enhanced bioremediation using sulfate and/or nitrate bioremediation using sulfate and/or nitrate ......
TRANSCRIPT
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group environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management
Enhanced Bioremediation Using Sulfate and/or NitrateRavi Kolhatkar and Davis TaggartEnvironmental Technology
Remediation Management Technology MeetingWarrenvilleJanuary 22, 2004
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementOverview
• Why add sulfate (and/or nitrate)?
• What kinds of contaminants can be addressed?• Why bother if anaerobic rates are slower than
aerobic rates?
• What about Hydrogen Sulfide?
• Application Guidance
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Hydrocarbon Biodegradation
Electron Acceptors Products
1. Oxygen >>> Water, CO22. Nitrate >>> Nitrogen, CO23. Fe(III) >>> Fe(II), CO24. Mn(IV) >>> Mn(II), CO25. Sulfate >>> Sulfide, CO26. None (fermentation) >>> Methane, CO2
Contaminant(Electron donor)e.g. BTEX
e-
e- and C
Energy
Microbial Growth
EnergyYield
Kinetics in labexperiments
High
Low
Fast
Slow
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Sulfate in Ground Water at Retail Sites(BP-EPA Study)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71
Rank
Sulfa
te (m
g/L)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Met
hane
(mg/
L)
Methane in plume Backgroundsulfate
Sulfate in plume
Sulfate is absent in most of the plumes
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Why Sulfate?
•Very low solubility
•Aquifer clogging
0 – 0.0240.0240 - 1Iron (III)
•DW concern
•Primary MCL – 10 mg/L NO3-N (45 mg/L NO3)
16.8 – 21.00.2180 - 100Nitrate
•Hydrogen sulfide; never documented as an issue in the field
•Secondary MCL for sulfate – 250 mg/L*
22.0 – 55.00.22100 – 250*Sulfate
19.8 – 23.10.3360 - 70Pure Oxygen
•Limited solubility
•Numerous oxygen sinks
•Potential aquifer clogging
•Biofouling near injection point
3.0 – 3.30.339 - 10Oxygen (in air)
IssuesPotential Benzene Degraded
(mg/L)
Mass of benzene
degraded per unit mass of EA
Maximum Concentration
(mg/L)
Electron Acceptor (EA)
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sulfate reductionmethanogenesisnitrate reductionaerobic oxidationiron reduction
Based on median consumptions of electron acceptors at 74 sites
BP-EPA study
Sulfate Does the Heavy Lifting!
Gasoline Release Sites
Sulfate Reduction
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Field Data - Conclusions
• Most hydrocarbon plumes are anaerobic and depleted of sulfate
• Sulfate reduction is important in ground water
⇒Adding sulfate to ground water will likely stimulate BTEX degradation
No solubility constraints (unlike oxygen)No chemical sinks (unlike oxygen) Can address “non-target” electron acceptor demand enabling contaminants of concern (e.g. benzene) to “see” oxygen
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Is Anaerobic Biodegradation Slower?
• Laboratory Experiments– Electron acceptor supply (DO, nitrate,..) >> Electron Donor
(BTEX) demand
– Rate dictated by biodegradation
A > NR > IR > SR > M (rates follow same order)
• Natural Field Setting– Electron donor demand (BTEX) >> Electron acceptor supply (DO,
nitrate,..)
– Rate dictated by transport of electron acceptors
A ~ NR ~ IR ~ SR (rates are similar)
M (rate dictated by biodegradation)
No, rates are comparable in the field
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementData from Push-pull Tests
McGuire et al., 2002
5.04 to 7.44Push-pull tests
Petroleum and CHC impacted aquifer
Cunningham et al. 2000
0.1 to 0.6Augmented flow path
PIA
Schroth et al., 1998
5.28Push-pull tests
PIA
Nitrate Reduction
McGuire et al., 2002
4.32 to 6.48Push-pull tests
Petroleum and CHC impacted aquifer
Cunningham et al. 2000
0.1Augmented flow path
PIA
Chappelle, 19960.02 to 0.08Flow pathPetroleum Impacted Aquifer (PIA)
Sulfate Reduction
ReferenceFirst order rate constant (day-1)
MethodEnvironment
McGuire et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 2693-2700, 2002
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Normal Alkanes
McGuire et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 2693-2700, 2002?????
