ORIGINAL PAPER

Evaluating reconstruction effects on urban resilience:a comparison between two Chilean tsunami-prone cities

Irina Tumini1 • Paula Villagra-Islas2 • Geraldine Herrmann-Lunecke3

Received: 17 March 2016 /Accepted: 13 October 2016 / Published online: 25 October 2016� Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract Facing natural disasters is a priority challenge for cities, exacerbated by

increases in urban population and climate change. Improving the resilience of cities is a

critical need for the international community and especially for territories exposed to

multiple risks, such as Chile. Although disasters are always tragic, the recovery and

reconstruction post-disaster may provide a unique opportunity to prevent future suffering,

enhancing the resilience of local communities. This paper presents the analysis of two

Chilean reconstruction programmes applied in Mehuin and Dichato, after the earthquake

and tsunami of 22 May 1960 and 27 February 2010, respectively. In both cases, recon-

struction programmes were supported by the Chilean Government, but using different

approaches: one focused on providing housing for people injured in the earthquake, while

the other also included urban amenities and services. This article proposes an urban

morphology analysis framework; in addition, it presents the assessment of the two case

studies before and after a disaster, thus evaluating their resilience. By comparing urban

morphology resilience pre- and post-disaster, a discussion about the effectiveness of two

reconstruction approaches is presented. Finally, conclusions and recommendations to

& Irina Tuminiirina.tumini@gmail.com

Paula Villagra-Islaspaula.villagra@uach.cl

Geraldine Herrmann-Luneckegeraldine.herrmann@udp.cl

1 Department of Planning and Urban Design, Bıo-Bıo University, Avda. Collao 1202,Casilla 5-C - CP, 4051381 Concepcion, Chile

2 Laboratory of Landscape and Urban Resilience, Institute of Environmental Sciences and Evolution,Austral University of Chile, Edificio Emilio Pugın, of. 326, Campus Isla Teja, Region de Los Rıos,Valdivia, Chile

3 Faculty of Architecture, Art and Design, Diego Portales University, Manuel Rodrıguez Sur 415,Santiago, Chile

123

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392DOI 10.1007/s11069-016-2630-4

better integrate resilience into urban planning are proposed, with the aim of opening the

discussion about how to make cities more resilient to natural disasters.

Keywords Post-disaster reconstruction � Urban resilience � Urban morphology indicators �Earthquake � Tsunami

1 Introduction

National and international policies nowadays emphasize the need of integrating the con-

cept of resilience into urban planning for areas that are subjected to natural disasters (e.g.

Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015 and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk

Reduction 2015–2030), with the aim of reducing the impact of these events in terms of

human life, economic losses and environmental damage (UNISDR 2005; SUBDERE 2011;

UNISDR 2011).

Chile is a country which is affected by a variety of natural disturbances, with the most

dramatic being some of the largest earthquakes and tsunamis seen around the world.

Notably, in Chile, since 1939, effects of extreme natural events have triggered the

development of land-use plans and urban policies, with an emphasis on improving building

codes to resist future events, but also on reconstruction plans. These were developed from

the urgency of needing to provide homes for those left homeless by the event and focused

on a ‘housing provision approach’.

However, after signing the Hyogo Protocol in 2005 and after the 8.8 Mw earthquake in

2010, which devastated over 1000 km of coastline including human settlements, the

Chilean Government adopted a different reconstruction approach. This approach, which we

have called ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’, focuses on increasing synergies

between stakeholders, including institutions, social agents, experts from the field of risk

reduction planning and citizens. But the extent to which this approach—or the former

‘housing provision approach’—has addressed the resilience of cities is still unknown.

Disaster resilience is the capacity of systems, such as cities, to adapt after a disaster

without losing their basic structure and characteristics (Stumpp 2013). The concept of

urban resilience has been borrowed from ecology and refers to the manner in which

systems cope with stress and disturbance caused by external factors (Walker and Salt,

2006; Jabareen 2009). In other words, it could be defined as the ‘ability of the system,

community or society exposed to hazards to absorb, resist, accommodate to and recover

from the effect of hazards in a timely and efficient manner, including the preservation and

restoration of basic functions’ (Jabareen 2013, p. 221). This concept and its application in

the urban context are becoming, de facto, a framework for enhancing the level of disaster

preparedness, response, prompt recovery and long-term adaptability to changes caused by

crisis and catastrophic events (Cutter et al. 2014; ISDR 2005). Thus, post-disaster recon-

struction provides the opportunity to ‘build back better’ (Tran 2015), which means

developing more resilient cities.

This paper studies urban resilience in Chilean reconstruction programmes by comparing

two different approaches used to rebuild two cities affected by extreme tsunamigenic

events: Mehuin in 1960 (9.5 Mw) and Dichato in 2010 (8.8 Mw). While in Mehuin a

traditional ‘housing provision approach’ was used, in the case of Dichato a more partic-

ipatory ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’ was adopted.

1364 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

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A disaster, despite damages and losses, represents an opportunity to redirect and

reconceive urbanization processes. Under the hypothesis of adaptive models and unpre-

dictable disturbance, the urban planning process becomes an ‘experiment’ from which

designers, experts and policy makers may gain new knowledge (Holling 2001; Ahern

2011). This research analyses to what extent each approach has addressed resilience during

post-disaster reconstruction, focusing specifically on urban morphology aspects. The

question that can be asked is whether planners and authorities were able to capitalize on

knowledge from previous experiences in order to better integrate resilience into urban

planning during post-disaster reconstruction in Chile. Furthermore, and given the two

different reconstruction approaches, were there important differences in the resilience

improvement? Or was this in fact worsened?

The main objective of this research is to study the effectiveness of post-tsunami

reconstruction approaches in Chile in improving urban resilience. In this respect, the paper

provides a comparative study of two reconstruction approaches (Mehuin 1960 and Dichato

2010) and concludes with a discussion on the nexus between reconstruction approaches,

urban morphology and resilience with the goal of proposing urban planning strategies

which incorporate resilience into post-disaster reconstruction.

2 Post-disaster reconstruction approaches and resilience

2.1 Post-disaster reconstruction approaches

Traditionally, reconstruction policies, especially in developing countries, have been ori-

ented to rebuilding the homes of people left homeless after a disaster (Olivera and Gon-

zalez 2010). These so-called housing provision approaches focus on resource allocation

and on housing reconstruction management. However, post-disaster reconstruction prac-

tices with an unilateral focus on housing provision have shown poor results for urban

resilience enhancement (Boen 2001; Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; Aliste and Perez 2013;

Tran 2015).

