Epidemiological and Clinical Investigations

On Bovine fasciolosis among Beef Cattle in Gezira State, Sudan

Arwa Babiker Abdalla Babiker

Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sudan for Science

and Technology (2004)

A Thesis

Submitted to the University of Gezira in Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Award of the Degree of Master of

Veterinary Medicine

In

Department of Medicine, Pharmacology and Toxicology

Faculty Veterinary Medicine

March, 2014

Epidemiological and Clinical Investigations

On Bovine fasciolosis among Beef Cattle in Gezira State,

Sudan(2013)

Arwa Babiker Abdalla Babiker

Supervision Committee:

Name Position Signature

Prof. Adam Dawoud Abakar Salim Main supervisor …………….

Dr. Abuagla Yousif Mohamed Adam Co. Supervisor ……………

Date : March 2014

I

Epidemiological and Epidemiological and Clinical Investigations

On Bovine fasciolosis among Beef Cattle in Gezira State,

Sudan(2013)

Arwa Babiker Abdalla Babiker

Examination Committee:

Name Position Signature

Prof. Adam Dawoud Abakar Salim Chair Person …………..

Dr . Ibrahim Elhag Elmahdi Elgizooli Internal Examiner …………..

Dr. Husna Mohammed El Bashir External Examiner …………..

Date of Examination 2/3/2014

Ii

Dedication

To

Memory of my late father,

My lovely mother,

Friendly sisters and brothers

I dedicate this work

Arwa Babekir

Iii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, my thanks are due to Almighty God , the Great who gave me the power and strength

to complete this work.

My gratitude and deepest thanks are extended to my supervisor Professor Adam Dawoud

Abakar, Department of Medical Parasitology, faculty of veterinary Medical Laboratory Sciences

.University of Gezira for his unfailing guidance, help and critical supervision and encouragement

throughout this work. My great thanks are due to my Co - supervisor Dr. Abu Agla Yousif

Mohammed, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine University of Al-

Butana. This research has been possible by a scholarship from University of Gezira; I would like

to thank the Vice-Chancellor and Dean Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. The nomination for this

scholarship came through Veterinary Medical Association of the Gezira State. My gratitude and

deepest thanks extended to Dr. Abdall Azim Tag-Alsir and Dr, Abobaker Ammar Sunni,

Veterinary Hospital, Barakat Administrative unit, for their assistance throughout this work. My

acknowledgments are extended to Director General, Ministry of Agriculture and Animal

Resources, Gezira State, and special gratitude to my colleagues at Barakat Veterinary hospital

for their support .Special thanks are due to Dr. Yasir M. Gesmaseed and Mr. Saeed M .Saeed for

their helpful assistance during this work. This work was generously typed by Ustaz Nagwa

Mohammed Osman from Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, University of Gezira. Finally I

would to regret for those which are not mentioned here and help me in a way or another.

Iv

Epidemiological and Clinical Investigations

On Bovine fasciolosis among Beef Cattle in Gezira State,

Sudan

By

ArwaBabikerAbdallaBabiker

ABSTRACT

Fasciolagigantica is considered as one of the most important parasites affecting beef

cattle in the Gezira state. The disease is seriously affecting beef industry in the Sudan.

The disease is characterized by high morbidity rate and has an endemic course in the

Gezira State. Although several techniques were utilized, yet, the diagnosis of the

parasites is not well established.In the present study, retrospective, prospective,

knowledge attitude and practise (KAP) methods were conducted to diagnose and

determine the epidemiological picture of infection with Fasciola gigantica among beef

cattle in the Gezira State. Retrospective study was conducted on data of meat inspection

obtained from different meat inspection departments of the Gezira State, represented by

western, southern and central localities between the years 2010-2012. On average, 54819

cases were admitted annually to the abattoirs, the cases underwent routine anti mortem

and post mortem examination. Out of 164459, 12738 livers were found infected giving an

overall prevalence of infection of 7.74% .The infection rates within the examined beef

cattle were recorded to be 6.3,8.9and8.2 for the years 2010,2011and 2012, respectively .

Infections with Fasciolosis were significantly higher for beef cattle slaughtered in

abattoirs of west Gezira (10.9%). The prevalence of the parasite in south and central

Gezira State was 7.9% ,5.3% respectively. The Fasciola gigantica showed different rates

of infection with the season of the year.The highest infection rate was recorded during the

hotdry months (8.4%,8.1, 6.7%) within beef cattle in west, south and central Gezira State,

respectively. The diagnosis of infection using faecal examination revealed an infection

rate of 10.4% of the examined population. The prevalence among adult cattle was 12.9%.

Survey showed that cattle owners have a good endogenous knowledge about diagnosis

and risk factors of bovine fasciolosis. The study recommends a combination of

endogenous knowledge coupled with faecal examination and good clinical examination

for the diagnosis of bovine fasciola in the Gezira State .

v

السودان ،داء الكبد البقري وسط أبقار اللحوم بولاية الجزيرةعن وبائيه وسريريه دراسة

أروى بابكر عبد الله بابكر

ملخص الدراسة

تعد الدودة الكبدية العملاقة من أهم الطفيليات التي تصيب أبقار اللحوم بولاية الجزيرة. يعتبر المرض من

الأمراض الخطيرةالتي تصيب جميع فصائل الحيوانات المجترة ويشكل خطورة لصناعة اللحوم بالسودان.

زيرة. علي الرغم من أن هنالك يمتاز المرض بنسبه الإصابة العالية ويؤخذ المسار المتوطن في ولاية الج

تقنيات متعددة استخدمت إلا أن تشخيص الطفيل لم يؤسس له بصوره جيدة بعد. في الدراسة الحالية، تم

استخدام طرائق دراسات سابقه ، وحاليه وطرق تتعلق بالمعرفة والاتجاهات والممارسة لتشخيص وتحديد

لاقة وسط أبقار اللحوم بولاية الجزيرة. تم إجراء الدراسات الصورة الوبائية للإصابة بالدودة الكبدية العم

السابقة على البيانات الخاصة بتفتيش اللحوم التي تم الحصول عليها من أقسام تفتيش اللحوم في ولاية الجزيرة

في المتوسط تم إدخال 2012ـ 2010ممثله بمحليات غرب، جنوب ، ووسط ولاية الجزيرة بين الأعوام من

حاله سنويا للمسالخ بولاية الجزيرة. وهذه الحالات تم أجراء فحص دوري لها ما قبل وبعد الذبح 54819

، % 7.7كبدا مصابه وأعطت إصابة كليه تساوي 12738وجد أن 164459علي هذه الحالات من أصل

2012، 2010،2011، للأعوام %6.3، %8.9، %8.2سجلت نسبه الإصابة وسط أبقار اللحوم المفحوصة

أظهرت زيادة معنوية لأبقار اللحوم المذبوحة بسلخانات غرب الدوده الكبديه علي التوالي الإصابة بداء

%5.29، %7.97( سجلت بنسبه الإصابة بالطفيل في جنوب ووسط ولاية الجزيرة بـ %10.93الجزيرة )

العملاقة معدلات مختلفة خلال فصول السنة، سجلت اعلي علي التوالي أظهرت نسبه الإصابة بالدودة الكبدية

( وسط أبقار اللحوم في غرب %6.7،%8.1،%8.4نسبه إصابة في خلال فصول الفصل الجاف الحار )

وجنوب ووسط ولاية الجزيرة علي التوالي. التشخيص عن طريق فحص البراز اظهر معدل إصابة بلغ

. مسح الاستبيان اظهر %12.9الإصابة وسط الأبقار البالغة ( من القطيع المفحوص. وكانت نسبه10.4%)

أن ملاك الأبقار لهم معرفه فطريه جيده عن تشخيص وعوامل الخطر المرتبطة بمرض الدودة الكبدية البقرية

ومن اجل تشخيص طفيل الدودة الكبدية العملاقة بولاية الجزيرة أوصت الدراسة بضرورة تطبيق المزج بين

طرية مقرونة بفحص البراز والفحص السريري .المعرفة الف

vi

LIST OF CONTENTS

iii DEDICATION…………………………………………………….…

Iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS…………….……………….……….…...

V ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)…..…………….…………………….…

Vi ABSTRACT (ARABIC)……..………………………….……...…

Vii LIST OF CONTENTS ……………………………………………...

Ix LIST OF TABLES……………………………….….……………....

Xi LIST OF MAP………………………………………………………

Xii LIST OF APPENDIX.........................................................................

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1 Introduction………………………………………………………….

3 Objectives of the Study ………………………………………….....

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

4 2.1. Morphology and classification of Fasciola gigantic………………

5 2.2. Life cycle of Fasciola species………………………………….

7 2.3. Epidemiology of bovine Fasciolosis……………………………

9 2.3.1. Prevalence and ecology of Lymnaea natalensis………………

10 2.4. Pathogensis of Fascilosis………………………………………...

10 2.4.1. Acute bovine Fasciolosis…………………………………

11 2.4.2. Sub acute bovine Fasciolosis……………………………

12 2.4.3. Chronic bovine Fasciolosis…………………………….

15 2.5. Diagnosis of bovine Fasciolosis……………………………

16 2.6. Control of bovine Fasciolosis…………………………………

17 2.6.1. Education…………………………………………………….

17 2.6.2. Control of Grazing………………………………………….

17 2.6.3. Pasture Management……………………………………….

18 2.6.4. Improved Water Supplies…………………………………

19 2.6.5. Snail Control………………………………………………... vii

20 2.6.6. Chemotherapy……………………………………………..

21 2.6.7. Environmental sanitation and manipulation……………

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS

23 3.1 study area ………………………………….

23 3.2 Animal of the study

24 3.3 Retrospective study

25 3.4 Prospective study

26 3.5 Parasitological diagnosis of Fasciola gigantic

26 3.5.1 Collection of faecal samples

26 3.5.1.1 Faecal samples examination

27 3.5.1.2 Floatation method

27 3.5.1.3 Sedimentation method

27 3.5.2 Egg identification

27 3.5.3 Total egg count

27 3.6 Liver inspection

27 3.6.1 Adult worm identification

27 3.7 Statistical analysis

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

29 4.1 Retrospective study

35 4.2 Questionnaire data

41 4.3 Parasitological diagnosis of Fasciola gigantic

42 CHAPTER FIVE : DISCUSSION

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION/AND RECOMMENDATIONS

45 6-1 conclusion

45 6-2 Recommendations

45 REFERENCES………………………..…………………………..

47

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Page Table.

NO

29

Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection among beef cattle

Slaughtered in abattoirs of Gezira state during the Period 2010 -2012.....

4.1

30

Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection recorded among beef cattle

slaughtered in west Gezira State abattoirs during the period 2010, 2011

and 2012...........................................................................................................

4.2

31 Prevalence of Fasciloa gigantica infection recorded among beef cattle

slaughtered in Southeren Gezira State abattoirs during the period 2010,

2011 and 2012................................................................................................