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Normal Alkanes
Townsend et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 37, 5213-5218, 2003
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementPAH
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementPAH
Townsend et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 37, 5213-5218, 2003
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementPAH in Sediments
Rothermich et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 4811-4817, 2002
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Rothermich et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 4811-4817, 2002
PAH in Sediments
More complex PAH relatively difficult to degrade
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementPAH in Sediments
Rothermich et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 4811-4817, 2002
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Anaerobic Benzene Biodegradation
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Naval Weapons Station, Seal Beach, CA
• Pilot study – Stanford University and NFESC• “Injection-extraction” cells to create 3 remediation zones
– With sulfate– With sulfate and nitrate– No amendment (naturally methanogenic)
• Sulfate and nitrate were quickly consumed supply of electron acceptors was limiting under natural conditions
– Nitrate (0.1 to 0.6 d-1) and sulfate (0.1 d-1) were consumed at similar rates– Nitrate effective at oxidizing sulfide back to sulfate
• BTEX removal:– Toluene preferentially degraded naturally over B, EB and X– Sulfate preferentially stimulated removal of o-X, but not B, EB and m+p-X– Nitrate stimulated removal of EB and m+p-X– Benzene biodegradation was the slowest in all conditions, if at all
ESTCP Cost & Performance Report, December 1999http://www.estcp.org/documents/techdocs/199522.pdf
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementApplication
ESTCP Cost & Performance Report, December 1999http://www.estcp.org/documents/techdocs/199522.pdf
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BTEX Removal with Sulfate and Nitrate
ESTCP Cost & Performance Report, December 1999http://www.estcp.org/documents/techdocs/199522.pdf
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MTBE – Surface Water Sediments
Bradley, P. et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 35(23), 4643-4647, 2001
TBA accumulation tendency increased with more anaerobic conditions
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MTBE – Marine Sediment Enrichments with Sulfate
Somsamak, P. et al., FEMS Microbiol. Ecology., 37, 259-264, 2001
TBA accumulation
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TBA – Surface Water Sediments
Bradley, P. et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36(19), 4087-4090, 2002
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementWhat About Hydrogen Sulfide?
• Colorless gas with a strong odor of rotten eggs
• Exposure limits– NIOSH: 10 ppmv (10 minutes)– OSHA: 20 ppmv– IDLH: 100 ppmv
• Health Hazards– Inhalation: irritation to eyes, conjunctivitis, affects CNS– Ingestion: excitement, colored urine– Contact: nausea, dizziness, suffocation, rapid breath
• Explosive limits: 4% to 44%
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Vadose Zone (oxidized)
NAPL
Residual Hydrocarbon
Aquifer(reduced)
(aq)(aq) S2HHS24(aq)SO +
−→
−
+−+→+ 2HSO2O S2H
2
4(s)2(g)(g)
++→+ (aq)(s)(s)(aq) 2HFeSFe(II) S2H
SFeS FeS 2
0→+
Fe(II) on sediments
Sulfide sequestered as iron sulfides
Residual sulfide oxidized to sulfate
Sulfate reduction
Most of Sulfide is Bound to Soil
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementSoil Profile at Neodesha (SOW-9)
0
5
10
15
20
25
301 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Soil Concentration
Dep
th (f
t bel
ow g
rade
)
Soil TOC (mg/kg)Sulfate
(mg/kg)Fe(III)
(mg/kg)
ImpactedZone
Plenty of iron to Bind sulfide
Water Table
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementRefinery Site in Oklahoma
• Operating refinery with an old benzene plume (max. 7.8 mg/L)
• Hydrogeology:– Coarse sand (GW seepage velocity 2500 ft/y)
– DTW: 9-12 ft bgs
• Sodium sulfate injection – 40 one-inch wells in 2 rows
– Sulfate injected: 770 mg/L @ 0.14 gpm (total flow)
– Maximum sulfate detected in GW: 58 mg/L
– Sulfide not detected in GW
• Benzene concentrations were reduced between 73% to 93% in 165 days (half life ~ 2 months)
Anderson and Loveley, Enviro. Sci. Technol., 34, 2261-2266, 2000
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Benzene Reduction Following Sulfate Addition
Anderson and Loveley, Enviro. Sci. Technol., 34, 2261-2266, 2000
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0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71
Rank
Nitr
ate-
N (m
g/L)
Backgroundnitrate
Nitrate in plume
Background nitrate concentrations are generally lower and nitrate is depleted in plumes
Nitrate for Enhanced Bioremediation
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Nitrate for Enhanced Bioremediation
Facts• Background levels are generally low• Primary MCL of 45 mg/L nitrate• Like oxygen, nitrate is utilized to oxidize reduced species (e.g. iron
sulfides), as well as other organic carbon Observations from Field Studies in Literature
⇒ Most pilots and field applications have employed extraction-injection pairs (“recirculation cell”)
⇒ Injection concentrations – 50 – 200 mg/L nitrate⇒ Monitoring periods from 2 to 5 months⇒ Required 10 to 100 times more nitrate over that required for BTEX
biodegradation. Nitrate known to oxidize sulfide back to sulfate.⇒ TEX compounds degraded, but Benzene generally remained persistent
(total duration too short?). Recent evidence of benzene biodegradation with nitrate.