Recently, different scholars (Burak Enginoz 2006; Olivera and Gonzalez 2010; Cheng

et al. 2015) have suggested including cultural and local identity dimensions during

reconstruction. Thus, a more holistic approach has become highly influential, replacing the

traditional one (Boen 2001; Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; Olivera and Gonzalez 2010; Cheng

et al. 2015). The ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’, as we call it here, consists in

including prevention and mitigation projects, paying special attention to the coordination

between different sectors as well as involving local stakeholders in the reconstruction

process. The international literature has shown that the initial effort of coordinating a

comprehensive plan will result in the enhancement of synergies and long-term cost savings

(GFDRR 2015; Kallaos et al. 2014). In fact, the Hyogo Framework of Action 2005–2015

points out the need to allocate financial and human resources across sectors, involving both

different government levels (national, regional and local) and society in general. The

current international literature (Arguello-Rodriguez 2004; United Nations 2005; Duyne

Barenstein 2006; Oliveira Panao et al. 2009; PNUD Chile 2012; Cheng et al. 2015;

GFDRR 2015) suggests that the reconstruction experiences which have demonstrated

better results in terms of adaptability and prompt recovery include the coordination of

institutions and stakeholders within an integrated recovery programme, working with

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1365

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affected populations, reinforcing social cohesion and increasing learning and cultural

resources at the same time.

2.2 Reconstruction programmes and post-disaster reconstruction approachesin Chile

A similar change in reconstruction approaches to those discussed internationally can be

observed in Chile. In 1939, after the Chillan earthquake (7.8 Mw), the reconstruction was

entrusted to the Housing Corporation (CORVI),1 who in conjunction with the Ministry of

Housing and Urbanism (MINVU) promoted a ‘housing provision approach’ which was

oriented solely towards the construction and renovation of housing. Since then, during the

last 50 years, different social programmes have promoted and implemented this approach

through social housing construction programmes and privately funded initiatives, including

self-reconstruction. An example of this is the reconstruction of communities affected by

the 1960 earthquake and tsunami in Chile (9.5 Mw), as is the case of the coastal town of

Mehuin.

In order to rebuild housing, the reconstruction process involved the modification and

strengthening of several laws as well as government organizations. This included the

approval of a bill (Norm 14-171, 1960) to collect funds from different ministries and the

modification of the donation law to finance housing reconstruction. Through this, it was

possible to empower the roles of CORVI and CORFO2 to provide housing while staying

within an economic planning framework: both institutions obtained power to manage

financial resources, to expropriate lands, to rebuild or to repair private and public buildings as

well as to assign credit to families for self-reconstruction (Aliste and Perez 2013). Following

along the same lines, the Ministry of Economy was transformed into the Ministry of Econ-

omy, Development and Reconstruction to develop a more comprehensive reconstruction

planning approach.3 This huge change in governmental action within the national economy

was possible because of the need to rebuild the country. Reconstructionwas thus inserted into

a broader understanding of the country’s development, where post-disaster recovery became

the lever of change (Aliste and Perez 2013). Mehuin’s reconstruction actions were imple-

mentedwithin this early reconstruction period in Chile, where the focuswas on governmental

and funding organizations with the aim of restoring housing. But unfortunately, within a

month of the 1960 tragedy, reconstruction plans were not being designed to allocate new

homes (Aliste and Perez 2013), and neither was there a coordinated approach to organize the

international help and resources that were arriving in Chile (Saldivia 2009).

However, in Chile, with the 2010 earthquake (8.8 Mw), the housing provision paradigm

changed to a cross-sectorial reconstruction approach. Chile had become a global neoliberal

economy and needed to face the challenge of integrating public and private stakeholders as

1 The Housing Corporation (the Spanish-language acronym: CORVI) was founded in 1953 with the aim ofcentralizing the national government’s actions related to social housing provision. After the 1960 earth-quake, CORVI and CORFO were the institutions in charge of organizing public resources for housingreconstruction.2 Production Development Corporation (CORFO) is a Chilean governmental organization that was foundedin 1939 to promote economic growth in Chile. CORFO oversees a variety of programs aimed at generatingthe economic development of Chile, through the creation of national basic industries such as energy, oil,steel and sugar.3 Later on, in 1974, the ONEMI (the National Emergency Office) was created with the aim of planning andcoordinating the use of human and material resources from the institutions, and from public and privateservices, to prevent or reduce damage from earthquakes, disasters or public calamities (BCN 2015).

1366 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

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well as citizens. Chile now required greater efforts to guarantee systematic planning and

coordination to accomplish a more cross-sectorial approach (GSAPP 2015). The novelty of

this reconstruction approach is the acknowledgement of the local community’s role; for

example, the design of the reconstruction plan was developed by the local and regional

government in coordination with the local community, in contrast to the more centralized

top-down process used previously. Furthermore, the reconstruction plan aims at providing

permanent housing access for families left homeless by disasters, but also ensuring heritage

recovery, the reconstruction of open spaces, infrastructure and urban facilities, and

updating urban planning tools to include risk reduction. Hence, this programme tries to

integrate and provide solutions for the provision of emergency and basic services while

improving long-term urban planning oriented towards enhancing urban quality and pre-

paredness of the society to better face future events. The Dichato reconstruction pro-

gramme was developed under this new cross-sectorial reconstruction approach, where a

comprehensive Master Plan was prepared with the objective of: (1) reorganizing zoning

and urban planning instruments, (2) providing a new image for the city using local identity

and (3) managing investments. The big innovation of the programme is the cross-sectorial

design that involves coordination between stakeholders: main action lines were defined and

the role of local, national and international institutions was allocated according to these

lines. Citizens, through participatory workshops, played a fundamental role in building

local identity and designing actions for each line. The implementation of the participatory

programme’s results and the coordination of agents at different levels were achieved

thanks to the Master Plan. As a result of this new urban and territorial regulation, cities

affected by the tsunami were furthermore encouraged to change the current planning

instruments in order to include risk into planning regulations (MINVU 2013; GSAPP

2015).

2.3 Urban morphology and resiliency after disasters

Extrapolating the concept of resilience to human communities, the notion of adaptability as

the capacity of the system to retain critical resources and reorganize itself following the

disturbance should be incorporated in the reconstruction of cities as well. Thus, disturbance

is a part of development, and it has the potential to create the opportunity for recombi-

nation, innovation and transform into new configuration (Walker et al. 2004; Folke 2006).

This means shifting urban environments from an unsafe condition into a more resilient

stage (Cutter et al. 2014, p. 65).

Although the resilience concept assumes different meanings in the different fields, most

authors suggest that the concept of community resilience emerges from the process linking

networking resources and capitals to adaptation after a disturbance (Cutter et al. 2003;

Norris et al. 2008; Burton 2012). Cutter et al. (2014) defines resilience as the relation

between spatial patterns and inherent disaster resilience (Cutter et al. 2003, 2014), while

Allan and Bryant (2011) link adaptation and recovery to specific spatial morphologies

(Allan and Bryant 2011). In their studies for post-earthquake recovery, they discovered the

strong relationship between urban morphology and adaptive response during the emer-

gency stage. They saw that before external resources (such as state or humanitarian help)

began to take effect, communities need to rely on what is to hand in order to survive. Thus,

in this phase, the link between urban environment and adaptive response is clearest (Allan

and Bryant 2011; Allan et al. 2013).