4.3

32

Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection among beef cattle slaughtered in

abattoirs of central Gezira state.................................................................

4.4

33

prevalence of infection with Fasciloa gigantica among beef cattle in

slaughter houses of Gezira State...................................................................

4.5

34

Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection among beef cattle slaughtered in

abattoirs of Gezira State according to Season during the survey period

2010, 2011 and 2012.........................................................................................

4.6

35

Frequency of herd data concerning herd men and herd structure in Gezira

State..................................................................................................................

4.7

37

Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica among beef cattle by risk factor

pertains to Knowledge.........................................................................

4.8

39 Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica among beef cattle by risk

factors pertain to attitude............................................................................

4.9

Ix

40

Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica among beef cattle by risk

factors pertain to practice ...............................................................................

4.10

41 Prevalence of Fasciloa gigantica eggs according to animal sex...................... 4.11

41 prevalence of Fasciola. gigantica eggs according to animal breed................ 4.12

41 Prevalence of Fasciola. Gigantica eggs according to animal age...................... 4.13

x

LIST OF MAP

Map Page

Gezira State…………………………………………………………25

xi

LIST OF APPENDIX

Page Appe. No

55

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices ( KAP) of cattle owners

towards bovine Fasciolosis in Gezira State …………………..

1

Xii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Hepatic Fasciolosis is a parasitic disease that affects the bile ducts of ruminants, horses,

rabbits and other herbivores as well as-man. In addition, wild life such as rabbits, kangaroos,

elephants and deer were also affected. The adult worms are located in bile canaliculi of affected

hosts, but in other cases can be located under the skin or lung, among other locations. This

parasite “Fasciola species” is found in many places of the world, where conditions of moisture

and temperature exist for their development (Urquhart et. al., 2001). Fasciola hepatica is a

cosmopolitan in distribution. On other hand, Fasciola gigantica is common fluke of domestic

animals in Africa including Sudan (EL khawad et. al., 1978).

Infection rate of Fasciola gigantica in the Upper Nile province varied (Esia, 1966 a)

between 37-68%, in Equatoria province, 33% and in Bahar Elghazal province 56%. About 26%

of cattle livers were condemned (Esia, 1966) in meat inspection in Upper Nile province due to

Fasciolosis. Along the banks and tributaries of White Nile River Karib (1962), reported Fasciola

gigantica is enzootic along the white Nile. It was observed that the immature flukes were first

seen in cattle, in February which meant that cattle had gotten the infection in November and that

patent infection reach their peak in June and July. It was therefore, suggested that cattle must be

treated against fasciolosis between November and February with second dose in April /May

(Karib, 1962) Lymnaea snail are the intermediate host (Elkhawad et. al., 1976). The diagnosis of

fasciolosis may based on clinical signs, presence of the intermediate host, a history of grazing in

endemic areas and demonstration of typical ova in faeces using sedimentation (Marquardt and

Demaree 1986) and or floatation tests. The egg shell is yellow and the operculum is indistinct.

Also diagnosis can be aided by plasma concentration of gammaglutamy transferase which

increased with bile duct damage. At necropsy the nature of liver damage is diagnostic. Adult

flukes are readily seen in the bile duct and

immature stages, may be squeezed or teased from the cut surface. Serological tests are

used during the prepatent period and in chronic cases. (Tristram, et. al., 2006). Recently,

molecular diagnosis based on PCR techniques was also adopted (Rokni, et. al., 2010).

Fasciolosis is a disease that has been described extensively in the United States, England,

Ireland, the middle East, Afrcia and Australia. In most countries the animal’s liver parasitized by

Fasciola is condemned and unfit for human consumption. Recent appointments indicate that

fasciolosis is emerging as human parasitic disease (Hillyer et.al ;1997; Mas-Coma et . al; 2007).

The fluke has serious economic losses and impact on productive animals such as cattle, sheep,

goat and buffaloes. Bovine Fasciolosis in the Sudan is usually subacute or chronic. The acute

form being less common even in endemic areas. Sporadic cases of fasciolosis are sometimes

seen in other parts of the country following the implementation of water development schemes.

It is increasingly evident that parasitic diseases represent a major draw- back to cattle production

in the Sudan. However, proper evaluation of economic losses due to bovine fasciolosis is

lacking. The financial loss caused by the disease is commonly estimated from liver

condemnation rates alone.

Many infections are acquired in the dry season when cattle graze around infected

shrinking areas along the White Nile and drink from infected irrigation canals. The prophylaxis

or control measures of Fasciola infection ideally should involve control of intermediate host and

removal of fluke in affected animals, reduction of intermediate host snail populations and

prevention of access of live stock to infected snails. Use of Molluscacides can be effective to

reduce lymnaeid snail population. Also control of Molluscan habitat by improving drainage

fencing, drainage ditches and springs. Tremendous advances have been made in both the

efficacy and safety of drugs against adult and immature flukes. This study compared the

diagnostic efficiency of faecal examination, Knowledge, attitudes and practice (KAP), and

postmortem examination with ultimal goal to improve diagnosis of bovine fasciolosis in Gezira

state which may help to assess the economic significance of bovine fasciolosis due to liver

condemnation in the abattoir.

Objectives of the study:

To study the prevalence of bovine fasciolosis in Gezira State.

To determine the different factors that affect, the transmission of the fasciola spp.

To compare the diagnostic efficiency of KAP, faecal examination and post mortem

examination records.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Morphology and classification of Fasciola gigantica

Fasciola gigantica is a parasitic flat worm of the class Trematoda which causes tropical

fasciolosis. It is regarded as one of the most important single platy helminth infections of

ruminants in Asia and Africa. Estimates of infection rates are as high as 80-100% in some

countries. The infection is commonly called fasciolosis. The prevalence of Fasciola gigantica

often overlaps with that of Fasciola hepatica and the two species are so closely related in terms

of genetics behavior, morphological and anatomical structures.(ItagakiT et.al.2011) therefore

sophisticated molecular techniques are required to correctly identify and diagnose the infection

(Rokni et. al.,2010).

Fasciola gigantica is leaf- shaped and tapers at both ends. Adult Fasciola gigentica may

reach a size of 75 by 25 mm. it is leaf- shaped broader interiorly, with an anterior cone shaped

projection which is followed by a pair of broad shoulder. It is grayish brown in color changing

to grey when preserved. The ventral sucker is situated at the level of the shoulders and is about a

large as the oral one. The surface of Fasciola gigantica appears rough due to abundant

microscopic spines and surface folding. Spines increase in size in their middle section and are

smaller on the surface near the suckers, spikers range from 30 mm to 58 mm and have serrated

edges with any where from 16 to 20 sharp points. This species has both an oral and ventral

suckers for feeding and attaching to the inside of it is host. Fasciola gigantica has three different

types of surface papillae which are used as sensory receptors Dang Prasert, et. al.,2001, Kumar,

1998). A pharynx and a short esophagus are present and the intestinal caeca are commonly

much branched, especially laterally. The excretory bladder is also much branched. The genital

pore is medial and directed anterior to the ventral sucker. In about the second and third quarters

of the body, there is well developed cirrus and the cirrus, sac. The prostate and seminal vesicle.

The ovary is situated to the right of the middle, anterior to testes, and is branched, the vitelline

glands consist of filling the lateral fields and the ducts of follicles unite to form two transverse

ducts which pass in wards to open into a median yolk

reservoir, from which a duct passes to ootype. The uterus lies anterior to testes Testes are

tandem, or branched. The vitelleria strongly developed and filling the lateral fields and extending

medially as well The egg of Fasciola gignatica can reach sizes of 0.2 mm length (Dang prasert,

et. al.,2001 Kumar, 1998).

Also the eggs of "Fasciola species" have barrel shape, with thin shells and are

operculated. (Soulsby, 1986). Fasciola gigntica is the common liver fluke of domestic stock in

Africa, it occurs frequently in Asia the Philippines, southern USA, southern Europe, European

Russia and the Middle East. Mixed infection of Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gignetica might

be occurring for example, in Pakistan. Kendall (1954) found mixed infection on the boundaries

of high land areas. Fasciola gigntica resembles Fasciola hepatic but is readily recognized by up

to 12mm in breadth. The anterior cone is smaller than that of Fasciola heptica, the shoulders are

not as prominent and the body is more transparent. The eggs measure 156 – 197 – 90-104 mm

(Soulsby, 1986).

The detailed classification of fasciola has been given by Yamaguti (1958) and schell (1970) as

follows:

Kingdom Animalia

Phylum Platy helminthes

Class Trematoda (Rudollph,1808)

Subclass Digenea (Van Benden, 1858)

Suborder Prosos toneatce (odhner, 1905)

Family Fasciolidae (Railier1895)

Genus Fasciola (Linnaeus, 1858)

Species Fasciola gigantica

Fasciola hepatica

2.2. Life cycle of Fasciola gigantica

Sexually mature adult reside and presumably mate in biliary ducts of their mammalian host

(Cheesbrough,2005) Fasciola gigantica reproduce sexually as adults and asexually in other

stages of it is life cycle. The flukes are in the metacercariae stage before becoming sexual adults.

After residing in their mammal host's duodenum, the metacercariae penetrate the liver and

become mature in the biliary tract. The adult flukes have both sexes organs but fertilization

between adult female and male flukes is the most

common source of sexual reproduction adult flukes produce eggs that are then passed in the

host's faeces (Cheesbrough, 2005; Read, 1973).

Non embryonic eggs are laid within the mammalian host and are passed through to the intestinal

tract where they are expelled in the faeces (Cheesbrough,2005).

Egg reach the out side by passing down the common bile duct and being voided with faeces.

They are undeveloped when passed and require a minimum of -10days to reach the mircidial

stage. The eggs are ready to hatch immediately on reaching the out side and do so mostly under

the influence of lowered osmotic pressure; the temperature at which development occurs are 10

to 26Co ; below 10Co, there is only marginal development of eggs and larval stages and no

emergence of cercariae. Hatching is controlled by a number of factors such as light, temperature

and salinity (Soulsby,1986 and Marquardt and Demaree- 1986).

The life span for each stage of Fasciola gigantica varies greatly after being ingested, it takes

3-4 months for adult flukes to become mature and begin producing eggs. Adult flukes can live

for multiple years in their definitive host, embryos of “Fasciola species” are able to persist

outside the host for several months. After produced embryos are then shed through digestive

system with its host faeces. When water and temperature condition are favorable, the embryos

develop in to ciliated larva called, Miracidium which is able to swim and it will die soon after

hatching if it doesn’t contact a secondary host. Miracidum are able to swim and locate it’s

secondary snail host with help of it’s cilia. If miracidium to come in contact with a snail it

actively penetrates it. The cilia are then shed and it is transformed into sporocyst (Read,1973), an

undifferentiated mass of cells. The penetration is associated by the boring action of the miracidia

and probably by enzymes secretions from the apical gland. within the sporocyst the germinal

cells multiply and produce daughter sporocyst or redia. The redia has an oral sucker, apharynx,

asac-like intestine, an excretory system and birth pore, through which cercariae produced inside

it escape. (Soulsby, 1986; Marquardt and Demaree, 1986).

