT"

11" Hierarchy above community, petty chiefdom" STRAT"

11" Hierarchy above community, small state" STRAT"

18" Shifting cultivation" SUBS"

7" Premarital sex prohibited, but weakly sanctioned" VARIOUS"

No. Share" CULTURAL DIFFUSION " Group"

3" Inheritance of moveable property: matrilineal, to sis son" KIN"

3" Level of community organization: villages" KIN"

5" House ground plan: rectangular" HOUSE"

12" House wall material: walls indistinguishable from roof" HOUSE"

3" House roof shape: flat" HOUSE"

3" House roof shape: gabled" HOUSE"

3" House roof material: earth or turf" HOUSE"

7" Agriculture: m+f equal participation, no task differences" SEX"

3" Weaving: m+f different tasks, but equal participation" STRAT"

8" Intensive agriculture" SUBS"

5" Post partum sex taboo, 1-6 months" VARIOUS"

8" Post partum sex taboo, 1-2 years" VARIOUS"

No.

Share"

LOCAL INNOVATION and ADAPATION "

9" Small extended families"

3" Headman succession through election or

consensus"

3" Elite stratification; elite control scarce

resources, land"

7" Circumcision, in late childhood"

Meme Category"

Dem

Diff"

Cult"

Diff"

Local "

Adapt" Multi" TOTAL"

Kinship, family and

community"

10" 2" 2" 3" 17"

Sexual division of

labor"

3" 1" 0" 2" 6"

House construction" 1" 5" 0" 2" 8"

Social stratification" 4" 1" 1" 1" 7"

Subsistence and

settlement"

1" 1" 0" 0" 2"

Various" 1" 2" 1" 1" 6"

TOTAL" 20" 12" 4" 9" 45"

Summary by Category!

Genetic "

Distance"

Linguistic

Distance"

Cultural

Distance"

Clustering

Index"

Genetic Distance"

Linguistic Distance" .165"

Cultural Distance" .184*" .442***"

Clustering Index" -.023" -.252**" -.013"

•!*p<.05"

•! **p<.01"

•!***p<.001"

Relationships between Distance Measures!

LESSONS"

1.! Culture can be highly conserved over time and space. "

3.! The worldwide distribution of family and kinship variants "

are likely due to demic diffusion and associated vertical "

and conformist transmission. "

3. Ecology has a limited role in shaping several human

behaviors."

4. The ECA approach can help to identify the culture core"

of a region (e.g., shifting cultivation, patrilineal clans, "

Iroquois kin terms in Bantu expansion in Africa). "

5.! The ECA approach can help to explain culture history and "

cultural diversity "

Research Problem #4: "

Why do hunters and gatherers share so extensively? "

Why don’t hunters and gatherers store food?"

Why do they stop when they have enough?"

Aka share 50-80% of food, share daily, share with many people, and do

not store food for the future even though they know how to store. They

are not more likely to share with biological kin."

Bird-David (1992) uses a culturalist approach and suggests that how "

foragers think and feel about human-nature relationships pattern their"

subsistence activities.She hypothesizes that foragers view nature as they view"

social relations; just as they trust that others share with them every day they "

trust that their environment will share to them. Foragers see themselves as"

genetically linked to their environment (call mother, father, etc.). Textbooks "

on hunter-gatherers list the “giving environment” as characteristic feature. "

How is trust transmitted in these cultures and why"

does it exist in all hunter-gatherer groups?!

Attachment Theory!

Sensitive and appropriate responses in infancy and early childhood"

Trust (or mistrust) of self and others"

Development of internal working models of self and others "

Views of social relations of others (friends, mates) later in life!

INTERNAL WORKING MODELS!

Definition: A dynamic, affectively charged model based upon early"

infant-caregiver interactions that guide and pattern future social"

relations (i.e. conserved over time). How to expect others to "

behave towards you."

1. IWMs develop in a context of multisensory communication. The "

tone, sensitivity and appropriateness of caregiver-infant "

vocalizations,eye and body movements, sounds and smells all "

contribute to the development of the child’s IWM."