Three broad areas of urban morphology which contribute to adaptation have been

studied as resilience resources during emergency periods after disasters: open space

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1367

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system, the use of public buildings and proximity to open and built elements. The first one,

the open space system, has been described as a dormant network of streets, parks and

squares that activates after disasters to satisfy survival needs (Allan et al. 2013). Open

spaces have been found to be necessary for people to escape, gather together, and find

safety and shelter. The contribution to resilience is related to the amount and location of

open spaces which are useful after a disaster in respect to population density (Allan et al.

2013; Cutter et al. 2014; Villagra et al. 2014). Secondly, resilience is also related to the use

of public buildings (e.g. churches, schools), particularly those safe from the effect of

disturbances, which can be used as temporary shelters after disasters (The Sphere Project

2011; Chou et al. 2013). Thirdly, proximity and accessibility to both open (e.g. pedestrian

network) and built elements (e.g. services) are a key aspect for resilience because the need

to link places and activities spatially separated. In cities, connectivity determines the

degree of bonding (within a community) and bridging (between communities), which

reflects the degree and strength of a network (Allan and Bryant 2011; Walker et al. 2015).

Physical connections include transportation options or available means, along with the

density of pathways. In the post-disaster scenario, pedestrian connections are also funda-

mental for resilience (Norris et al. 2008; Marın Cots 2012; Rueda 2012; Pickett and Zhou

2015). In other words, urban amenities and spatial distribution should provide diversity of

options and resources for recovery, flexibility to adapt to changed conditions and new

functions (Allan and Bryant 2011; Walker et al. 2015). Above all, these elements—open

spaces, public buildings and pedestrian networks—need to be redundant in the city,

because if one collapses, then another can take over its role (Walker and Salt 2006). In

addition, public open spaces and walkways are important to cities because they accom-

modate daily pedestrian traffic, provide spaces for outdoor activities and contribute to

urban liveability and vitality (Chen and Ng 2012). They promote citizen interaction and

reinforce social cohesion, which are important for improving social capital as well (Norris

et al. 2008; Allan et al. 2013). Thus, urban morphology plays a fundamental role in the

adaptability of cities.

After a disturbance, a dynamic system such as the city can move to a contingent new

state of equilibrium, which is the condition where it can respond to the needs of citizens

and recover functionalities. Depending on the amount of resources used and the time

required for the recovery, this new post-event stage can be more or less resilient than the

previous one. Hence, changes in urban morphology resilience can be evaluated by con-

trasting pre-event conditions to those after the reconstruction phase, provided that critical

indicators give a measure of resilience in terms of adaptability to future disturbance (Bozza

et al. 2015). This approach is used in this study to explore the extent to which the Chilean

reconstruction approaches described above, add to or subtract from the resilience of cities.

3 Methodology of the resilience analysis

Up until now, experiences in post-disaster recovery in Chile focus mainly on housing

reconstruction because of the essential good for the well-being and development of most

societies (Barakat 2003). However, after signing the Hyogo Protocol in 2005, Chilean

authorities have adopted a more holistic approach to the reconstruction programme since

2010, which involves local government, stakeholders and citizens in designing more

comprehensive strategies for long-term solutions. This approach, which fosters mutual

understanding among different stakeholders and establishes cross-sectoral cooperation, has

1368 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

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demonstrated better capacity in meeting local needs (UNISDR 2004; The World Bank

2013). In addition to this, the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030

encourages the establishment of the necessary mechanisms and incentives to ensure dis-

aster risk management integration across all sectors, including those addressing land-use

and urban planning (UNISDR 2015). Hence, by using a cross-sectoral approach for

reconstruction, we may also expect an improvement in the resilience capacity of cities, in

terms of an urban morphology which is more adaptable to future disasters. Accordingly,

and based on the conceptual model of Fig. 1, urban morphology measures should be

improved through the reconstruction process, if the cross-sectorial approach is used.

1960Housing Provision App.:• Resources alloca�on• Management for the

reconstruc�on process

2010Cross-sectorial Reconstruc�on App.:

• Research• Cross-sectorial design• Stakeholders par�cipa�on

Reconstruc�on Approaches for Risk Reduc�on

Mehuin Dichato

New con�ngentstate of equilibrium

Change in Urban Morphology Resilience

Frompre-event

Toreconst.

RM RD

New knowledge

Improvement in reconstruc�on processes

Improvement in urban resilience

Fig. 1 Conceptual study model: the two approaches are analysed through the urban morphology resilienceevaluation of two case studies: Mehuin and Dichato. The evaluation compares pre-event conditions withpost-disaster reconstruction in order to identify resilience improvement or worsening. The comparisonbetween RM for Mehuin and RD for Dichato will provide information about the improvement inreconstruction approaches, which will also be expected to produce a more resilient city. Source: Elaboratedby authors

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1369

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The objective of this research is to study two post-tsunami reconstruction approaches in

Chile through a comparative analysis and to discuss their effectiveness in improving urban

resilience, specifically through changes in urban morphology. For this purpose, this study

(1) identifies a study framework of urban morphology indicators and (2) assesses and

compares the resilience capacity of each city before the tsunami event and after

reconstruction.

3.1 Description of the case studies

Mehuin is a small coastal city located in the Los Rios Region, in the South of Chile. After

the earthquake and tsunami of 22 May 1960, buildings under 10 m.a.s.l., all of Mehuin’s,

with 132 inhabitants at the time, were destroyed (Municipality of Mariquina 2015). The

Lingue River, which borders Mehuin to the south, was modified by dramatic geomor-

phological changes. Sea waves reached 8 km inland and, as a result, 27 people died; 77

summer houses, 112 houses of fishermen, 4 hotels and 10 commercial premises were

destroyed (Saldivia 2009).

The Government of Chile, with support from the USA, rebuilt Mehuin through an

international cooperation programme (Alliende Garces 2011). The reconstruction focused

on an area across the river called Mississippi, localized at higher altitudes above the

tsunami inundation level. Between 1960 and 1965, 42 houses were built in Mississippi

making good use of the elevated area to place houses where future tsunami waves would

not reach. In this period, new fishermen arrived to the area to improve traditional fishing

techniques, and the school, health and water facilities were created (Chilean Red Cross

2014). The Maiquilahue road (see Fig. 3b) was built as a way to give an alternative access

to the area. Finally, the bridge that connects the area of Mississippi with the old town was

only created in 2014; hence, this year is considered as the end of the reconstruction phase.

Until then, Mehuin’s original neighbourhood was also rebuilt and has grown in all

directions reaching 1135 inhabitants (Fig. 3).