According to (Read, 1973), the rediae move to the snail’s digestive gland known as the hepato

pancreas, over time this is where the redia will form cercariae. One sporocyst and two redial

generations give rise to gymnocephalous cercariae about 6 weeks later (Soulsby , 1986 ;

Marquardt and Demaree, 1986). The cercariae develop tails and leave

snail in search for vegetation to encyst. Once the cysts are formed become metacercariae and

these infect a mammal host if they are accidentally ingested with the vegetation (Read, 1973). If

conditions are favorable metacercariae are able to persist for up to one year (Miliotis and Bier,

2003; Read, 1973). Metacercariae which are eaten with herbage, excyst in the small intestine and

migrate through the gut wall to the abdominal cavity. They reach the liver at about day 5 and

penetrate its capsule. Juvenile flukes migrate in the liver parenchyma, reaching bile ducts and

producing eggs 8 to 12 weeks post- infection (Soulsby-1986; Marquardt and Demaree1986).

Adult fluke live longer than 10 years in sheep (Durbin, 1952), but generally less than a year in

cattle (Delcon, et. al.,1980). When the adult Fasciola are in bile ducts of a host it obtain a small

portion of it’s nutrients from active blood suckling. In day's time, a single adult fluke can take

about 0.2 ml of blood. There is evidence that adult flukes need around 100 times the amount of

glucose the Fasciola receives from active ingestion. There fore adult flukes also receive nutrients

by absorption of glucose through their tegument. The free swimming miracidia were once

thought to be a non- feeding stage, but it has been shown that they metabolize glucose when it is

present (Read, 1973). A variety of general aquatic predators are known to feed on the free-

living stages of Fasciola gignatica including the miracidia and the cercariae stages (Johnson and

the Thieltges, 2009).

. The eggs measure 130-150 by 63-90 um; and the miracidium develops only after the eggs

have been laid (Soulsby; 1986 and Marquardt and Demaree, 1986).

2.3. Epidemiology of bovine Fasciolosis

Fasciolosis due to infection by Fasciola hepatica or Fasciola gigantica is currently

believed to affect as many 17 Million people worldwide, (Hopkins,1992) with91.1million

individuals at risk for infection (KeiserJ and UtzingerJ, 2005). Fasciola gigantica infection is

more geographically constricted, occurring in the tropical regions of Africa, the Middle East, and

Asia, where infection due to either species may occur (KeiserJ and Utzinger J 2009). Contrary to

early thinking prevalence of veterinary disease is not predictive of prevalence of human disease.

(Mas-Comas et. al 2005). Prior to 1980; fasciolsis was thought to be a zoonosis of only mild,

sporadic, or local importance. In the past 20years however, more complete understanding of

disease epidemiology has emerged (Mas-Coma et, al. 1999) have proposed an epidemiologically

useful clarification, based on more recent studies, to better understand fasciolosis. Epidemic

outbreaks can be characterized as occurring in areas where fasciolosis is endemic in animals but

not humans and in areas where the disease is endemic in both animals and human.

Areas of the world with the highest prevalence of fasciolosis include the highland of Bolivia,

the Bolivian Altiphano has- the highest prevalence in the world (Mas-Coma et. al.1999).

Equador, Peru, Cuba, Portugal ,Spain, Turkey, the Nile Delta of Egypt and other countries in

Africa, the northern regions of the Islamic Republic of Iran and elsewhere in Asia; and central

Vietnam (World Health organization 2010).

Humans most often become accidental hosts of fasciola when they ingest aquatic vegetation

on which the metacercariae have encysted. Implicated plants include (most commonly)

watercress, (Tolan , 2001). water Moring glory (Pak boong), (Price TA , TuazonCU,

Siomon,1993). Other aquatic plant, salads in endemic areas such as the high land of south

America, (Marcosl, et. al. 2006) and alfalfa juice which are used as medicinal tonic in Peru .

Another source of infection is drinking water contaminated with free-living (non encysted)

metacercariae and the least common mode of transmission is the consumption of raw

undercooked liver infected with immature or adult worms.

In Sudan Fasciola gigantica is the only fluke reported as causing fasciolosis in cattle

(Karib,1962). Fascioloa gigantica was reported to present in large number and to be causing

severe liver damage in infected cattle in the Upper Nile province (Eisa, 1966 a). Karib (1962)

reported that Fasciola gigantica is enzootic along the white Nile. The area most affected is lying

between Dueim and Malakal towns and about 300 miles long. The author had toured the area

during 1956/57 examining over 600 cattle and he found 32 percent of them were infected with

Fasciloa gigantica and that 50 percent of the affected livers were totally condemned. Kraib

(1962) also studied the prevalence of Fascilosis in cattle slaughtered in the central municipal

abttoir in Omdurman City. He derived the prevalence of Fascilosis in cattle throughout the

country from the data obtained from abattoirs at provincial head quarters. These studies revealed

a high prevalence of 26 percent for cattle in the Upper Nile Region. To provide further

information on the helminthes of cattle in western regions of the Sudan, a survey carried out by

(Elkhawd,

et. al., 1978), two hundred and seventy carcasses were examined from El-Fashir and Nyala

central Abattoirs at Darfur Region. Investigations revealed 10 % were infected with Fasciola

gigantica. Magzoub and Adam (1977) transported 251 male zebu cattle, two to five years of age

to Omdurman central Abattoir in Khartoum province. These animals were reared under different

nomadic conditions and were from different parts of the country. The animals were slaughtered

and the livers were dissected for worm collection. Of these cattle 66.1 percent were infected with

Fasciola gigantica, a higher prevalence than that reported by Karib, (1962) 15 years earlier from

the prevalence rates it can be seen that bovine Fascilosis is a serious problem in cattle of white

Nile province, Equatoria and Bahr-Elghzal Regions.

2.3.1. Prevalence and ecology of Lymnaea natalensis

Lymnaea natalensis is the only snail intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica in the Sudan

(Elkhawad, et . al,1976). This snail has been found along the while and the Bule Nile and their

subsidiaries Lymnaea natalensis was found to build up in October and November in the white

Nile and the infected snails with Fascila gigantica were observed from December til April with a

peak, infection rate during February (Elazazy and Schillhorn,1983). Amin (1972) reported the

presence of the snail in the northern part of the Gezira irrigation area where considerable

breeding occurred during February –March; Elkhawad et, al. (1976) examined 22pools at water

in pastures along the banks of the white Nile at Malakal and found that six out of 22 pools of

water contained snails Lymnaea natalensis and infected snails were encountered in three out of

six infected pools of water. The intensity of water infestation with Lymnaea natalensis was 15

snails per cubic metre. Malek, (1969) looked at Gebel Aulia dam in the Sudan. The dam is

situated on the White Nile 25 miles south of Khartoum. It impounds water for about 300 miles to

the south and forms shallow flowing (reservoir) flood water in July and the reservoir is full until

March. The extent flooding the banks varies from one place to another and after the water has

reached them at the end of march several ponds in the flood plains retain water almost until the

next flooding season. The flood plain, which is shallow at the edge, is very rich in aquatic

vegetation and snail fauna. Considerable human activity takes place in the area and herds cattle

are brought to be watered (Lymnaea natalensis was identified in the flood plain.

In Sudan Abdelrazig (1983) reported that the infection rate of Lymnaea snails follow a

seasonal pattern, with a peak in summer months. Mohammed Ali (1983) showed that the

environmental condition in hot summer were suitable for higher rate of transmission of

fasciolosis in White Nile area. Recently, Atta, Elmanan, et, al. (2001) reported some aspects of

the epidemiology of fasciolosis in northern part of Gezira. Their result revealed that the average

population of Lymnaea snails was different in the four sites of the study. The number of the

snails increased during summer and rainy season and decreased during winter. The author also

reported that the snail infection rate with Fasciola gigantica varied between 17% and 29%.

2.4. Pathogensis of Fascoilosis

The development of infection in definitive host is divided into two phases; the

parenchymal (migratory) phase and the biliary phase (DubinskyA,1993). The parenchymal phase

begins when excysted juvenile flukes penetrate the intestinal wall. After the penetration of the

intestine flukes migrate within the abdominal cavity and penetrate the liver or other organs.

During the migration of flukes, tissues are mechanically destroyed and inflammation appears

around migratory tracts of flukes. The fluke principally migrate in the ventral lobe of the liver

where they produce extensive necrosis of necrotic and haemorrhages which later organize to

form post necrotic scars (Sewell, 1966; Rushton and Murray, 1977)

The second phase (the biliary phase) begins when the parasite enters the biliary duct of the

liver, in biliary duct the flukes mature feed on blood, and produce eggs. Hypertrophy of biliary

ducts associated with obstruction of the lumen occurs as a result of tissue damage. Also the

presence of the adult fluke in the main bile ducts further induces considerable hyperplasia of the

bile duct epithelium and periductal fibrosis (Dawes, 1963).

Fasciola gigantic infection of cattle showed three types of infection.

2.4.1. Acute bovine Fasciolosis

Acute fasciolosis is less common in cattle than the sub acute or chronic form of the disease

(Karib1962) and it is essentially a traumatic hepatitis caused by the simultaneous migration of

large numbers of immature flukes into the liver. The animal dies suddenly and blood stained

froth in the nostrils. Blood is also discharged through the anus as in the

case of anthrax. Acute and fatal fasciolosis is observed from time to time in young cattle

even in enzootic areas and in rare cases in adult cattle in the Sudan. However, such infections

were found when cattle being away for several months were brought to infected localities. (Karib

1962). Heavy infections were reported in the White Nile area when river grazing was used from

April to July (Eisa1966a).

The greater damage is really done from the passage of these flukes through the liver causing

haemorrhages and the affected animal usually dies suddenly from liver destruction (Soliman and

Zaki,1964). Animals may die within few days of the onset of the clinical signs and in this case

the liver is enlarged, pale and friable. It shows numerous haemorrhagic track and clots on the

surface and through out the peritoneal cavity. (Soulsby,1986,Goraish,1987)

2.4.2. Sub acute bovine Fasciolosis

The liver is covered with the flukes migratory tracks. With infiltration of leukocytes and

hepatic, fibrosis (Solusby 1986). Subacute fasciolsis may occur during a chronic form of the

disease with marked cellular response possibly indicating a form of an immune response. Acute

and subacute fasciolosis may occur in animals of all ages and states of nutrition. Death ensues

rapidly or after several days. Affected animals when observed alive are reluctant to move are

anorexic and show distended abdomen which is painful to the touch. One of the complication of

the acute and sub acute fasciolsis is "black disease" caused by the bacteria clostridumo

edamatiens. The organism is a saprophyte and the infection occurs only after liver damage. The

disease is common in Australia and vaccine is available.