2. IWMs are affectively charged in that they pattern how an "

individual feels about self and others. They are visceral reactions"

and do not require conscious mediation for their acquisition or "

utilization."

3. IWMs emphasize what individuals actually experience rather "

than semantic information or knowledge."

No. of

infants!

Males! Females! 1st

Born!

Later

Born!

No.

Polygynous

Families!

Mean

Age of

Mothers !

Mean

Age of

Fathers!

Aka foragers! 20" 13" 7" 3" 17" 3" 27" 33"

Ngandu farmers! 21" 12" 9" 3" 18" 5" 26" 37"

Euro-Americans! 21" 13" 8" 21" 0" 0" 31" 34"

Infant focal!

observations of!

3-4 month-olds!

+!

Interviews!

Aka Hunter-Gatherers!

and Ngandu Farmers"

Foundational!

Schema!

Egalitarianism--!

gender and age!

Autonomy!

Sharing/Giving!

Subsistence

Net-hunting

25-35 camp size

Move 6-10x/yr

Flexibility

Limited chief

Aka Hunter-

Gatherers

Foundational Schema"

1. Gender and age

hierarchy--deference and

respect for males, deference

and respect of those older

than you, e.g. parents,

siblings"

2. Communalism--consider

others (clan, family) "

Subsistence

Female farming

Patrilocal/lineal

50-200 village size

Chief and elders

Explicit cultural rules to

live by

NGANDU FARMERS

Aka and Ngandu Commonalities!•! LANGUAGE: Both cultures speak languages in the

C10 group of Bantu languages. Many cognates. Language does not explain cultural differences."

•! NATURAL ECOLOGY: Both cultures live in tropical forest environment with similar exposure to infectious and parasitic diseases. Natural environment does not explain cultural differences."

•! DESIRE FOR CHILDREN: Both cultures value children; children are the reason for living. Frequency of sex in both cultures is high because they desire many children (“working for children”, “night work”). Cultural differences in child care are not related to differential values for children."

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Infant

Held

Caregiver

Proximal

Infant

Alone

Pe

rc

en

tag

e o

f T

ime

Aka

Ngandu

EAs

AKA: held in "

all contexts"

NGANDU: held less--"

when mother works or "

infant sleeps. No "

statistical difference "

between Aka and "

Ngandu mother work"

in early infancy"

AKA" NGANDU" U.S."

Arms, lap,"

sling"

95.6" 53.4" 34.5"

Mat, bed,"

crib"

4.4" 46.6" 27.7"

Infant seat,

stroller,

changing

table, swing"

0.0" 0.0" 27.4"

Floor" 0.0" 0.0" 10.4"

Artifacts and Cultural Niche Construction"

Cultural Models of Holding!

•! AKA: Keep infants and young children physically close, do not abandon them"

•! NGANGU: Hold infants but not too long as it can cause them to get bad air and stunt their growth"

•! NOTE: Frequent holding is not linked to perceptions of the environment as dangerous (snakes, termites, predators). Aka caregivers are not explicitly preoccupied with health and survival of their infants (give sharp objects). "

AKA: MANY OTHERS HELP WITH HOLDING"Depth: (amount of time from others): others provide 40-60%care

during early infancy, fathers in arms distance of infants 51% of day"

Frequency: (movement to others): infants transferred 7.3 times per

hour"

Scope: (number of alternative caregivers): 7-8 different caregivers

during daylight hours during infancy; fathers, grandmothers"

AKA: Caregiver Activities While Holding !

(Frequency per Hour)"

0 1 2 3

Playing

Transport

Affection

Cleaning

Feeding

Others

Father

Mother

Frequency per Hour

0

5

10

15

20

Affect Soothing Feeding Fuss/Cry

Pe

rc

en

tag

e o

f T

ime Aka

Ngandu

EAs

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

No Response Soothe Feed Hold

Types of Responses to Fuss/Cry Events

Perc

enta

ge o

f Fuss/Cry

Events

Aka

Ngandu

Euro-Americans

Tropical Hunter-

Gatherers "

Other Nonindustrial

Cultures "

Infant carried or held

more than 50% of the

time until age of

crawling"

100%" 56%"

Infant carried with sling

or no carrying device

(vs. cradle board or

infant seat)"

90%" 76%"

General affectionate

care in infancy

(expressions of affection)"

100%" 72%"

Immediate responses to

crying"100%" 74%"

Qualitative Data on Hunter-Gatherer Holding and Sensitivity!