Dichato (Fig. 2) is a small coastal city with 3878 inhabitants (INE 2002), located in the

Coliumo Bay in the Bio Bio Region. The pre-event urban system shows a high vulnera-

bility to tsunamis (Cartes Siade 2013) due to the localization of its downtown at sea level

and the predominance of low-height buildings (mainly 1 storey houses) with a poor

resistance to wave impact (wooden frames). The earthquake and tsunami of 2010 produced

enormous damage to residential and commercial areas. Existing amenities were destroyed,

and the collapse of two pedestrian bridges and a vehicular bridge caused the isolation of

areas to the north for several weeks (Cartes Siade 2013). In addition, the chaos and delay in

emergency activities over the ensuing weeks demonstrated the weakness in the emergency

management and the lack of coordination between urban planning and recovery agents

(GSAPP 2015). In Dichato, reconstruction activities began one year after the catastrophe

and most of them have now been implemented. A comprehensive Master Plan has been

elaborated focusing on (1) a holistic view of urban and land-use planning through a cross-

sectorial design approach, (2) coordination between public and private agents, (3) linking

local and regional actions for building resilience and (4) involving citizens in the recon-

struction process. Emphasis on mitigation has been promoted by building anti-tsunami

barriers and embankments to reduce flooding levels. Additionally, new residential areas

and public buildings were located in safe zones, while ‘anti-tsunami’ houses were built in

the flood zone (Bio–Bio Gobierno Regional (Regional Government) 2010).

1370 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

3.2 Resilience indicators and data collection

With the aim of exploring the extent of urban resilience achieved in the reconstruction

approaches used in Mehuin and Dichato, this study identifies eight indicators to construct

an urban morphology study framework (Table 1). These indicators address the main

aspects of urban morphology that affect resilience: the open space system, the use of public

buildings and proximity to open and built elements (Sect. 2.3).

With regard to the open space system, this study includes the indicators of population

density (PD), relationship between unbuilt and built areas (BI) and useful temporary secure

open spaces (SOSs). PD refers to the number of inhabitants per hectare, considering that a

high PD means low system resilience. Cutter et al. (2014) relates urban resilience and high

population density to economic and human losses that might be expected from a hazard

event. In the same line, other authors (Romero-Lankao and Dodman 2011; The World

Fig. 2 Mehuin and Dichato Orthophoto with localization in Chile and neighbourhood identification andtsunami inundation zone (in blue). Source: Esri, Mop-Government of Chile, Elaborated by authors

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1371

123

Table

1Resilience

indicatorsforurban

morphologyanalysis:nam

eofindicator,descriptionandcalculationmethod,relationwithresilience—positive(?

)ornegative(-

)—literature

andsourceforcollectingdata.

Source:

Elaboratedbytheauthors

Indicator

Description

Relationwithresilience

References

Datasource

Population

density

(PD)

[inh./ha]

Thismeasuresthepopulationdensity

inurban

areasas

PD

=(Tot.inh./area)

-[

Density

intsunam

ifloodarea

[Economic

andhuman

losses\

Resilience

Cutter

etal.(2014)

INE,Census

Balance

Index

(BI)[m

2/m

2]

Thisindicates

theprovisionofopen

areasforem

erging

activities(usefulareas)

inthecity;calculatedas

BI=

(Runbuiltusefulareas/Rbuiltareas)

?[

Unbuiltarea

\Density[

Recovery

Area[

Resilience

CerveroandDuncan

(2003),Chouet

al.

(2013)

Municipal

maps,

Orthophoto

Urban

Planning

documents

Tem

porary

secure

open

space(SOS)

[m2/inh.]

Thisevaluates

theprovisionofsecure

evacuationareas

inthecity;calculatedas

SOS=

(RSOSareas/inh.)

?SOSC

4m

2[

Resilience

TheSphereProject

(2011),Chouet

al.

(2013),Villagra

etal.(2014)

INE,Census

ONEMIOSS

identification

Community

Amenities

Index

(CAI)

[m2/inh.]

Thismeasurestheprovisionofcommunityam

enitiesper

inhabitantin

urban

areasCAI=

(Ramenitiesarea/

inh.)

?[CAIC

45m

2[

Resilience

TheSphereProject

(2011),Chouet

al.

(2013)

INE,Census,

Municipal

maps

Evacuation

Route

Index

(ERI)[n�/

inh.]

Thisevaluates

theprovisionofsecure

evacuationroutes

inurban

areas,calculatedas

ERI=

(Rn�E

vacuation

Route/(inh./100))

?[

EscapeRoute[

Redundancy

[Resilience

Norris

etal.(2008);

Allan

etal.(2013)

INE,Census

ONEMI

Emergency

Map

Evacuation

Route

Distance

(ERD)[m

]

Thismeasuresthedistance

ofevacuationroutesfrom

thefarthestpointin

EuclideanDistance

-[

600m

or10-m

inwalk(Euclidean

Distance)\

Resilience

Rueda(2006),Norris

etal.(2008)

Municipal

maps,

Orthophoto

ONEMI

Emergency

Map

Walkability

Index

(WI)

[%m/m

]

Thismeasuresthemobilityandaccessibilityfor

pedestriansWI=

(Walkways

length/Tot.streets

length)9

100

?[

Pedestrian

streets[

connectivity[

resilience

C75%

Rueda(2006),Marın

Cots(2012)

Municipal

maps,

Orthophoto,

Inform

ation

aboutstreets

1372 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

Table

1continued

Indicator

Description

Relationwithresilience

References

Datasource

Proxim

ity

Index

(PI)

[%]

Thismeasurestheproxim

ityandaccessibilityto

basic

services,such

asfoodsupply,education,health,sport

orculturalcalculatedas

PI=

(Inh.nearbasic

services/Tot.inh.)9

100

?[

Proxim

ityservices[

social

interaction[

social

capital[

resilience

Rueda(2006),Marın

Cots(2012)

INE,Census

Localizationof

basic

services

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1373

123

Bank 2013) refer to the need of balancing urban density in order to avoid, on the one hand,

urban sprawl and, on the other, problems due to overcrowding. The PD is a relevant

indicator for the cases being analysed because in both cases, it changed in the different

neighbourhoods due to reconstruction planning, thus affecting resilience. In the same way,

the BI and SOS express the amount of open public areas above the tsunami inundation

zone that are useful for shelter and recovery. For this reason, changes in urban morphology

have to be interpreted as an equilibrium between potential losses and adaptive resources.

Thus, an increase in PD could be positive or negative depending on the provision of space

for recovery (BI and SOS). In both case studies, SOS provided emergency shelters and

spaces during and after the tsunamis; therefore, if the amount of these open areas has

decreased after reconstruction, or if the balance between open and built areas has been

modified, which could lead to a decrease in resilience. When the value of the BI index is

high, there are lower building density and a higher percentage of unbuilt area, and the

system is potentially more resilient. In contrast, when the value of this index is low, the

system is denser and potentially less resilient.