Oganrinade (1983) found that infection with 5000 cysts of Fasciola gigantic took 150 days to

cause death in adult Fulani cattle in Nigeria, while Sewell (1966) indicated that even 2000.

Metacercariae of Fasciola giganatica giving rise to 7000 young flukes in the liver took 11 weeks

to cause a two – year old steer to die at sub acute fasciolosis. There was rapid loss of weight and

rapid progressive anaemia but this did not commence until eight weeks after infection. Jaundice

was very marked in the later stage and there was an increase in both the total and direct serum

bilirubin concentrations. Hammond and Sewell (1986) in their experimental infection with

Fasciola gigantica in cattle in the Kenyatsh land found that infection within the range at 500-

2000 metacercariae in young

cattle consistently resulted in retarded growth from about 10 weeks after infection but only

animals given 2000 metacercariae showed clinical signs of lost weight even during this period

from 10 weeks after infection they found that the mean pre-patent period for all the single

infections was 90±5 days with some tendency for the pre-patent period to be shorter in heavier

infections. Although it is generally believed that flukes ingest blood, recent evidence suggests

that young flukes on their way through liver parenchyma feeding mainly on hepatic cells

(Sinclair,1962. Dawes, 1963)

2.4.3. Chronic bovine Fasciolosis

It is the most common form of the disease affecting cattle and other animals including

human. The infection causes mainly hepatic fibrosis. The disease in cattle is characterized by

digestive disturbance with alternating diarrhea and constipation in the terminal stage. Emaciation

ensues rapidly and weakness soon leads to prostration, especially in calves.

Chronic fasciolosis is the type usually encountered and it is a persistent wasting disease which

can be recognized in live, dead or slaughtered animals (Soliman and Zaki,1964) . although

diagnosis of fasciolsis may be difficult in the presence of other diseases such as trypansomosis or

haemonchosis cattle owners and field veterinarians in the Sudan regard the gradual development

of oedematous swelling at the dewlap as almost a pathognomonic sign of liver fluke infection

(Karib,1962).

In chronic fasciolosis . animals become unthrifty, emaciated and weak, the mucosa becomes

pale and there is oedema particularly between the angles of the jaw and the abdomen. Animals

on a high plain of nutrition are more resistant to the disease and conversely the disease is

exacerbated by inadequate nutrition particularly during a savannah dry season (British veterinary

Association,1970).

Graber (1952) found, from his studies on the affect of young zebu cattle artificially infected

with Fasciola gigantica, that a ration based on straw complemented by cotton seed was

sufficient to maintain the host parasite balance in the case at a moderate infestation with 500

metacercariae. When the infection was only 100 -200metacercariae, he found the daily gain in

weight to be normal but a deficient ration at straw is followed either by a speedy loss of weight

or heavy morbidity when the infection is severe (1000-6000 metacercariae) .

Chronic fasciolosis a ppears to be the form of the disease which is the most economically

important. Subclinical infections are not readily recognized by cattle owners and may greatly

reduce the productivity at adult cattle and retard normal growth in young animals. The lesions of

chronic fasciolosis are mostly confined to the liver in severe cases, the substances of the liver is

more or less completely replaced by fibrous tissue, such livers, are totally condemned as the

extensive fibrosis associated with the lesions reduces their value and for aesthetic reasons. There

is no pubic health risk involved (Sewell 1976).

Haruon and Hussein (1975) investigated the pathological aspects of naturally occurring

bovine fasciolosis in the Sudan. They found that car cases of the infected cattle were generally

emaciated an showing subcutaneous oedema. In most cases specific lesions were confined to the

liver although occasionally other organ such as the lung and pancreas were affected. In the liver

from 7 -745 flukes with an average of 100 flukes were found but there was no correlation

between the worm burden and the severity of the hepatic tensions. This confirmed observations

by Coyle (1958) in Uganda and it is difficult to escape the conclusion that many flukes die in the

liver naturally or partly as a result at becoming locked in heavily calcified ducts. The livers were

enlarged and fibrosed and had a leathery consistency. Sometimes there were adhesions with the

neighboring organs. Areas of degeneration, hemorrhages and telengiactsis were found. The bile

ducts were thickened, fibrozed and calcified of even ossified and their Lumina were distended

with exudates containing flukes or remnants of flukes and occasionally biliary calculi Umo and

IKewe (1978) investigated the hepatic changes in natural Fasciola gigantica infestation in Fulani

zebu cattle. The gross lesions which they described are similar to those of Haroun and Hussein

(1975). They included a hard liver structures with thickened prominent bile ducts, some at which

on incision contained varying number of adult Fasciola gigantica. Of the livers they examined

22 percent and 87 percent were respectively totally or partially condemned. Laboratory

investigation on naturally infected zebu cattle with Fasciola gigantica in the Sudan was carried

out by Magzoub and Adam (1977). Nomadic male cattle were slaughtered and then investigated

post mortem. The hepatic damage caused by Fasciola gigantica in moderate cases showed

thickening of the liver capsule and grayish, white tracts in the liver substance.

Microscopically, there was thickening of the walls of the bile ducts which contained flukes,

infiltration by eosinophils and lymphatic cells and proliferation at the bile ducts with foci or

superficial necrosis. In severe cases the surface of the liver was distorted, irregular and fibrotic.

In large animals including cattle anaemia and hypoalbuminaemia are being the most common

and glaring manifestations, constant of fasciolosis (Kumar et al.1982; Ganga et, al. 2007; Edith

et, al.2010b). The developing Fasciola gigantica juveniles and the adults have considered non-

haematophagous and tissue feeding parasites yet cause severe anaemia in the host suffering from

acute and/or chronic disease (Ganga et al .2004b). Thus, pathogenesis of anaemia in Fasciolsis

has therefore been debatable. Various factors, such as haematophagic, haemorrhages during

migratory phase and injurious nature of the fluke. Metabolites discharged into the host

circulation significantly contribute to the development of anaemia (Ganga et al.2004). With

mean fluke load of 300 and above had a significant fall in erythrocytic anaemia (Yadav et al.

1999; Ganga et al 2007). Where as in the chronic phase, hypoalbuminaemia is more marked

than anaemia and an immune carrier host on partial recovery from the acute course of disease

(Edith et al.2010b) continues to suffer from normocytic hypochromic anaemia (Edith,et.al

2010b). It was strongly speculated that the fluke metabolites discharged into the circulation

coupled with generalized oxygen starvation at tissue level, incidental to the severe and prolonged

anaemia could influence normal functioning of the hypothalamus. Pituitary axis and

consequently, the altered physiological plasma levels of the tropic hormones leading to

dysfunction of the target endocrine glands, especially thyroid and adrenal glands that influence

and shift the entire metabolism in the host (Ganga et. al 2007; Edith et. al 2010a). The

histopathological evidence of hypothyroidism in the diseased host were, the appearance of

peripheral vacuoles and atrophy of the thyroid follicles and lymphocytic thyroiditis with diffuse

mononuclear cell infiltration in inter and intra cellular spaces, causing progressive destruction of

thyroid hormones secretary cells and follicles. (Ganga et.al.,2007). Altered serum enzyme levels

and the elevated serum enzyme concentration in fasciolsis were exploited for early and semi

quantitative diagnosis of the disease before the animal is coproscopically positive for the fluke

eggs (Kumar et al.1982; Swarup and Pachauri 1987; Edith et al .2010a).

The recent experimental finding on the liver specific enzyme concentrations periodically

refluxed by the damaged hepatic tissues in the circulation of Fasciola gigantica infected animals

during the course of the disease revealed that the elevated levels of serum Aspartate

transaminase (AST) and Alanine transaminase (ALT) were suggestive of the hepatic tissue

injury, where as the elevated level of alkaline phosphatas (AP) indicated establishment of adult

flukes in the bile ducts (Edith et, al. 2010b). The increasing patterns of the serum enzyme

concentration revealed two clearly demarcated stages. The first stage of massive invasion and

traumatic hepatitis caused by the fluke juveniles during prepatency was coinciding with the onset

and significant increase in the AST and ALT in the host circulation. The second phase (Patency)

in the infected animals increase of the serum AP concentration. In contrast to AST and ALT, the

elevated levels of AP are scribed to decrease biliary excretion of the enzyme or obstruction of

bile flow stimulate denovosynthesis of the hepatic AP and synthesized enzyme is refluxed into

the host circulation. Over 28% increase in AP concentration indicates obstructive hepato-bitiary

lesions and less than 8% increased AP concentration was suggestive of chronic form of the

disease or post –patency immune carrier status of the host (Edith et, al. 2010b). Histologically,

there were fibrosis and proliferation. Bile ducts and old fluke tracks were in many places luded

by connective tissue infiltrated with eosinophils and fibroblast.

2.5. Diagnosis of bovine Fasciolosis

Diagnosis of Fasciolosis may consist of tentative and confirmatory procedures. Atentative

diagnosis of fascilosis may be established based on prior knowledge of the epidemiology of

clinical signs, information of grazing history and seasonal occurrence. Confirmatory diagnosis

however , is based on demonstration of fasciloa eggs. Through standard examination of feaces in

the laboratory, postmortem examination of infected animals and demonstration of immature and

mature of flukes in the liver. The latter is helpful in deciding the intensity of infection. The

diagnosis of fasciolosis is of prime important for planning treatment and the eradication program

from the endemic area. Faecal examination is of little consequence in the host suffering from the

acute course of the disease because the onset of adverse effects appear much before appearing of

fluke eggs in faeces (Gupta and Yadav 1994; Dixit et, al.2008). Quantitative examination of

faeces and assessing hepatic fluke load at necropsy are also not sensitive enough to precisely

predict severity of the disease (Garg et. al. 2009). However it is possible to predict and suspect

fasciolosis during early pre-patency (Day 40 post infection ) by periodical monitoring the

elevated levels of marker enzymes (AST and ALT) in the host circulation (Edith et,al.2010 b).

Serological demonstration of anti Fasciola specific antibody, Fasciola gigantica antigens and

immune complexes in host circulation during prepotency appears to be useful alternate option to

coproscopic detection of fluke eggs (Yadav et, al.1999; Dixit et. al 2008). Amongst various

immune diagnostic techniques used , ELISA is the most sensitive and acceptable technique but at

time suffers from false positive reporting cross reactivity with other in situmetazoan infection

and that is a major limitation and it prompted a search for specific immune- dominant moieties in

complex somatic and excretory antigens. The role of metabolites released during the

development of olds cercariae in conferring acquired immunity in the host, immune evasion

and diagnosis of the disease was thoroughly investigated (Dixit et,al.2008). Ultimately,

Glutathionestranferase (GST) and Cathepsin Lcysteine proteinase (CS) molecules were

identified as specific for the purpose. Cathepsin Lcysteins proteinase was further purified,

characterized and designated as Fgcl-3 antigens .