⇒ Consider nitrate together with sulfate to increase the electron acceptor pool⇒ Naval weapons site, Seal Beach, CA data recommend the same
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Benzene and Nitrate Reduction
Rothermich et al., Enviro. Sci. Technol., 36, 4811-4817, 2002
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Engineered Bioremediation of a Diesel-impacted Aquifer
• Menziken, Switzerland
• 4.5 years
• GW pumped from S2 or KB12
• Water aerated and amended with KNO3 (84 mg/L nitrate) and ammonium phosphate
• Re-injected in S3 connected to infiltration gallery
Hunkeler et al., J. Contam. Hydro., 59, 231-245, 2002
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Natural Diesel Biodegradation Following Engineered Bioremediation
Hunkeler et al., J. Contam. Hydro., 59, 231-245, 2002
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementApplications
• Dissolved Plume– Addition of solution of sulfate salts (e.g. epsom, sodium sulfate)– Design sulfate addition (concentration and flow rate) based on
sulfate demand for the mass flux of dissolved BTEX• Continuous addition, Periodic slug addition• Row of addition wells, infiltration gallery• Gypsum socks in transect of wells• Extract down-gradient, amend sulfate-nitrate and re-infiltrate up-
gradient
• Source Area (or hotspots)– Agricultural gypsum amendment (up to 1% w/w) to source area
excavation backfill material as a long term source of sulfate– Cost effective: ag gypsum ~ $ 19 to 150/t vs $16530/ton for ORC– Site selection criteria and application procedure (Gypsum FAQs)
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Site Selection Criteria (Sulfate)
• Site with residual impact (“sheen” or high dissolved), but not with “gross” free product impacts
• Shallowest water table > 5 ft below grade
• Distance to residence, surface water or private well > 100 ft
• Distance to municipal DW well (100s of gpm) > 1250 ft
• Analyze GW samples from “clean” and “impacted” wells for BTEX, sulfate, sulfide, Fe(II), pH, Total Inorganic Carbon ( or total alkalinity). Site suitable if
1. Sulfate in clean wells > 15 mg/L and
2. Sulfate depleted in impacted wells
3. Elevated Fe(II) in impacted wells
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Remedial Design GuidanceData Input (in yellow highlighted cells) Comments/BasisSite NameHydraulic Conductivity Estimate (K) 200 ft/d Preferablly based on slug test or pump test dataThickness of impacted saturated zone 10 ft Estimate as length of screened interval of most impacted wellHydraulic gradient 0.003 ft/ftWidth of GW plume being addressed 10 ft Lateral extent of proposed treatment (e.g. row of wells)Maximum BTEX concentration 3.50 mg/LSafety Factor for sulfate demand (over stoichiometric) 2 Assume 2 to 4Injection Sulfate Concentration 500 mg/L Higher of sulfate in un-impacted water or 250 mg/L Number of injection wells 2 Design choice
CalculationsTotal groundwater volumetric flux (Q = KiA) 60 ft3/dMass flux of BTEX Through Treatment Zone 5945 mg BTEX/dBTEX degraded/mass of sulfate 0.22 (mg/mg) Based on stoichiometry for benzene and sulfateStoichiometric Sulfate Demand 27025 mg sulfate/dTotal sulfate injection volume (w/ safety factor) 29 gal/d