In relation to public buildings, this study incorporates the Community Amenities Index

(CAI). This index expresses the amount of built areas per inhabitant that are useful for

post-disaster emergency activities above the tsunami inundation zone. Along with open

spaces, amenities are considered adaptable resources that enhance urban resilience. In this

context, international references (The Sphere Project 2011) set out that the minimum space

for shelter in the immediate aftermath of a disaster is equal to 3.5 m2 per person (short-

term shelter) and 45 m2 per person for temporary planned or self-settlement camps, con-

sidering communal services that can provide useful spaces for recovery purposes. These

measurements are considered for the purpose of this study.

Finally, to address issues of connectivity, this study includes indicators regarding the number

of evacuation routes (assessed by ERI) and distance to evacuation routes (assessed by ERD), as

well as connectivity of pedestrian systems (WI) and proximity to basic services (PI) after dis-

asters. For tsunami-prone cities, a prompt evacuation after earthquakes occur is crucial for saving

lives. Thus, urban space has to provide well-known, accessible and safer evacuation routes

(Murakami et al. 2012). The ERI expresses the number of evacuation routes, as acknowledged

and signposted by the National Security Public Service Office (ONEMI) per neighbourhood. In

the case of ERD, this research has defined the distance of 600 m (or 10 min walking) as a

benchmark because the time before a tsunami hits the coastline after an earthquake is only

20–40 min; thus, evacuation has to be as quick as possible (Lammel et al. 2010).

Furthermore, proximity and accessibility to basic services are essential to citizen well-being,

promoting interrelation between people and urban space as well as increasing social cohesion

(Marın Cots 2012). Social cohesion also fosters the enhancement of social capital that is positive

for resiliencebecause it providesgroupnetworks,with reciprocal links,whichare able to establish

supportive interactions and cooperative decision-making processes (Norris et al. 2008). The

Walkability Index (WI) and Proximity Index (PI) emphasize the importance of the pedestrian

scale for facilitating communication and exchange of goods and services amongcitizens.Thefirst

(WI) is assessed as the percentage of pedestrian streets and walkways separated from roads for

vehicles. The second (PI) appraises the balanced distribution of urban amenities (schools, health

centres, sports facilities, etc.) according to the percentage of citizens that live close to them (Marın

Cots 2012).

The relationship between resilience and each variable is described and indicated with a

? or - (in the column next to the description), showing that an increase in an indicator

value is positive (?) or negative (-) for urban resilience. Data to calculate these indicators

1374 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

were collected from municipalities and regional authorities and analysed using geographic

information systems.

3.3 Data analysis

Cities may be described as a modular system of a collection of relative autonomous

modules, connected to each other, with a neighbourhood being a suitable urban unit to

represent this autonomous module. The resilience of a city is determined by the resilience

of each individual neighbourhood (autonomous module) and the operation at a collective

level. Thus, a resilience analysis should focus on the relationship between scales, and

between the module’s operations, autonomously and collectively (Allan and Bryant 2011).

Hence, for the purpose of this study, each city was divided into units of analysis or

neighbourhoods with different urban morphologies, considering 5 neighbourhoods in

Mehuin (Mehuin Caleta, Mehuin Balneario, Pichicuyin, Mississippi and Mehuin Bajo) and

6 in Dichato (Litril, Centro, Villarica, Posta, Santa Alicia and Villa Fresia) (Fig. 2).

For the resilience analysis, only open and built areas over 10 metres above sea level

(m.a.s.l) were considered (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8), because the floods of the 1960 and 2010

tsunamis reached between 10 and 12 m.a.s.l (EEERI 2010); hence, no infrastructure below

that benchmark would be useful as an adaptive resource after a tsunami strikes. Data

collected in the pre-event and reconstruction conditions are presented in Tables 2 and 3. To

further understand morphological changes, maps with the urban configuration in the two

phases are presented in Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

4 Results of the resilience analysis

4.1 Urban resilience indicators in Mehuin

The results of Mehuin (Table 2) show that in every neighbourhood, the value of each

resilience indicator increased. This increase is larger in Mississippi which is the area

rebuilt after the 1960 tsunami, where people were relocated to (Fig. 3). The BI, SOS and

ERI increased in Mississippi, meaning a rise in open spaces that can be used for shelter.

Thus, the population increase is balanced by the improvement in open spaces that is

positive for the resilience.

Data in Table 2 also show that the amount of SOS is above 4 m2 per inhabitant

(Table 1) in Mississippi indicating a good amount of open areas that are useful after a

disaster. This is not the case for the amount of facilities used for refuge after a disaster

(CAI) which are non-existent above 10 m.a.s.l (Fig. 4b). A similar situation is seen in

Pichicuyin, Mehuin Bajo and the Mehuin Balneario (Mehuin Beach), where the low urban

density including agricultural land suggests a better resilience capacity in terms of the open

space available for recovery, but less resilience capacity in terms of built elements that are

useful for shelter.

In contrast, Mehuin Caleta (Mehuin Cove), one of the denser neighbourhoods, where

the fishing industry, restaurants and schools are located, shows an increase in SOS and

ERI; however, the amount of open spaces that are useful after a disaster is the lowest when

compared with other neighbourhoods (Table 2). Indeed, there is no significant change in

the case of BI, with a small increase in the amount of built facilities (CAI), but still this

increase is not enough to ensure the recovery of all citizens. This suggests a low resilience

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1375

123

capacity for Mehuin Caleta because the increment of PD is not offset by the amount of

open space and built elements available for recovery after a disaster.

With regard to escape routes, the ERI was increased in all cases, as prior to 1960 escape

routes were not part of the land-use plan (Figs. 3b, 4b). Evacuation routes were imple-

mented mainly in Pichicuyin and Mississippi near residential areas; however, this was not

done in other neighbourhoods that did not comply with the distance (ERD value) required

0 100 200 500

Neighborhood

Flooding zone

Pedestrian street

(a)

Fig. 3 Urban morphology of Mehuin a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. For the neighbourhoods, seeFig. 2. Source: Author elaborated started from ESRI map, digital cartography of Mehuin Municipality andONEMI

1376 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

to reach safety. Finally, accessibility to pedestrian streets (WI) improved in all cases

because prior to 1960 there was no evidence of this information in each unit of analysis.