The Fgcl-3 ELISA showed 100% and 97% sensitivity under experimental and field situations,

respectively in the diagnosis of the disease. The infection could be detected as early as two wpi

(Dixit et. al. 2004; Raina et. al.2006). The Fgcl-3 was also evaluated for its potential in the

detection of early prepatent infection in experimentally infected bovine calves infected with

Fasciola gigantica as early as 4thwpi, while using sensitive antibody detection assays with 100%

sensitivity (Sriveny et. al.2006).

2.6. Control of bovine Fasciolosis

Several control methods against ruminant fasciolosis are available and either be used

independently and as combination of two or more of them. These methods involve thefollowing

:-

2.6.1. Education

Behavioural changes have the potential to be the most effective and cost efficient

approaches to disease control and thus, education is an essential aspect of any public health

effort. The primary message of Fasciola gigantica campaigns is to keep domestic animal herds

separate from the growing sites of aquatic. This limits the risk of contaminating the vegetation

and thus decrease the transmission for both human and animal infection.

2.6.5. Control of Grazing

Before a rational grazing control scheme can be instituted it is first necessary to carefully

identify and survey all suitable habitats for the snail intermediate host, Lymnea natalensis. This

is best done in the dry season and control measures may then be directed towards preventing

access of cattle to the habitats where metacarcariae have been found. However, excluding cattle

from infested areas cannot be relied upon to eliminate the infection because wild species act as

reservoirs of infection (Hammond and Sewell, 1986).

Nevertheless, where animals have to graze infected areas due to the lack of grazing in dry

areas, this should be delayed for as long as possible until the pastures are well dried out and so

became relatively safe for grazing stock, through the destruction of any metacarcariae by

desiccation Hammand and Sewell,1986). This will be effective, but will involve loss of pasture

and the lack of alternative grazing during the recurring drought makes this approach rather

impractical. The most effective procedure for controlling the disease is zero- grazing where

animals are closely penned, while their food is produced else where and brought to them. If this

is not possible for economic and logistic reasons with all the cattle a more restricted system

could be practiced. For example, zero- grazing may be utilized only with young animals or in the

period of the seasonal prevalence of the parasites, when the grazed pasture is heavily

contaminated (Sewell, 1976).

2.6.6. Pasture Management

The possibility of this form of control is limited under the communed grazing systems

which prevail in almost all parts of the Sudan. After the harvest in the irrigated areas, the

population of cattle including nomadic herds from long distances away becomes great, attracted

by grazing on the stubble fields (Khuele, 1983). The use of

irrigation for growing cattle feed, e.g. alfalfa, were the crop is grown and then allowed to

dry for some weeks and it is used as standing hay is relatively safe (Sewell,1976). No

satisfactory grazing control strategies have evolved within traditional systems. Some isolate

enclosures have been established and could provide useful dry season grazing but there was no

incentive to develop this further since they were frequently trespassed upon and benefits accrued

mainly to other users of the communal resources.

2.6.7. Improved Water Supplies

The sue of water troughs sited on the dry ground filled with water form wells is the

traditional among some pastoral tribes. So far, no deliberate attempts to control the snail

intermediate host have been made in connection with animal Fasciolosis, but certain steps have

been taken to prevent the infestation of newly dug water reservoirs (haffirs) for watering animals

and or people. This is achieved by adopting a design where by the reservoir has perpendicular

edges and square corners so that the formation at shallow edges is avoided and the infestation of

snails made impossible (Karib, 1962). The water supply for cattle from these reservoirs should

be fed into deep troughs, with the outlet pipe fitted with affine screen to prevent infected snails

form passing through. In any case, the land immediately around the reservoir should, if possible,

be enclosed with a stock proof fence. A study at control measures applied in Tanzania is given

by Hammond (1965). In Uganda, Coyle (1958) described boreholes as the completes answer to

the liver fluke problem provided that all the natural watering places which harbour snails are

fenced off. In the Sudan and elsewhere, in dry pastoral areas, the use of bore holes with

hydraulic rams to pump the water to a high level from where it can be fed to water troughs sited

on dry ground, is relatively safe.

In the dry season the River Nile and its associated water courses, the irrigation canals

associated with crop production schemes and pools found in the flood plains after the water has

recede, are the main sources of water for livestock in the eastern, central and southern parts of

the Sudan. At present the only thing that might be done is to try to persuade livestock owners to

water their animals only at selected areas which are naturally unsuitable as hip tats for the snail

intermediate host. In this respect it might be helpful if livestock owners were taught to recognize

the various snail infested areas particularly near villages and know infected areas were clearly

sign posted.

2.6.5. Snail Control

Control of parasitic diseases is crucial to improve the productivity of the animals. In most

fasciolosis endemic areas, the control of the intermediate snail host population offers a good

opportunity for the reduction of transmission and is generally effective when combined with one

environmental sanitation.

Although eradication of the snail host is the most effective method of total fluke controls this,

however is often very difficult in low wet areas with a mild climate. Snails multiply extremely

rapidly and hence eradication is almost impossible in irrigation areas There are different types of

snail poison available that are safe for stock but need care and precision in their application.

Other useful methods of fluke control include biological control of intermediate host based on

the introduction of natural enemies i.e. predator, competitors or parasites. Predators are active

organisms which seek their food and consume a number of preys during their life time. Predators

of fresh water snails include species of virtually every major group of the animal kingdom i.e.

Mammalian to planarian (Madsen, 1992). Protoptreus annectans has controlling effects on snail

population (Daffalla et. al., 1985). The use of Molluscicides for control of snail intermediate

host, is a potential tool for the control of the infections. Before considering chemical control of

snails, it should be noted that many habitats are topographically unsuitable for the use of

molluscides and it is often very difficult to apply them effectively. They are toxic to the

environment, cooperation between neighboring properties is required for effective cover and

regular (at least yearly) application is required because rapid repopulation of snail may occur.

Where as, they are not species- specific, may destroy edible snails highly, valued as food in some

communities, and expensive (Hansen and Perry,1994). A great number of chemicals have been

used as molluscicides in the past, but at present Niclosamide (Baylascide or Mollotor) and

copper sulphate are used in different parts of African countries (Brown, 1980).

Brown (1980) indicated that molluscicidal properties have been demonstrated in extracts from

a variety of plants. Asubstance ' Endod' or Lemma toxins derived from the fruits of shrubs

phytolacca dodecandra Substance such as 'Endod' might provide means of snail control less

costly to developing countries than synthesized molluscides but the production of natural

molluscides on a commercial scale has yet to a achieved. Tadesse

and Getachew, (2002) from their finding they also indicated that 'Endod' was used for the

control of Fasciola transmitting snails particularly lymnaea natalensis and lymnaea truncatula .

2.6.6. Chemotherapy

Effective control of most trematode infections is based on strategically applied

chemotherapy (Hansen and Perry, 1994). Combination of chemotherapy, intermediate host

control, sanitation and environmental manipulation are believed to be more efficient but very

expensive. Aflukicidal drug of choice must full. fill the following:

It must act against both immature and mature flukes

It must not be toxic to the recipient animal

It must be cheap and available

Chemotherapy with drugs remains the most effective way of treating parasitic diseases, and is

usually at the heart of any major control campaign. Compared to, drug treatment is very cheap

(Gaasenbeek, et. al., 2001). The drugs used against flukes should ideally destroy the migrating

immature flukes as well as adults in the bile duct. Chemotherapy has been used for years in

animal populations to decrease the animal reservoir and reduce agricultural losses. Until

recently, however, bithionol was the only treatment available for Fascioliasis and its cost, high

doses, and the extended length of treatment effectively prohibited its use for large-scale

campaigns. The antihelmintic triclabendazole is not yet approved in most countries, but shows

great promise for its utility single - dose chemotherapy efforts to control morbidity and

transmission in endemic areas. A number of drugs have been used to control fasciolosis in

animals. Drugs differ in their efficacy, mode of action price and viability. Fasciolicides (drug

against fasciola SPP), fall into five main chemical groups ;(Fair weather, Boray JC September

1999).

Halogenated phenols: bithionol (Bitin), hexachlorophene (Bilevon): nitroxynil (Trodax)

Salicylanilides : closantel (flukiver supaverm), rafoxanide (Flukanide, Ranizole)

Benzimidazoles: Triclabendazole (Fasinex), albendazole (vermitan, valbazen) , mebendazole

(Telmin), Luxabendazole (Fluxacut) Phenoxyalkanes diamphenetide (coriban) Triclabendazole

(fasinex) is considered as the most common drug due to its high efficacy against adult in control

of fasciolosis of live stock in many countries. Nevertheless, long- term veterinary use of

triclabendezole has caused appearance of resistance in Fasciloa hepatica. In animals,

triclabendazole resistance was first described in Australia (Overend DJ, Bowen FL,1995).

Scientists have started to work on the development of new drug. Recently, anew Fasciolicide

was successfully tested in naturally and experimentally infected cattle in Mexico. This new drug

is called compound Alpha and is chemically very similar to triclabendazole (IbarraF, VeraY,

QuirozH, et. al., (2004). Chemotherapy normally reduces the prevalence and intensity of

infection as measured by faecal egg counts (Hansen, et. al., 1999). Other drugs salicylanilides ,

closantel, oxyclozanide, and substituted phenol (nitroxynil) are the drugs of choice in use against

Fasciola gigantica, with an efficacy ranging from 20 to 100% depending upon the drug, dosage

and administration modalities used (Gupta et. al., 1989; Sanyal and Gupta 1996; Pal et. al,

2003). Use of Triclabendazole incorporated feed pellets and strategic application of the

antihelemintic delivery device have also been claimed to reduce flukes burden (Sanyal, 1998). In

the endemic areas, epizootiology based specific therapeutic management of the disease in mild

summer (May- June) in autumn (October), and in late winter (January), when animals are

confined to indoor housing and are stall fed, have been advised and practiced. In the endemic

areas, metrological forecasting facilitates early warning of disease occurrence, so that control

measures, are timely applied, prior to shelling of cercariae by the infected snails and intake of

metacariae by the host.

2.6.7. Environmental sanitation and manipulation

Draining swamps, building sewage system and providing clean water

supplies are used to control water – borne diseases including snail borne/ helminthes but is very

expensive compare to chemotherapy, (Hansen and Perry,1994; Gaasen Beek, et. al., 2001).

Strategies for the treatment and prophylaxis of infections with Fasciloa are developed based on

epidemiological data. Effective treatment during the prepatent period

for an extended duration could eliminate Fasciola infection or reduce contamination of pasture

to a very low level, requiring less frequent treatment for a considerable time (Hansen and Perry

1994; Yilma and Malone, 1998). Retardation of immature flukes, which survive treatment,

appears to be applicable to all antihelmintics and the degree of retardation depend on the efficacy

of the drugs against the immature stages. This phenomenon has a great advantage in strategic

control by reducing early posture contamination with eggs. Less frequent strategic treatments

with a possible yearly rotation of antihelmintic combinations that are effective against both

immature and adult flukes has been reported to provide the best method of success full control of

fasciolosis (Parr and Gray 2000). Other control methods include rotational grazing (i.e-grazing

animals in divided paddocks; grazing equines, then sheep etc and avoiding mixture grazing of

animals of different age groups (NB: Young animals are generally susceptible to helminthes

infections).