BREASTFEEDING AS A

CONTEXT OF SOCIAL

LEARNING!

BREASTFEEDING IN THREE CULTURES

AKA NGANDU EAs

Percentage of daylight

hours feeding

15.2 12.6 12.5

Mean number of feeding

bouts per hour

4.0 2.2 1.6

Mean number of

minutes per feeding

bout

2.4 3.4 4.7

Percentage of infants

who received non-

maternal breastfeeding

55.0 (11/20) 9.5 (2/21) 0

Mean percentage of

time infants received

non-maternal

breastfeeding

8.4 (0-49) 1.6 (0-27) 0.0

Ethnic

Group"

Infant"

Age"

# N-M BF/Total

# Infants Obs

(Proportion)"

Mean prop of

BF of those who

received"

Range"

Efé" 3-6 wk" 5/7 (.71)" .28" .09-.50"

Efé" 4 mo" 7/9 (.78)" .17" .00-.55"

Aka" 3-4 mo" 11/20 (.

55)"

.15" .01-.49"

Aka" 9-10 mo" 3/20 (.15)" .14" .02-.11"

Ngandu" 3-4 mo" 1/20 (.05)" .11" NA"

Ngandu" 9-10 mo" 0/20 " NA" NA"

Aka, Efe, Ngandu Infants Who Received Non-Maternal BF!

Agta GM, B. Griffin"RESULT: "

COMMON IN "

FORAGERS!

Infant-Directed Breastfeeding"

AKA: 58% bouts" NGANDU: 2% bouts!

AKA: Autonomy!

NGANDU: Parent-directed!

COSLEEPING AS A CONTEXT FOR

SOCIAL LEARNING

AKA" NGANDU"

US--child

in twin bed" US--2 adults in queen bed"

Square

feet per

person"

4.3" 13.3" 20.3" 16.7"

How many square feet does an average individual

utilize in a bed?

AKA SLEEP CLOSER TOGETHER THAN NGANDU!

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Alone

With Other Children

With Adults and Others

Percentage of Cases

Ngandu

Aka

Middle Childhood Cosleeping: 8-12 Year-Olds!

I. Egalitarianism versus Gender Hierarchy

1. Ngandu grandfathers never slept with children, while it was common among Aka.

2. Ngandu fathers were less likely to sleep next to their

infants; they were more likely to sleep next to their wife.

3. Older Ngandu boys were more likely than Aka boys

to have their own bed. II. Child-directed versus Parent-directed

1. Aka children made decisions as to where to sleep while

among the Ngandu the parents or grandparents made the

decisions.

Foundational Schema !

Aka and Ngandu Cosleeping!

WEANING AS A

CONTEXT OF SOCIAL

LEARNING!

NGANDU" AKA"

Timing" 1.5-2.0 years" 3.0-4.0 years"

Techniques" Mother-initiated,

peppers, worms, fear

arousal"

Child-initiated, undelineated"

Weaning foods" Rice and gruel" None"

Ethnotheory" Want to make child

“active” (not lazy);

decreases workload"

Mother-initiated weaning can

lead to child illnesses"

Child emotions" Substantial crying and

fussing"

No fussing or crying associated

with process of weaning"

Caregiving transition" Sibling care" Other adult care; fathers,

aunts, grandmother care

increases"

Implications!•! Hunter-gatherers are more likely to share extensively,

not store food and stop hunting and gathering when they have enough because they trust others and their environment will share with them."

•! Patterns of holding, responses to crying, frequency of breastfeeding, number of different responsive caregivers, cosleeping, and nature of weaning all promote trust early in life. "

•! Views of social relations influence how individuals view nature. The “giving environment” emerge out of interactions between biology/evolutionary psychology (i.e., attachment, theory of mind) and culture (i.e., patterns of child care)."

