ETI 309Introduction to Contemporary Western Literature

Elements of Style

Elements of Style

Figures of speech

Literary techniques Rhetorical techniques Techniques involving sound

Thematic meaning

Figures of Speech

Expressions that stretch words beyond their literal meanings

By connecting different thoughts and sounds, they increase the breadth and subtlety of expression

Figures of Speech Image: a literal and concrete representation of a sensory

experience/an object that can be known by one or more of the senses

Imagery: a collection or group of images Ice covered the ground, and a cold wind whistled through the tree

limbs. "At the next table a woman stuck her nose in a novel; a college

kid pecked at a laptop. Overlaying all this, a soundtrack: choo-k-choo-k-choo-k-choo-k-choo-k--the metronomic rhythm of an Amtrak train rolling down the line to California, a sound that called to mind an old camera reel moving frames of images along a linear track, telling a story."(Andy Isaacson, "Riding the Rails," The New York Times, March 8, 2009)

Figures of Speech Hyperbole (Overstatement): an exaggeration for

effect I will love you until the end of time. It is going to take a b'zillion years to get through Medical School. I am so hungry I could eat a horse.

Understatement: an ironic expression in which something of importance is expressed as though it were not important The Emperor was dealing with a few minor matters like war on

his borders and food riots in the streets of his cities. "It's just a flesh wound."

(Black Knight, after having both of his arms cut off, in Monty Python and the Holy Grail)

Figures of Speech Irony: the contrast between what is expected or what

appears to be and what actually is

Verbal Irony: the contrast between what is said and what is actually meant.(…as pleasant as a root canal treatment...)

Situational Irony: refers to a happening that is the opposite of what is expected or intended.(When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President; however a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle made to protect the President from gunfire was partially responsible for him being shot)

Figures of Speech Irony: the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and

what actually is

Dramatic Irony: occurs when the audience or reader knows more than the characters know.In Othello, the audience knows that Desdemona has been faithful to Othello, but Othello doesn't.In “Cask of Amontillado” the reader knows something bad is going to happen to Fortunato, while Fortunato does not.

Cosmic irony (irony of fate): misfortune is the result of fate, chance, or God.In “The Gift of the Magi,” a young couple is too poor to buy each other Christmas gifts. The wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his heirloom pocket watch. She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of combs for her long, beautiful, prized hair.

Figures of Speech Sarcasm: a kind of irony; a praise which is really an insult; generally

involves malice/the desire to put someone down This is my brilliant kid who failed out of college. I refuse to engage in an intellectual battle with an unarmed man. It may be that your sole purpose in life is simply to serve as a warning to

others.

Satire: exposure of the vices/follies of an individual, a group, and institution, an idea, a society, usually with a view to correcting it. Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s Travels George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-Four (a dystopia) and Animal Farm

(satire of Stalinist Russia) Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 (satire of the military, war, consumerism,

capitalism and communism) Richard Condon’s The Manchurian Candidate (satire of Cold War

paranoia and patriotism)

Figures of Speech Metaphor: implied comparison expressed without

the use of a comparative term My love is a red, red rose. Ella is the queen bee of this hive. The rain came down in long knitting needles. A man may break a word with you, sir, and words are but wind.

Simile: a directly expressed (explicit) comparison using comparative terms--as, like, than My love is deeper than a well. He is greedy as a pig. A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle.

Yellow butterflies flickered along the shade like flecks of sun.

Figures of Speech Personification: giving the attributes of a human being

to an animal, an object, or an idea The old car coughed, cried out once, and then gave up the ghost. Snow had wrapped a white blanket over the city. Art is a jealous mistress. The picture in that magazine shouted for attention.

Apostrophe: addressing someone not present, or an animal, plant, inanimate object as if it could reply Life, I know not where thou art. Blue Moon, you saw me standing alone

Without a dream in my heart Without a love of my own.

Figures of Speech Paradox: a seeming contradiction, which is

nevertheless somehow true Deep down, he is very shallow. If a person says about himself that he always lies, is that

that the truth or a lie? If you wish to preserve your secret, wrap it up in frankness.

Oxymoron: a two-word paradox icy hot living death the sound of silence unbiased opinion

Figures of Speech Metonymy: use of a closely related idea for the idea

itself (if A is commonly associated with B but not actually part of its whole) Pen is mightier than the sword. The White House asked the television networks for air time

on Monday night

Synecdoche: a part substituted for the whole (if A is a component of B The cuckoo’s song is unpleasing to the married ear. Give us this day our daily bread.

Literary Techniques Rhetorical techniques

Antithesis Cold hands, warm heart. One small step for a man, one giant leap for all mankind.

Parallelism ...of the people, by the people, for the people

Repetition I have a dream…(Martin Luther King’s speech)

Rhetorical question Are we not human? Marriage is a wonderful institution, but who would want to live

in an institution? How many roads must a man walk down/Before you call him

a man?

Literary Techniques Techniques involving sound

Alliteration sweet scented stuff

Onomatopoeia click, buzz, swoosh, smash

Consonance: repetition of ending consonant sounds The bed that Fred sleeps in is Ted’s.

Assonance: the repetition of similar vowel sounds in a sequence of nearby words All day, the wind breathes low with mellower tone

Cacophony: clash of harsh sounds within a sentence or phrase anfractuous rocks

Thematic Meaning Tone: The author’s attitude, stated or implied, toward a subject.

Some possible attitudes are pessimism, optimism, earnestness, seriousness, bitterness, humorous, and joyful. An author’s tone can be revealed through choice of words and details.

Mood: The climate of feeling in a literary work. The choice of setting, objects, details, images, and words all contribute towards creating a specific mood.

Archetype: a theme/motif/symbol or stock character that holds a familiar and fixed place in a culture’s consciousness e.g. the hero, the scapegoat, the evil stepmother, femme fatale

Emblem: a concrete object that represents something abstract Star of David is an emblem of Judaism

Thematic Meaning Motif: a recurring thematic element that develops an artistic or literary

work’s major themes

Leitmotif: a frequently repeated phrase, image, symbol, or situation in a literary work, the recurrence of which usually indicates or supports a theme

Symbol: an image whose literal meaning is far removed from its figurative meaning; things, characters and actions can be symbols. Rose: love and beauty Dove: peace Uncle Sam: the USA Crescent and star: Turkish Republic Winter, darkness, cold: death

Some symbols are conventional, generally meaning the same thing to all readers Bright sunshine: goodness Water: symbolic cleanser