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Study area

Gezira state is located between latitudes (13- 32 ْ S- 15-30 ْ W) and longitudes (22-32 ْ W-

20-42 ْ S). Bordered from North by Khartoum state from south Sennar state, west. Algedaref

state and east White Nile state. The whole area is about 23373) kilometers square, that is to say

about 2.5 %of the total area fo the country. The state consist of seven localities. Medani is the

capital of Gezira state According to the latest cencus (2006) the total number of population is

about (2.796.330) who belong to different tribes; 19.1% of the population lives in the country

side while the rest 80.4% lives in urban areas. There are many agricultural Projects is the state.

These include, Alrahad project which lies North east Umalgora locality, Sundus and Guneid

sugar projects. The State located within the belt of the dry climate and uniforms, characterized

by seasonal rains which fall during summer dry months (July and September). Annual total rain

fall was 272.1 ml peaked in August and declined to zero in winter seasons. Humidity range

between 70 – 180 and drought it fall between 18 – 32% in dry season. Most the surface of the

state is flat plains and there are no heights just some of the hills in the eastern southern parts and

sliding surface is generally in the direction of rivers and streams. The most important rivers are

the Blue Nile River and Alrhad River. The state attracts people from other parts of the country

due to its location and presence of agricultural projects .

Economic potential of the state is based on agricultural and live stock which considered of the

best local and cross breeds . Animal health services and preventive medicine measure are taken

care by veterinary authorities . The state contains agricultural projects , besides natural pasture

that could help improved the marketing of livestock. This could help the economy of Sudan .

3.2. Animal of the study

The animals under study include beef cattle of different breeds, age and sex. The best local

breeds ( Kenana and Butana) are found in the state besides foreign breeds. Many types of

farming system are found in the state include sedentary, semi sedentary,

mixed (livestock – crop), semi nomadic and nomadic system. Cattle under study were

categorized into calves (less than 12 months old) wearers (1-2 years old) and adult over 2 years

old.

3.3. Retrospective study

The data of retrospective study were collected from records and sheets of Animals

Resources Directorate, Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources- Gezira state. These

animals were diagnosed as infected with Fasciloa gigantica during meat inspection. The study

period covered the years, 2010, 2011 and 2012. All cases were recorded in form of tables

clarifying upper and lower cases for different infection circumstances.

Map.1. Gezira State indicating from where samples were collected

Source: (Anon, 2006)

13 N

15 N

43 E 32 E

3.4. Prospective study( Preparation of the questionnaire )

The questionnaire used in this study had been designed to be suitable as a rapid means of

identifying Fasciola-infected beef cattle in Gezira State. The questionnaire was designed and sent

to five randomly selected Veterinarians in the study area (Managil, Medani, Kamleen, Barakat

and Hassahesa) and had been a administered by them to cattle owners and beef enterprises

personnel in seven localities of the State. The questionnaire was prepared to identify the area for

study. (Annex No.1), it was been pretested and modified as necessary before admission. Before

the questionnaire survey was conducted, the relevant regional and district Veterinary and Animal

health authorities in Gezira were

contacted and were briefed with the purpose and methodology of the survey. The individuals

who were responsible for coordinating survey activities in the area were consulted and

information on the number of cattle owners and beef enterprises personnel in Gezira State and

the methods of distribution and collection of questionnaire were discussed. A sufficient copy of

the questionnaire was produced. Questionnaires were then distributed to Veterinary officers

Managil, Madani, Hassahesa, Kamleen, Southern Gezira, Eastern Gezira and Ummelgora

localities. The responsible persons in these localities were regularly contacted during the survey

period. Completed questionnaires (120) from selected localities were collected. Data obtain were

then analyzed and tabulated.

3.5. Parasitological diagnosis of fasciola gigantic

3.5.1. Collection of faecal samples

Faecal sample were collected during the period 2010- 2012, samples were collected from

cattle and calves of local and cross breed. A total of 201 faecal samples were rectally collected

from Southern and Madani alkobra localities these animals, each sample was then labeled , the

sex of animal and age were also recorded. The faecal samples were preserved in 10% formal

saline for microscopic examination

3.5.1.1. Faecal sample Examination

Direct smear: to determine egg of “Fasciola species”, a small amount of faeces was placed

on amicroscope slide and water was added and was mixed thoroughly using an applicator stick

cover –slip was applied with forceps or finger then the sample was examined microscopically at

low and at high power magnification.

3.5.1.2. Floatation Method

Two gram of faeces were taken in beaker with sufficient water to make a fluid mixture. The

faeces thoroughly dissociated so that the egg were freed from faeces , the suspension was

poured into a test tube and more Mg sulphate was added to fill the tube to the top. A cover slip

was then placed on the surface of the liquid and left standing for

10 -50 minutes. The cover slip was then removed vertically and placed on a slide and

examined microscopically under low and high power magnification.

3.5.1.3. Sedimentation Method

Three gram of faeces homogenized with water and the suspension was passed through coarse

mesh sieve (250nm), transferred the filtrate into a conical flask made that the faeces were

dissociated. Poured the mixture into centrifuge tube and spined at a moderate. Speed for 5

minutes poured off the supernatant fluid, a small quantities of sediment were collected with a

pipette then put on glass microscope slide, cover slip were applied and examined for detection of

the trematode eggs.

3.5.2. Egg identification

The characters of Fasciola gigantica and Fasciola hepatica eggs were used for

identification of the parasite. These characters included egg shell (yellow, the operculum is

(indistinct) and embryonic cells are also (indistinct) whenseen under the microscope.

3.5.3. Total egg Count

Egg counts were made using the modified McMaster method (Anon 1977). Three gram

of faeces were mixed with 42 ml of tap water and faecal suspension was then passed through 80

um/square inch sieve to remove debris. The filtrate was collected in a clean dry bowl 15 ml of

this filtrate were taken into a centrifuge tube, centrifuged (baird and tat lock ltd, England) for 3

minutes at 3000 rpm and the supernatant was then discarded. The sediment was emulsified by

gentle agitation and saturated zinc sulphate was added until the volume became equal to the

initial aliquot of the filtrate. The centrifuge tube was inverted several times to obtain an even

suspension of the contents and the two chambers of the McMaster slide were filled using a clean

Pasteur pipette. The average number of egg present in these chambers was multiplied by 100 to

obtain the number of egg per gram of faeces.

3.6. Liver inspection

The liver was examined for the detection of any abnormal conditions whether localized,

superficially or deeply in the organ. The liver was then placed on its parietal surface where 2

incision were made one is diagonal and directly behind the caudal lobe extending to portal

fissure, while the other is perpendicular to middle plane of the

visceral surface of the liver about 10 -15 cm left of the portal fissure where the large bile

ducts were then exposed and examined for flukes.

3.6.1.Adult worm identification

Fluke recovery was performed by the method described by Rapic, et.al (1984). The infected

liver were immediately removed at postmortem labeled and placed in individual polyethylene,

they were then transported to the laboratory where they were placed in plastic dishes containing

warm normal saline. The adult flukes were first removed by slicing the main bile ducts and gall

bladder. The livers were then cut into slices approximately 1cm thick and placed in dishes

containing warm saline and soaked for 30 minutes. While in the liquid, the slices were squeezed

and macerated. The liver tissue was removed and liberated flukes were collected. The flukes

were washed and counted individually as identified by presence of the oral suckers.

3.7.Statistical analysis

The obtained data were subjected to statistical analysis using a computerized programme (Basic

stat). Chi-square test was performed to determine the significant differences in infection rates at

0.05 level.

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS

4.1. Retrospective study

Table (4.1) indicates that during 2010 – 2011 -2012, The slaughter houses in Gezira state

handled 164459 cases of cattle for meat inspection with annual average of 54819. The largest

number of cases presented to slaughter houses was in the year 2012 followed by the year 2010 and

lastly 2011.About12738 out of these cases were positive giving an over all prevalence 7.74 infection

for Fasciola gigantica a among beef cattle in Gezira state. The prevalence rate of infection was

significantly higher in the year 2011 (8.87%) followed by the year2010 (8.15%). The least infection

rate with the parasite was recorded during the year 2012 (6.29%)

Table 4.1. Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection among beef cattle

slaughtered in abattoirs of Gezira state during the Period 2010 -2012

Prevalence% NO. infected No. Examined Year

8.15 4385 53774 2010

8.87 4760 53604 2011

6.29 3593 57081 2012

7.74 12738 164459 Over all

Table (4.2) gives the prevalence of infection with Fasciloa gigantica in west Gezira state. The

overall prevalence rate was 10.93%. the highest rate of infection was recorded in year,

2010(12.38%) followed by the year 2011 (10.58%) The least infection rate was showa in the year

2012(9.66%).

Table 4.2. Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica infection recorded among Beef Cattle slaughtered

in west Gezira State abattoirs during the period 2010, 2011 and 2012

Prevalence% NO. infected No. Examined Year

12.38 2027 16365 2010

10.58 1551 14654 2011

9.66 1418 14672 2012

10.93± 4996 45691 Over all

Chi2 – test P:0.823 Not significant

Infection recorded among beef cattle slaughtered in south Gezira state abattoirs during the

period 2010 – 2011- and 2012 is depicted in table (4.3). Out of 54218 animals examined 4322 livers

were found infected giving an overall prevalence of 7.97%. The highest rate of infection was

recorded in the year 2011 (9.66%) followed by year 2010(8.40%). The least infection rate with the

parasite was reported in the year 2012 (6.26%). This infection rate was significantly lower when

compared to that recorded among cattle of west Gezira state.

Table 4.3. Prevalence of Fasciloa gigantica infection recorded among beef Cattle slaughtered

in Southeren Gezira State abattoirs during the period 2010, 2011 and 2012

Prevalence% No. infected No. Examined Year

8.40 1240 14756 2010

9.66 1734 17948 2011

6.26 1348 21514 2012

7.97± 4322 54218 Over all

Chi2 – P:0.683>0.05 Not significant

The infection of beef cattle in central Gezira state is shown in table (4.4). Out of 64550 animal

slaughtered at central Wad Medani slaughter house, 3420 were found infected with Fasciola

gigantica giving an over all prevalence of 5.29% which is lower significant (P>0.05) when

compared to either of that recorded for cattle of south or west Gezira state. The highest infection rate

was recorded in the year 2011(6.32%) while the least infection rate was recorded in the year2012

(4.66%).

Table 4.4. Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica among beef cattle in slaughtered abattoirs of

central Gezira state.