Ebola hemorrhagic fever

(EHF) is a severe, often

fatal disease in humans

and non-human primates.

It is named after a river in

the Democratic Republic

of Congo where it was first

recognized in 1976."

Family: Filoviridae"

Genus: Ebola"

Marburg"

Species: Ebola Zaire (80-90% mortality) "

Ebola Sudan (40-50% mortality)"

Ebola Uganda (30-40% mortality)"

Ebola Ivory Coast, Ebola Reston!

Reservoir: UNKNOWN"

Treatment: NONE"

Vaccine: NONE"

Phylogenetics:"

Marburg 9,000 years"

Ebola 3,000 years!

1. Urban outbreak"

2. 425 cases/224 deaths"

3. 14 nurses; nosocomial "

transmission important"

4. Infrastructure good"

5. One ethnic group-Acholi"

Uganda!

2000-2001"International Response"

10 countries"

16 agencies"

100+ team members!

Methods!

Description" Bad substance sent by

sorcerer"

Signs and Symptoms" Pain, inflammation"

Causes" Bad substance enter body"

Transmission" Step on it, eat it,

somebody sends it"

Pathophysiology" Inflammation in area of

yat"

Treatment" Tak, use jok to identify

location and extract"

Prevention and control" Protective bracelets"

Prognosis" Good if removed"

Risk groups" Successful"

YAT CULTURAL MODEL (SORCERY)!

Indigenous Ways to Distinguish Sorcery from

Epidemic Disease!

1. Sorcery kills a few people at time. One

elderly woman said “you see my white hair, never have I seen or heard of this, it cannot be sorcery. I have lived with sorcery for long now, but this, with so many people dying, it is only epidemic killing people not sorcery.”

2. Everyone is not equally at risk of sorcery. “Sorcery usually kills within particular

families; with epidemic everyone is at risk.”

3. Sorcery is a human condition. “Sorcery does not kill without reason, does not kill everybody, and does not kill gorillas or other animals.”

Description" Bad spirit comes suddenly

and effects many people"

Signs and Symptoms" Mental confusion, high

fever, rapid death"

Causes" Lack respect for nature

spirits (jok)"

Transmission" Physical proximity"

Pathophysiology" Attacks all of body"

Treatment" Healer uses jok to see what

wants"

Prevention and control" Protocol"

Prognosis" Not good, no cure"

Risk groups" Families do not respect

jok, caregivers"

GEMO CULTURAL MODEL!

ACHOLI PROTOCOL TO CONTROL

GEMO!•! Isolate the patient in a house at least 100m from all other houses;

mark house with poles, no visitors allowed."

•! Identify infected village with poles, monitor own village, reduce movement between villages (protective sequestration rather than quarantine)"

•! A survivor of gemo should feed and care for the patient. "

•! Houses and villages with ill patients should be identified with long poles."

•! Increase harmony; all conflicts within the household and village should stop; everyone should maintain a good heart"

•! Stop all dances."

•! Stop sexual activity."

•! Individuals who recover from all symptoms should remain in isolation for one lunar cycle."

•! Individuals who die of gemo should be buried at edge of village."

LESSONS!•! Children’s views and knowledge may be

different from adult’s views and children’s views may be useful in control efforts."

•! Classic example interactions between evolved psychology (e.g. fear of death), culture (vertically transmitted knowledge about epidemics, horizontal transmission for updates) and ecology (e.g., distance to infected, access to resources)."

•! Indigenous cultural knowledge that has accumulated from regular experiences with epidemics can be built upon in control efforts and the West can learn from these cultural models. "

Concluding Remarks!

•! An understanding of the modes and processes of cultural transmission can revolutionize the social sciences."

•! Culture is transmitted early in life and contributes to its vertical and conserved nature. Many aspects of culture are highly conserved over time and space."

•! Cultural transmission can best be understand in an integrative biocultural context."

•! A meme approach (breaking culture into units) can be useful but understanding cultural transmission in context is preferred. "

•! Cultural transmission is theory rich but data poor. Few field studies of cultural transmission exist. "

•! Need more studies of children; existing studies are often based upon interviews with adults"