Mehuin Caleta and Mehuin Balneario show sufficient pedestrian connectivity, while in the

other three neighbourhoods, there are failures in walkability and connectivity. Proximity to

amenities only improved in the Mehuin Balneario (Fig. 3) because all amenities in other

neighbourhoods are below 10 m.a.s.l. Thus, only the Mehuin Balneario neighbourhood

provides citizens with pedestrian connections and accessibility to basic services after a

disaster.

a SAN JOSE DE LA MARIQUINA

a la CALETA

CENTRO

terre no a c omp rar

LOS

RO

BL ES

Jaime Pau lsen403calle 17 n °57 5rol 42 4-4

0 100 200 500

Secure Open SpaceEvacuation Route

Amenities in safe area Secure AreaNeighborhoodFlooding zone (10masl)

Amenities in unsafe area New connection

New Bridge

T-20 roadMaiquillahue road

(b)

Fig. 3 continued

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1377

123

It should be noted that during the last fifty years, the city developed mainly in Mehuin

Caleta and along the main road (T-270). New residences and basic services were developed

without taking into account local resilience needs. These are the balance between built and

unbuilt areas for daily activities as well as for adaptation post-tsunami, the provision of

space for recovery in safe areas and the redundancy of connectivity. Regarding the

reconstruction process, after the earthquake and tsunami in 1960, the central government

was unprepared to respond to this major emergency as it was a catastrophe with dimen-

sions never seen before. The government changed several norms in order to organize the

humanitarian aid and promote housing reconstruction (Norm 14-171 and donation law. See

Sect. 2.2, second paragraph for more detail). Despite this, the reconstruction of basic

Amenities in safe area

Neighborhood

Flooding zone (10masl)

Amenities in unsafe area

(a)

Fig. 4 Mehuin, Mississipi neighbourhood a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. Source: Authorelaborated started from ESRI map, digital cartography of Mehuin Municipality and ONEMI

1378 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

services and key infrastructures took more than fifty years. The end of the reconstruction

process could be considered in 2012 with the inauguration of a new bridge that connects

Mehuin Caleta and Mehuin Bajo.

4.2 Urban resilience indicators in Dichato

The results of Dichato show that overall resilience increased through reconstruction. With

the aim of reducing risk and meeting local needs, the reconstruction plan proposed miti-

gation measures such as an anti-wave barrier and a land-use change in lots located by the

sea, changing from residential to commerce and service. The anti-wave barrier was

designed as a seafront promenade, and a new pedestrian area in the Centro (downtown)

was built in order to promote touristic activity (Fig. 6). In the Centro neighbourhood, the

terreno a comprar

0 50 100 200Secure Open Space

Evacuation Route

Secure Area

(b)

Fig. 4 continued

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1379

123

destroyed houses have been rebuilt on the same site, part of which is within the flood area.

This neighbourhood shows an increment in PD, which suggests a decrease in resilience

(Figs. 5, 6). Similar to what was observed in the denser neighbourhoods in Mehuin, the

enhancement of population is not balanced with a consistent increment in BI, SOS and CAI

that suggests less resilience capacity (Table 3). In the case of Litril, new housing blocks are

built to relocate citizens and the PD and SOS variation between the two phases is not

significant.

The Villarrica neighbourhood, which was particularly hit during the 2010 tsunami, has

experimented a PD decrease because most of its inhabitants left the area; SOS and BI did

not vary. This area was reconstructed with ‘anti-tsunami’ houses (a metallic structure with

a free ground floor and a first floor adapted for residential use) to provide safe coastal

houses for fishermen.

With a higher elevation, results for Santa Alicia and Villa Fresia neighbourhoods show

an improved resilience capacity. Changes in values observed for PD, BI and SOS (Table 3)

are not as relevant because both neighbourhoods are above the tsunami flood level, which

Secure Open Space

Amenities in safe areaNeighborhoodFlooding zone (10 masl)

Amenities in unsafe area

(a)

Fig. 5 Urban morphology of Dichato a pre-tsunami and b after reconstruction. For the neighbourhoods, seeFig. 2. Source: Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality

1380 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

make them less vulnerable. Besides, an increase in CAI can be observed in both neigh-

bourhoods, which is good for resilience. The security zones for Dichato are allocated in

these neighbourhoods, which, if accompanied by good accessibility and enough commu-

nity facilities, can provide adequately equipped shelters to cope with disasters.

The Posta neighbourhood is also located above the inundation zone. Thus, a new

residential neighbourhood as well as amenities and services that are useful during emer-

gencies (e.g. fire station, city council and sanitary services) were relocated to this area, with

an increase in CAI values. In this case, the PD increase explains the resilience’s

improvement, because inhabitants and community facilities are located in safe areas

(Fig. 7). However, the main problem of Posta is the lack of connectivity observed in the

0 50 100 200 500

Secure Open SpaceEvacuation Route

Amenities in safe area

New HousesSecure Area

NeighborhoodFlooding zone (10 masl)

New Public Spaces

Amenities in unsafe area

(b)

Fig. 5 continued

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1381

123

change in WI values (Fig. 8). The new residential area in Posta is placed behind the hills,

far from the city centre with few walkways for pedestrian connection, which is important

during an emergency if roads collapse. Also, by placing most of the emergency services in

this area, accessibility is even more important. It should be noted that the other neigh-

bourhoods maintain and improve the WI and PI values suggesting a positive approach in

terms of citizens’ capacity to move within the same neighbourhood and among them, as

well as good accessibility to basic services located in safe areas.

The reconstruction has paid special attention on providing new evacuation routes, which

have been implemented in each neighbourhood (ERI), and the distance from residential

areas to evacuation routes is now close to 300 m (ERD), or 5-min walking in all cases

(Table 3; Fig. 5).

Concerning the reconstruction programme, the new government engaged in the tasks at

hand with the commitment to complete these in four years. The first problem was the

financial resources allocation, achieved by changing the Finance Law and using the

National Reserve Fund. The second was to recover the economic activities and rebuild

urban spaces. The reconstruction plan started a few days after the event, and after six

EsteroDichato

Calle Arturo Prat

EsteroDichato

0 50 100 200

Not Residential Use

New Public SpacesNeighborhood

Flooding zone

Fig. 6 Reconstruction of Dichato, Centro neighbourhood. On the seafront, a wave mitigation wall withpublic spaces has been constructed and behind it, non-residential buildings have been rebuilt. Source:Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality

1382 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

months 96 % of key infrastructures, which were damaged by the natural disasters,

recovered their functionality (Gobierno de Chile 2010). After the earthquake and tsunami

in 1960, Chilean authorities improved their experience and preparedness in disaster risk

management and post-disaster reconstruction (see Sect. 2.2). The main novelty in the case

of Dichato is that the reconstruction was organized by the Regional Government (GORE)

in lieu than Central National authorities, which proposed a comprehensive plan for

coordinating institutions, private agents and involving citizens in the decision-making

process (MINVU 2016).

5 Discussion

5.1 Effects of the housing provision and cross-sectoral reconstructionapproaches on resilience in Mehuin and Dichato

The reconstruction along the Pacific Coast entails a main dilemma: relocating settlements

to a safe area or rebuilding the city on the pre-event location. In both case studies, the local

economy is based on fishing and tourism; thus, massive resettlement would mean depriving

Pasa

jeAlqu

inta

CalleVictorJar

a

0 50 100 200

New Houses

New Public SpacesNeighborhood

Flooding zone

Anti-tsunamiHouses

New residential areas out of flooding area

Fig. 7 Reconstruction of Dichato, Anti-tsunami houses below flood level and new houses in Postaneighbourhood. Source: Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1383

123

the inhabitants of the possibility to maintain their activities, undermining the survival of

the local communities. Due to this, both reconstruction processes maintained the original

location and implemented mitigation measures, using different approaches, in order to

‘internalize’ the natural risk.