Prevalence% NO. infected No. Examined Year

4.78 1154 24102 2010

6.32 1439 22735 2011

4.66 827 17713 2012

5.29 3420 64550 Over all

Chi2 – P>0.05 Not significant

As shown in Table (4.5). through out the survey period out of 164459 cattle examined 12738

were found infected with Fasciloa gigantica giving over all prevalence rate 7.74%. The prevalence

rate of infection with the parasite in west, south and central 10.93, 7.97 and 5.29% respectively.

Higher infection rate (10.93%) was recoreded in 2010 and the least Fasciloa gigantica prevalence

was recoreded in 2012 (5.29%).

Table 4.5. prevalence of infection with Fasciloa gigantica among beef cattle in slaughter houses

of Gezira State.

Year Prevalence %

`2010 12.38 8.40 4.78

2011 10.58 9.66 6.32

2012 9.66 6.26 4.66

Overall 10.93 7.97 5.29

ANOVA-test: high significant differences between the overall infection effect of season of the

prevalence of the parasite is shown in Table (4-6): Dry hot= (March – June), Hot wet =(July –

October), dry cold = (November – February). The prevalence rate with Fasciloa gigantica showed

different rates of infections with the season of the year. The highest infection rate was recorded

during dry hot months (8.36%). followed by dry cold (8.014%) and Hot wet (6.73%). No significant

difference was recorded between different season of the year (P>0.05).

Table 4.6. Prevalence of Fasciola gigantica among beef Cattle slaughtered in abattoirs of

Gezira State according to Season during the survey period 2010 , 2011 and 2012

Prevalence% No. infected No. Examined Season

8.36 4526 54081 Dry hot

6.73 3704 54090 Hot wet

8.14 4509 55388 Dry cold

7.74 12738 164459 Over all

Chi2 – P>0.05 Not significant

4.2. Questionnaire Data

The questionnaire survey assigned for endogenous knowledge of herd men about diagnosis and

risk factors of bovine fasciolosis was conducted in seven localities in Gezira state namely Managil,

Great Mendani Southern Gezira ,Eastern Gezira, Alhassehsia, Alkamlin, and Umalogra Locality.

Menagil locality was selected to represent beef cattle located at the western part of Gezira state,

where animal are in contacts with water. The other localities were pointed out to represent cattle in

the central part of Gezira state as represented by Madani Elkobra ,south locality represented south

part of Gezira state, Alhassehisa and Alkamlain represent northern part of Gezira state while

Umalogra and Eastern Gezira represent eastern part of Gezira state. The same opportunities for

water animal contacts are also available there. The surveyed populations include 120 herd men of

which 23 were surveyed in Managil, 16 in Madani Elkobra, 16 in south Gezira, 19 in Eastern

Gezira,15 in Umalogra, 14 in Alkamlin, 17 in Alhassihessia locality.

Data analysis concerning herd men and herd structure is shown in Table (4-7) Most of herd

men(73%) are in educated levels and have an excellent level of experience. Only 27% were illiterate

and have very limited experience about cattle breeding. Half of the herd structure in Gezira state is

represented by cross breed. About 31% of cattle were Butana breed and 19% were of kenana type.

Regarding gender, females are represented by 70% of the whole herd while male percentage is only

4.2. The rest (24.2) is a combination of both sexes. Most of these animals are brought from endemic

areas(65.8%)

Table 4.7. Frequency of herd data concerning herd men and herd structure in Gezira State as

represented by 120 questionnaire

NO Parameter Respondent Percent

1 Educational level

Illiterate

Educated

Graduated

33

53

34

27.5

44.2

28.3

2 Experience

Poor

Fiar

Expert

04

13

103

3.3

10.8

85.8

3 Breed

Butana

Kenana

38

23 31.7

Crossed 59 19.2

49.2

4 Sex

Male

Female

Both equally

7

84

29

4.2

70

24.2

5 Animal source

Endemic

Non endemic

79

41 65.8

34.1

Result of endogenous knowledge of herd men about the disease and risk factors associated with

its transmission is depicted in Table (4-8) About 70% of respondent did not know the causative

agent of bovine fasciolosis and 46% did not know the season when the disease is prevailing

.Moreover, most of them (61%) are acquainted with the mode of transmission. The clinical

symptoms which characterized the disease are very well known by 60% of tested population but

only 29% of them confirmed that jaundice and sunken eyes are the cardinal signs for the disease.

The discovery of sick animals is very easy as 85% of herd men practiced this job. Knowledge about

factors which improve the diagnosis of fasciolosis are very well understood by herd men and they

are represented by mixed of other herds (63%), veterinary services provided by 98% of herd men

where as identification of current diseases is highly practiced by 80% of them. About 60.8% of the

respondents believed on the effect of fasciolosis on their animal production.

Table 4.8. Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica rate among beef Cattle by risk factor

pertains to Knowledge as represented by 120 questionnaire

NO Parameter Respondent Percent

1 Mix with other herd

Exposed

Non exposed

76

41

63.3

36.7

2 Veterinary service

Applied

Not applied

118

2

98.3

1.7

3 Current disease

Identified

Not identified

97

23

80.8

19.2

4 Importance of disease

Important

Not important

62

58

51.7

48.3

5 Clinical symptoms

Known

Not known

73

47

60.8

39.2

6 Jaundice and sunken eyes

known

not known

35

85

29.2

70.8

7 Effect on production

Recorded

Not recorded

73

47

60.8

39.1

8 Causative agent

Known

Not known

34

86

28.3

71.7

9 Transmission

Known

Not known

74

46

61.7

38.3

10 Discover sick animal

Practiced

Highly practiced

102

18

85

15

11 Season

Known

Not known

56

64

46.7

53.3

12 Frequency

Known

Not known

39

81

32.5

67.5

13 Previous experience

Known

Not known

5

115

4.1

95.8

Table (4-9) reflects attitudes of herd towards the disease and risk factors associated with its

transmission. Results showed that most herd men are responded well to detect the source of outbreak

when the disease occurs (65%). Moreover, practices which increase improve diagnosis of bovine

fasciolosis like detection of signs (51%), cardinal signs (62%) and effect of treatment (73%) are well

known by tested population. Risk factor which gives indications for the disease occurrence like

(morbidity rate is practiced by 31% of the respondents where as mortality rate represented by only

15% and age category (35%)) is not well comprehended by respondents.

Table 4.9. Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica rate among beef Cattle by risk factors

pertain to attitude as represented by 120 questionnaire

NO Parameter Respondent Percent

1 Source of outbreak

Practiced

Highly practiced

78

42

65

35

2 Detection of sign

Detected

Not detected

62

58

51.7

48.3

3 Effect of treatment

Applied

Highly applied

32

88

26.7

73.3

4 Cardinal sign

known

Not known

75

45

62.5

37.5

5 Age category

Known

Not known

43

77

35.8

64.2

6 Morbidity

Known

Not known

38

82

31.7

68.3

7 Mortality

Known

Not known

19

101

15.8

84.1

As shown in Table (4-10) herd men practices differ towards bovine fasciolosis diagnosis or detection. 70%

of respondents did not used Identification as improvement criterion for the disease diagnosis and 55% of

then did not practice screening prior to purchasing their herd or when they move from endemic to other

areas. Vaccination as a protective measure for contagious diseases, which facilitates the differential

diagnosis of bovine fasciolosis is extensively practiced by herd men (70%).On other hand, quarantine as

protective measure is not applied by most of tested population (58%). The type of management practiced

by (68%) herd men in the study area highly exposed their animals to infection. Furthermore, the type of

production practiced by (69%) of respondents facilitates the detection and diagnosis of the disease.

Table 4.10. Estimated prevalence of Fasciola gigantica rate among beef Cattle by risk factor

pertain to practice as represented by 120 questionnaire

NO Parameter Respondent Percent

1 Identification

Identified

Non identified

35

85

28.3

70.8

2 Screening

Screened

Not screened

54

66

45

55

3 Vaccinations

Vaccinated

Non vaccinated

84

36

70

30

4 Quarantine

Applied

Non applied

50

70

41.7

58.3

5 Type of production

Major

Minor

83

37

69.2

30.8

6 Management

Exposed

Non exposed

82

38

68.3

31.7

4.3. Parasitological diagnosis of fasciola gigantica

As shown in Tables (4-11, 4-12 and 4-13), Out of 201 faecal samples examined from cattle in

Gezira state, 21animals were found infected with Fasciola gigantica eggs giving a prevalence rate

of 10.4% the infection rate among adults was 12.9% all calves were found free from infection.

Table 4.11 Prevalence of Fasciloa gigantica eggs according to animal Sex

Sex No. Examined No. infected Prevalence

Male 80 14 17.5

Female 121 7 5.7

Total 201 21 10.4

Table 4.12 prevalence of Fasciola. Gigantica eggs according to animal Breed

Breed No. Examined No. infected Prevalence

Local 84 7 8.3

Cross 127 14 11.02

Total 201 21 10.4

Table 4.13 Prevalence of Fasciola. Gigantica eggs according to animal Age

Age No. Examined No. infected Prevalence

Calves 39 - -

Adult 162 21 12.9

Total 201 21 10.4

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION

Bovine Fasciolosis is one of the major parasitic diseases of economic and social importance,

in the tropical and subtropical countries. Fasciolosis has been a major economic threat to

development of ruminants. Despite control efforts in a number of countries, still a large number

of ruminants are infected. In Gezira state there is a high percentage of Fasciolosis where water

development project are found which are linked with the increase in Fasciolosis transmission .

Epidemiological studies of Fasciolosis in the Gezira state would enrich the data base for

Fasciolosis research in the Gezira state and Sudan at large. The objectives of the present study

were directed to wards finding the prevalence of infection with Fasciola gigantica among beef

cattle in Gezira state based on KAP, faecal examination and post-mortem examination and to

state the geographical distribution of the parasite within the state and to study it seasonal

dynamics. The first part of the study concerned with investigation of Fasciola gigantica

affecting be cattle from abattoirs records in Gezira state in the years 2010 - 2012. The overall

prevalence of infection with the parasite was 7.74%, the result was almost the same when

compared with similar studies conducted elsewhere in the Sudan (Karib, 1962; Eisa,1966,

Serrag,2004). The study showed that 2011 gave the highest prevalence rate for the parasite was

in year 2011. Results concerning infection of beef cattle in west and south Gezira state (10.93)%,

(7.97) were in agreement with reported findings in other parts of the country. Karib, (1962)

derived the prevalence of Fasciolosis was 26% for cattle in Upper Nile state Eisa and Dalil,

(1963) found that up to 19% of examined cattle in the Upper Nile state were infected with

Fasciola gigantica. Likewise, Abakar et.al (2005) reported the similar results in Darfur region.