Design Choices for Liquid Sulfate AdditionOption 1: Continuous AdditionSolution Flow/well 0.010 gpm/well Adjust sulfate concentration to get reasonable flowOption 2: Addition in SlugsSlug Addition Frequency 2 times/weekRequired Slug Addition Rate 200 gal/weekSlug volume/well/event 50 gal
Chemical RequirementsSalt Used MW Quantity Required Unit Cost Chemical Cost
(gm) (gm/d) ($/lb) ($/year)Epsom salt (MgSO4.7H2O) 120.37 68 0.75 41anhydrous Sodium Sulfate 142 80 1.76 113
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementSummary
• Most plumes are anaerobic and depleted of soluble electron acceptors (nitrate and sulfate)
• Sulfate– Sulfate is more efficient and stimulates existing anaerobic
conditions– Suitable for a variety of hydrocarbons – gasoline, gas condensate,
alkanes, PAH, diesel…– Sulfide not been an issue in studies (OK refinery, Seal Beach site,
other literature, closed BP refinery site)– Expect some lag time after sulfate shows up at the wells (3 – 6
months)!• Nitrate
– Useful to oxidize iron sulfides to sulfate– Useful to boost the total electron acceptor pool
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementPilot Layout
GW Flow
Addition well
1
234
SAW-2 SAW-1
8910116 57
SVP-2
SVP-2
35 gal of 500 mg/L sulfate, 100 mg/L bromide twice a week/well
20 ft
8 ft
- 8 ft
- 20 ft
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementUp-gradient Well (SOW-1)
0
200
400
600
800
10/21
/0212
/10/02
1/29/0
33/2
0/03
5/9/03
6/28/0
38/1
7/03
10/6/
0311
/25/03
Benz
ene,
Xyl
ene
(ug/
L)
790
791
792
793
794
795
GW
Ele
vatio
n in
SO
W-1
(ft)
Sulfate and Bromide not detected
Variations in B and X related to groundwater fluctuations
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41
gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management20 ft Downgradient Well (SOW-10)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10/21
/0212
/10/02
1/29/0
33/2
0/03
5/9/03
6/28/0
38/1
7/03
10/6/
0311
/25/03
Benz
ene,
Xyl
ene
(ug/
L)
0102030405060708090
Sulfa
te, B
rom
ide
(mg/
L)
Significant decrease in B and X in presence of sulfate
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42
gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management
20 ft Downgradient Well (SOW-11)
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
10/21
/0212
/10/02
1/29/0
33/2
0/03
5/9/03
6/28/0
38/1
7/03
10/6/
0311
/25/03
Benz
ene,
Xyl
ene
(ug/
L)
0
20
40
60
Sulfa
te, B
rom
ide
(mg/
L)Sulfate and Bromide not detected
Decrease in B and X following arrival of sulfate
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management
Terminal in Minnesota Ag gypsum in Excavation
MW-50MW-48
MW-44
MW-45
MW-46
MW-52
MW-53
MW-43
MW-47
MW-49
100 ft10 ft
MW-51
Excavated to 15 ft
0.5% w/w ag gypsum in backfill
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gemgemgemgemgroup environmental managementgroup environmental managementgroup environmental management
Effect of Sulfate on BTEX and TPH
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Jul-0
1
Oct
-01
Jan-
02
Apr
-02
Jul-0
2
Oct
-02
Dec
-02
Mar
-03
Jun-
03
Sep-
03
ug/L
BTEBXMTBEGRO
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
Jul-0
1O
ct-0
1Ja
n-02
Apr
-02
Jul-0
2O
ct-0
2D
ec-0
2M
ar-0
3Ju
n-03
Sep-
03
ug/L
BTEBXMTBEGRO
MW-49 Up-gradient of excavation MW-45 Down-gradient of excavation
•Sulfate not present•Groundwater impact stays
•Sulfate upto 290 mg/L•Groundwater cleans up!