The results of this research indicate that the effectiveness of the reconstruction process

in terms of improving urban resiliency is influenced by the reconstruction approaches

under which Mehuin and Dichato have been rebuilt. Although in both reconstruction

processes resilience has been improved, creating more connected and adaptable spaces for

recovery after a disaster, Dichato’s cross-sectoral reconstruction approach has enabled a

more comprehensive reconstruction of open spaces, infrastructure and urban facilities, and

the updating of urban planning tools to include risk reduction. Indeed, Dichato has

developed significant mitigation policies and projects during reconstruction: urban land use

was changed along the sea front from residential to commercial use, an ‘anti-wave’ wall

was constructed and ‘anti-tsunami’ houses were developed. Furthermore, CAI increased

(a)

Fig. 8 Pedestrian road and walkways in Posta neighbourhood a pre-tsunami and b reconstruction. Source:Author elaborated started from digital cartography of Dichato Municipality

1384 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

significantly in Dichato in areas located above the tsunami inundation level improving

resilience, while in Mehuin public buildings were built mainly in tsunami inundation

zones. Also, it should be highlighted that in Mehuin the reconstruction took more than fifty

years, while Dichato’s reconstruction process was largely finished after five years.

In the case of Mehuin, the aftermath of the tsunami threatened the local economy,

because it destroyed their fishing boats and the cove, where sea products were commer-

cialized. The BI indicator addresses this issue since it refers to the balance between open

and built areas, where, for example, fishing infrastructure can be set up. The results in

Table 2 and also in Figs. 4 and 5 show that although there are open areas available for this

purpose, they are below the tsunami flood line. This means that these new open areas are

threatened and can be easily destroyed by tsunami waves.

In Mehuin, local inhabitants were aware about the lack of local amenities before the

tsunami, which was emphasized further still by the lack of refuge options in the aftermath.

Pasa

jeAlquinta

CalleVictorJar

a

0 50 100 200

Neighborhood

Flooding zone (10 masl)Lack of Pedestrian streetPedestrian street

Amenities

(b)

Fig. 8 continued

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1385

123

Table

2MeasurementsofMehuin,pre-tsunam

iandreconstruction.Elaboratedbytheauthors

Indicator

Mehuin

pre-tsunam

iphase(1960)

Mehuin

reconstructionphase

Mehuin

Caleta

Mehuin

Balneario

Pichicuyin

Mississippi

Mehuin

Bajo

Mehuin

Caleta

Mehuin

Balneario

Pichicuyin

Mississippi

Mehuin

Bajo

PD

(inh/ha)

1.00

0.00

0.00

1.15

07.23

1.96

0.60

20.03

1.81

BI

00

00

00.03

0.05

1.06

0.66

3.43

OSS(m

2/

inhab)

00

00

02.75

8.58

160.87

28.14

127.62

ERI

00

00

00.25

0.96

5.26

0.57

0.00

ERD

(m)a

600

600

600

600

600

914.00

648.00

257.00

273.00

3422.00

CAI(m

2/

inhab)

00

00

02.79

3.89

00

2.34

WI(%

)0

00

00

0.70

0.86

0.20

0.38

0.21

PI(%

)0

00

00

0.00

100.00

0.00

0.00

0.00

aNote

onERD

pre-tsunam

ievaluation:thevalueof600m

isdefined

asthemaxim

um

usefuldistance

forapromptevacuation(10min).Thesevalues

arebeingusedto

comparepre-tsunam

iconditions,when

therewerenoevacuationroutes,withpost-reconstruction

1386 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

Tab

le3

MeasurementsofDichato,pre-tsunam

iandreconstruction.Elaboratedbyauthors

Indicator

Dichatopre-tsunam

iphase(2010)

Dichatoreconstructionphase

Litril

Centro

Villarrica

Posta

Santa

Alicia

Villa

Fresia

Litril

Centro

Villarrica

Posta

Santa

Alicia

Villa

Fresia

PD

(inh/ha)

18.71

41.13

82.94

18.89

35.84

50.18

18.25

91.84

21.58

45.55

29.17

38.34

BI

00

0.02

0.37

0.18

0.18

00.03

0.02

0.53

0.01

0.06

OSS(m

2/hab)

00

3.89

38.84

19.80

11.28

03.36

3.89

10.36

1.04

3.53

ERI

00

00

00

1.47

0.18

1.21

0.19

0.22

0.08

ERD1(m

)600

600

600

600

600

600

352

183

227

234

00

CAI(m

2/hab)

00

00.72

0.00

02.60

1.10

010.26

0.80

1.70

WI(%

)0

00

1.00

1.00

1.00

11

10.83

11

PI(%

)0

00

0.86

0.23

01

11

11

1

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1387

123

As illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4, new amenities have been provided (i.e. schools, health

facilities, naval office, fire brigade and police departments). However, the provision of

these public buildings is not well balanced with the population increase (see PD values in

Table 2); thus, the current urban configuration does not provide enough space in safe areas

for temporary shelters and emergency activities.

After the earthquake, there are also evident mobility needs to quickly evacuate people to

secure areas and during the emergency to connect inhabitants with temporary services

(such as a field hospital and field school). With the reconstruction, evacuation routes and

pedestrian connectivity among neighbourhoods in Mehuin have been improved (as ERD,

WI and PI demonstrate). Figures 3b and 4b show an urban grid with well-established roads

with pedestrian space, while Fig. 3b shows the location of the bridge that now connects

Mehuin Caleta with Mississippi, as well as the road to Maiquillahue. The inhabitants of

Mississippi and Mehuin Bajo can use the latter as an alternative evacuation route if the

bridge collapses.

Even with this, the interconnection among neighbourhoods after a disaster can become

difficult due to the dependence on vehicles to reach safety zones (high ERD in Mehuin

Caleta, Mehuin Balneario and Mehuin Bajo) and basic services (WI and PI values). Hence,

if the bridge collapses to the south or if landslides occur to the north, these evacuation

routes can be jeopardized. Connectivity is key to resiliency (Norris et al. 2008; Marın Cots

2012; Rueda 2012) and one key rule of resiliency is redundancy (Walker and Salt 2006); if

one neighbourhood collapses, the others should be prepared to take on their role, and the

actions taken by the ‘housing provision approach’ are clearly not following this premise.