The diagnosis of Bovine Fasciolosis recorded here, depend entirely on post-mortem examination

and in some instance on the clinical picture during the ant- mortem examination. The diagnosis

was rarely confirmed by laboratory diagnosis. For suitable and useful recording system in

slaughter houses a tentative diagnosis adopted during ant-mortem examination has to be

recorded and considered rather than leaving the cases as miscellaneous hepatic infections. After

this initial tentative record, and when cases with similar clinical manifestations and with similar

epidemiological picture are frequently admitted to slaughter houses, this will provide an interest

for reliable diagnosis to be made during post-mortem examination, which would ultimately

improve the recording system for Fasciolosis. In the present study, the prevalence of Fasciola

gigantica from abattoirs records from Gezira state showed that the highest prevalence rate of

infection with Fasciola gigantica was recorded from western part and then followed by south

Gezira and finally central Gezira state. This was solely linked with the abundance of water pools

in addition to the some suitable water bodies for reproduction of the intermediate host; the

migration of cattle to White Nile in western part of Gezira especially during the dry season might

also justify this difference. It is clear that the infection pattern with Fasciola gigantica among

beef cattle in the study area was affected by season of the year, as the infection reached its peak

on the hot dry months. The hot wet months of the year have the least infection rate. These

findings were strongly supported by many authors (Amin, 1972;Abd lrazig,1983 et. al.,2001;

Abo-Elgasimm,2003). During the hot dry months, movement of animals to graze around

infected shrinking areas where get contacted with infected intermediate host. Amin (1972)

reported that during summer (march-June) the water temperature ranges between 24-36 Co . The

drying out of irrigation canals and water bodies towards June and the turbidity and flood (

August –October) represent limiting factors for snail multiplication (Abo-Elgasim, 2003).

Abdelrazig (1984) revealed that infection of Lymnaea snails fallow seasonal pattern, with a peak

in summer months. Later, Mohammed, (1983) and Atta-Elmannan, (2001) showed that the

environmental conditions of the hot summer were suitable for high rate of transmission of

fasciolosis in White Nile and Gezira areas. In the second part of the study the result of faecal

samples surveyed indicated that 21 out of 201 faecal specimens examined at Gezira state giving

an overall prevalence of 10.4%, the infection rate with adult cattle was 12.9% .None of the

examined calves were found to be infected with the parasite. This finding similar to prevalence

rate for Fasciola gigantica reported by other workers (Abakar et. al, 2005) . Regarding gender,

male cattle were prone to infection more than females, this may be due to the fact that males are

the major source for meat production, so for finishing, males have to be moved away from water

pools where contact with causative agent is available.

The third part of the study concerned with endogenous knowledge of herd men about bovine

fasciolosis diagnosis and estimation of risk factors associated with practice and attitude. The

study showed that most of herd men are educated and got an excellent experience on beef

production. Their herd structure composed mainly of local breed and mostly obtained from

endemic areas of fasciolosis. The endogenous knowledge of cattle breeder about the causative

agent of bovine fasciolosis in the study area is very poor. Likewise, seasonal occurrence of the

disease is not well understood, this may reflect the higher prevalence of the disease when

compared to other part of the country. The clinical symptoms which characteriz hepatic

fasciolosis are very well known by almost all herd men. In addition, the cardinal signs and mode

of transmission of Fasciola infection are known as well. These findings strength and ease the

discovery of sick animals by herd men in the study area. The current study indicated that

Practices which either improve the diagnosis or control of bovine fasciolosis among beef cattle

in the study area is well comprehended by cattle owners. Most of tested subjects responded well

to source of outbreak when occur. Vaccination and good husbandry practice are extensively used

which may justify the low rate of infection with the parasite in the study area. On the other hand,

animal Identification and quarantine, to be used as diagnostic indicators for improve diagnosis

and control of bovine fasciolosis, were not practiced well by cattle owners, This may explains

the higher prevalence of the disease when compared with other similar studies.

CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1. Conclusion

The over whelming infection with F. gigantica in Gezira state recorded in beef cattle. Such

infections resulted in serious economic losses due to reduced productivity, cattle death and

condemnations of large numbers of infected livers. In this work, retrospective study was

conducted among beef cattle slaughtered for local consumption in the abattoirs of Gezira state.

The study was planned to determine the prevalence of F. gigantica and to assess the related risk

factors to cattle raised in this state. The study concluded that:

1. The prevalence of infection recorded from slaughter house was found to be 7.74%.

2. The parasitological survey undertaken on faecal examination to assess the parasite

infection rate in cattle showed that 12.9 % of the cattle were infected.

3. The highest infection rate was reported among cattle raised in west Gezira state followed

by south Gezira state.

4. Beef cattle in central Gezira state gave the least prevalence.

5. On seasonal basis, the infection rate was significantly higher during hot dry months of the

year.

6. Questionnaire survey showed that cattle owners have good endogenous knowledge about

diagnosis and risk factors of bovine fasciolosis.

6.2 Recommendations

For further investigation and on the light of these results, good diagnosis and control of

bovine Fasciolosis might be under control through.

1. Education veterinary extension as a mean of disease control.

2. Control of animal movement can be applied and should be studied epidemiologically carefully

not to affect animal movement from their natural ecosystem to new ecosystem, so that the

productivity and health will be affected.

3. Biological control is intended to control the most effective part in the cycle of infection (Lymnea

snails by the help of the natural enemy)

4. Training of abattoirs workers for proper recording and analysis of Fasciolosis in slaughter houses

.

5. Records from animal farms and markets that can help detailed information a bout Fasciolosis

affected by species , animal type , age , breed , location and season.

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Appendex1

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices (KAP) of cattle owners towards bovine

Fasciolosis in Gezira State.

Bovine fasciolosis Questionnaire Format for Animal owners

The purpose of this form is to assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices of cattle owners to

wards bovine fasciolosis in their herds. The forms also aimed to determine conditions present on

the farm that may increase the risk of introducing or spreading disease.

DATA COLLECTION FORMAT

No. Date: / /

State: ………………………………………….

Locality/site:………………………………….

1. General information

(a) Name:

(b) Address:

(c) Gender:

(d) Age:

(e) Educational level:

- Uneducated

- Primary School

- High School

- Secondary School

- Graduate

- Professional training

(f) Number of years of experience in animal business

………………………………………………………………………………

2. Management of herds and herd characteristics

(a) Where is the herd kept?

………………………………………………………………………………

(b) How many animals are there?

(c) Breed:

Butana

- Kenana

- Crossed

- Pure line

- Sex: All male All female Mix

(e) Which sex is the most affected?

- Males

- Females

- Both equally

- Do not know

(g) What is the source of the animals when buying?

………………………………………………………………………………

(h) Characteristics upon when the animals are bought

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………..

(i) Do animals in the herd have identification numbers? Yes No

(j) What do you do when introducing new animals into the herd?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………..

iii- Vaccination and prevention programmes

(a) Do you vaccinate against the following?

(i) R pest Yes No

(ii) Bq Yes No

(iii) Anthrax Yes No

(iv) HS Yes No

(v) Lumpy skin disease Yes No

(b) When was the last time you vaccinated your animals ?

……………………………………………………………………………… (c) How many

animals were vaccinated?

………………………………………………………………………………

(d) When animals purchased from outside where do they come from most probably?

………………………………………………………………………………

(e) Do you keep the new animals in quarantine before mixing them with the old ones?

Yes No

For how long?

If clinical signs observed what is the action?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………

iv- Type of production system and changing of the herd

(a) Source of income

- Only livestock

- Mainly livestock, minor crop

- Mainly crop, minor livestock

- Livestock and crop equally important

(b) Management of the herd and farming system

- Sedentary

- Semi-sedentary

- Mixed (crop/livestock)

- Semi-nomadic

- Nomadic (Free range or grazing)

If nomadic please indicate the migratory route?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………….

(c) Has the herd mixed with other herds?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

(c) How do you breed your animals?

- Natural

- AI programme

(e) Inventory change of the herd during the year is mainly due to

- Market off take

- Non-market off ``take (home consumption, gift out, lost/stolen)

- Mortality

vi- Health problem

(a) What kind of veterinary services do you receive?

- Governmental

- Private

- Community Animal Health Workers

- Traditional medicine

- Using own prescription

(b) What are the current disease problems in the herd?

- Respiratory

- Gastro-intestinal

- Reproductive

- Skin

- External parasites

- Others

………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………….

(c) Please rank the most important diseases in your area?

1- ……………………………………………………….

2- ……………………………………………………….

3- ……………………………………………………….

4- ……………………………………………………….

5- ………………………………………………………..

6- ………………………………………………………..

7- ………………………………………………………..

8- ………………………………………………………..

9- ………………………………………………………..

10- ………………………………………………………..

(d) Do you know the clinical symptoms of the bovine Fasciolosis? Yes

No

(e) Have you ever seen its signs within your herd? Yes No

(f) Can you mention these signs?

1- …………………………………………………………

2- …………………………………………………………

3- …………………………………………………………

4- …………………………………………………………

5- …………………………………………………………

(g) Which age category is the most affected?

- Less than one year

- One to two years

- Two to four years

- More than four years

- No difference between age groups

Morbidity %

(h) Mortality rate %

(i) Jaundice and sunken eyes rate within affected animals %

(j) The effect of the disease on the production

1- …………………………………………………………………….

2- …………………………………………………………………….

3- …………………………………………………………………….

4- …………………………………………………………………….

5- …………………………………………………………………….

(I) Do you know the causative agent of bovine Fasciolosis

1 . Yes

2. No

(II) Do you know how bovine Fasciolosis is transmitted

1- Yes

2- No

(k) When you discover a sick animal what do you do?

- Isolation

- Reporting to veterinary authorities

- Handling the case without reporting

(l) When an outbreak of Fasciolosis occurs in your herd, the likely source is

- Introduction of new animal(s)

- Contact with water

- Contact with wild animals

- Movement of animal(s)

- Other(indicate)…………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………

(m) Season of occurrence

- Dry season

- Rainy season

- Cold season

- Hot season

- Not specifically associated with season

(n) How many times have you had the disease?

- Only once

- Twice

- Three times

- Commonly occurs

(o) When was the last outbreak of Fasciolosis in your herd?

- Before 1935

- 1950 - 1975

- 19 80- 1989

- 1995-

- Had never occurred

(p) When an outbreak of Fasciolosis or any other disease occurs in the next herd, how do you

protect your animals?

- Stop movement

- Prevent contact with water

- Treat affected animals

- Report to the authorities

- Other measure

(q) What was the importance of the following clinical symptoms?

- Weight loss

- Sunken eyes

- Jaundice

- Diarrhoea and Pneumonia

- others

Relative

Importance

Weight loss Sunken Eyes Jaundice Diarrhea and

peumonia

Others

Very

important

Important

Less

important

Negligible

(r) When was the last time these clinical symptoms occurred?

- …………………………………………………………………..

(s) Have you had personal experience with this disease?

Yes No

If yes,

When…………………………………………………………………………

Where………………………………………………………………………

vii- Recording system

Do you keep such type of record files with you?

(a) Animal record files Yes No

(b) Herd production files Yes No

(c) Herd disease files Yes No

(d) Herd environment or management files Yes No

viii. Other comments

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….