In the case of Dichato, a more significant resilience improvement can be observed. In

neighbourhoods facing the sea, such as Centro, Villarica and Litril a mixed land use

including housing and commerce was set out and ‘anti-tsunami’ measures implemented as

part of the cross-sectoral approach (GSAPP 2015). These solutions face the need of

maintaining economic activities (tourism and fishing) on the seafront, while at the same

time reducing vulnerability. Besides this, Posta, Villa Fresia and Santa Alicia in the higher-

lying areas, were defined as the safe zones where most new public buildings and new open

spaces were constructed.

In contrast to the case of Mehuin, the ‘cross-sectoral reconstruction approach’ clearly

promotes the interconnection among neighbourhoods after a disaster, thus facilitating

resiliency. Posta, Villa Fresia and Santa Alicia have a similar configuration and distance to

lower-lying city areas; if one of them collapses, the other could take its role in assuring

evacuation and accessibility to safety zones, adding to the redundancy of the system and

hence to resiliency (Walker and Salt 2006). Nonetheless, it is important to consider that

regardless of the improvement in accessibility and connectivity in these areas—which can

facilitate peoples’ access after a disaster (improvements in ERI, ERD, WI and PI)—these

three neighbourhoods do not have enough open and built space to locate the entire com-

munity after a disaster (low values of SOS, CAI).

For Dichato, the cross-sectoral design has resulted in a more comprehensive Master

Plan, one where housing, infrastructure, amenities and public spaces were designed under

agreement with the different actors (Bio–Bio Gobierno Regional 2010; MINVU 2013;

GSAPP 2015). Paying attention to the population’s well-being, including them in the

policy and planning decision is also crucial to reinforce the social capital of local com-

munities, a characteristic of resilience as well as of sustainable and equitable cities (PNUD

Chile 2012; Childers et al. 2015).

Finally, this reconstruction approach also places emphasis on the synergy between

mitigation measures and urban environment amelioration; for instance, the mitigation park

1388 Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392

123

built in Dichato provided new green areas, cultural spaces and services for all citizens. This

multi-functionality of using the open space system along with the capacity to adapt from

recreational activities to a mitigation device is a characteristic observed in resilient cities as

well (Allan et al. 2013; Villagra et al. 2014).

5.2 Recommendations to improve resiliency in urban planningand reconstruction planning based on morphological factors

Regarding the reconstruction programme evaluation, and despite a general amelioration of

urban space quality, some questions about the effectiveness of the current planning

instruments in improving resilience arise.

Indeed, the current planning tools do not appropriately regulate morphological factors to

increase resiliency and often fail in the strategic and long-term view; hence, they generate

urban areas which can fall into vulnerable condition over time. For example, to promote

resilience, it is important to balance population density at a neighbourhood scale as well as

providing the accessibility and mobility of the inhabitants to open areas which are des-

ignated as evacuation routes and safety zones. In Chile, the current urban planning regu-

lations establish a minimum public space provision according to population density (D.S.

n47-1992, art. 2.2.5), but there are no differences between spaces exposed to risk and

others not directly exposed. Therefore, the urban planning regulation needs to integrate the

resilience aim by modifying the current requirements accordingly.

The results of this study show that more effort in urban planning and reconstruction

should be focused on:

• Including resilience thinking in urban planning with a long-term vision, meaning

evaluating the adaptive capacity of cities after a disaster.

• Promoting the cross-sectorial design to improve synergies among actors in order to

translate gains of resilient recovery into better urban environment quality.

• Proposing more adaptive planning, by providing a more flexible framework which may

promote ‘learning by doing’ and improve local capacities.

• Integrating and evaluating urban morphology resilience indicators during the recon-

struction and planning processes for future urban developments, in order to ensure

resilient cities capable of facing future catastrophic events.

• Defining appropriate benchmarks for the community amenities provision and

modifying the urban planning regulation accordingly, paying attention to differentiate

requirements between urban areas exposed and not exposed to risks.

• Considering change in population distribution after tsunamis in terms of density

increase in areas not affected by the tsunami’s flooding, and how these areas should be

flexible enough to adapt for the recovery of the entire population.

• Promoting the multi-functionality of using the open space system and the capacity to

change from recreational activities to a mitigation device.

6 Conclusions

This study shows that in both cases—Mehuin and Dichato—the resilience of urban mor-

phology improves after the reconstruction. Nevertheless, the two reconstruction approa-

ches show significant differences on the extent of resilience achieved. In fact, Dichato’s

Nat Hazards (2017) 85:1363–1392 1389

123

cross-sectoral reconstruction approach has enabled a more comprehensive and resilient

reconstruction than Mehuin’s ‘housing provision approach’.

Compared to the ‘housing provision approach’, the 2010 reconstruction programme was

managed and carried out by local authorities, proposing a more flexible collaboration

framework than the national government structure. The application of a ‘cross-sectorial

approach’ resulted in local capacity improvement (a task force was created, involving

universities, institutions, stakeholders and key agents), a prompt recovery and more quality

of urban spaces. In other words, the ‘cross-sectorial approach’ resulted in a more resilient

reconstruction process.

Although this reconstruction process is not free of criticism, especially in regard to the

management of the participatory processes, the ‘cross-sectorial reconstruction approach’

shows a breakthrough in comprehensive risk management. Starting from understanding

disaster as an ‘opportunity’ to ‘learn by doing’ (Ahern 2011), planning became a process in

which experts, designers and decision makers may gain new knowledge in order to develop

innovative and adaptive urban planning.

With regard to the urban morphology evaluation methodology, the proposed study

framework is suitable for the analysis of changes in urban morphology in tsunami-prone

cities, because key aspects (people distribution, public spaces, basic services, complexity

and connectivity) are taken into consideration; hence, it can be a useful tool to evaluate

resilience after implementing reconstruction plans. It should also be emphasized that the

resilience appraisal should be done by analysing the whole framework, because the balance

between indicators is more relevant than benchmark achievements. In this way, it is

relevant to contrast and adapt the analysis framework with local needs in order to add and/

or eliminate indicators, as required. In terms of the scale of analysis, the dimension of

‘neighbourhood’ is suitable for evaluating the resilience capacity; for instance, the analysis

at a lower scale is not significant and the city scale is not representative for distribution and

connectivity.

This analysis provides a view of physical and morphological aspects related to resi-

lience that are useful for planners and urban designers. Notwithstanding this, to carry out a

more comprehensive resilience analysis, more dimensions, such as social, economic and

governance, should be taken into account. In addition, further exploration on how people

reorganize during the emergency phase might be useful in order to understand resilience. In

fact, actions carried out and decisions made during this phase may be determining for the

adaptability, the prompt recovery, as well as for the innovative reconfiguration of a system

(Holling 2001). The understanding of urban morphology’s role might orientate actions and

policies as well as produce new and innovative solutions to allow tomorrow’s cities to

better adapt to the changing world.

Acknowledgments The paper has been developed partially using the results obtained in the I-2014-11 andPEF-2014-01 and CONICYT Program-Fondecyt N.1150137 research projects.

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