english australia journal

In this issue…

ARTICLESUtilising art museums

as learning and teaching resources for adult English

language learners: The strategies and benefits

Teaching rhythm through the Butterfly Technique

INTERVIEWTen questions for

Jack C. Richards

REVIEWSFilm in Action

Learn the Oxford 3000 appTeacher to Learner Coach

…more articles and reviews inside

VOLUME 31 - 02

JournalEnglish Australia

the Australian journal of English language teaching

English Australia Journal

VO

LUME 31 - 02

2

English Australia represents over 120 member colleges throughout Australia that provide quality English language programs to students and professionals from around the world.

As an association, English Australia has a focus on representing colleges whose core business is English language teaching, providing best practice support and expertise to member colleges and promoting the English language sector with global visionary leadership.

English AustraliaLevel 3, 162 Goulburn Street Surry Hills NSW 2010

PO Box 1437, DarlinghurstNSW 1300 AUSTRALIA

www.englishaustralia.com.au

T: + 61 2 9264 4700

English Australia Journalthe Australian journal of English language teaching

A TESOL publication of English Australia Ltd

Volume 31 Number 2

2016

ISSN 2202-6169

English Australia ABN 86 003 959 037

Cover image courtesy of English Australia member college Macquarie University English Language Centre

Views expressed in articles and reviews are those of the author(s), and not necessarily shared by English Australia, the editorial team, or the Editorial Advisory Committee. Every effort has been made to trace the owners of copyright material in this issue, but notification of any errors or omissions is welcomed, and will be rectified at the earliest opportunity. All articles and reviews appearing in this issue are copyright of the English Australia Journal and may not be reproduced without permission.

Volume 31 No 2 V English Australia Journal

C O N T E N T S

E D I T O R I A L 1

P E E R - R E V I E W E D A R T I C L E S

Purnima Ruanglertbutr 3Utilising art museums as learning and teaching resources for adult English language learners: The strategies and benefits

Andrew Ross & Sarah Bayes 30Imagined communities: Perspectives of English learners in Australia

Cassi Liardét & Sharyn Black 45‘According to . . . ’: Analysing learner development of referencing and evidence integration

C L A S S R O O M T A L K

Michael Burri & Amanda BakerTeaching rhythm and rhythm grouping: The Butterfly Technique 72

Mark OliverUsing text chat in ELT 78

Peter GyulayLesson plan: Quantifier mingle 82

Interview: Jack C. RichardsTen Questions for Jack C. Richards 86

R E V I E W SInnovations in the Continuing Professional Development of English Language Teachers 92David Hayes (Ed.)Reviewed by Bethany Randell

Learn The Oxford 3000™ 95Reviewed by Vanessa Todd

Volume 31 No 2VI English Australia Journal

Using Technology to Enhance Writing: Innovative Approaches to Literacy Instruction 98Richard E. Ferdig, Timothy V. Rasinski & Kristine E. Pytash (eds)Reviewed by Karen Haire

The Principled Communicative Approach 101Jane Arnold, Zoltán Dörnyei & Chaz PuglieseReviewed by Sarah Williams

Foundation IELTS Masterclass 104Nick Thorner & Louis RogersReviewed by Jakki Postlethwaite

Film in Action 108Kieran DonaghyReviewed by Clare McGrath

Language Learning with Digital Video 111Ben Goldstein & Paul DriverReviewed by Clare McGrath

Navigate Intermediate B1+ 113Rachael Roberts, Heather Buchanan & Emma PathareReviewed by Becky Steven

G E N E R A L I N F O R M A T I O N 117

English Australia Member Colleges 119

English Australia Journal Subscriptions 123

English Australia Journal Advertising 124

Volume 31 No 2 VII English Australia Journal

E N G L I S H A U S T R A L I A J O U R N A L

Executive EditorPhilip ChappellDepartment of Linguistics, Macquarie University Classroom Talk EditorSophia KhanBritish Council, SingaporeReviews EditorTamzen ArmerUniversity of Canberra College English Language Centre

Editorial Advisory BoardPhil BensonDepartment of Linguistics, Macquarie UniversityAnne BurnsSchool of Education, University of New South WalesJill BurtonSchool of Education, University of South AustraliaJohn MacalisterSchool of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, Victoria University of WellingtonBrian PaltridgeFaculty of Education and Social Work, University of SydneyDavid PrescottDepartment of English, The American University of SharjahJack RichardsFaculty of Education and Social Work, University of SydneySteven TaitBritish Council, MalaysiaScott ThornburyThe New School, New YorkLynda YatesDepartment of Linguistics, Macquarie University

Volume 31 No 2VIII English Australia Journal

Volume 31 No 2 1 English Australia Journal

E D I T O R I A L

Our first issue for 2016 brings readers an enticing and engaging variety of research articles, news from the classroom, reviews of teaching resources, and our Ten Questions for a notable ELT personality.

First off, Purnima Ruanglerbutr has authored a research report on using visits to art museums as language learning and teaching resources. Through her case study, she provides some compelling arguments and evidence for the usefulness of art museums for language education, as well as presenting strategies for teachers to try them out. The second research article, from Andrew Ross and Sarah Bayes, reports on their research into international students enrolled in an EAP course, and comparisons of the experiences they imagined before leaving their home countries with their actual experiences once in Australia. Cultural awareness features prominently in this article, and its importance is underscored in Ross and Bayes’ final recommendations for the classroom. Finally, Cassi Liardét and Sharon Black showcase their research into the practice of using references in academic writing. Their study looked into how student writers integrate external evidence into their writing, using different voice markers. Liardét and Black make an important distinction between referencing as a tool to avoid plagiarism, and referencing as a tool to display knowledge and understanding of a topic.

Our Ten Questions this time are for Jack Richards. With over 40 years in ELT, Professor Richards has some wise words for us all. Sophia Khan also provides us with Classroom Talk articles on grammar, pronunciation and text chat. Reviews Editor Tamzen Armer serves up her usual variety of excellent reviews of materials relating to English language learning and teaching.

On a final note, we have an exciting new section for the journal to commence in the next issue. Titled Brief Reports, this section provides authors the opportunity to present preliminary findings of a research work-in-progress, a summary of a larger research project in a rhetorical style that makes it accessible for English language

Volume 31 No 22 English Australia Journal

teachers, reports of materials development projects and innovations in teaching, and the like. The focus is on presenting empirical data and commenting on its implications, or possibly on new directions for the project. This is a great opportunity for higher degree research students, teachers undertaking action research projects, researchers who have completed larger studies, aspects of which could be recontextualised for language teachers, and others to showcase their work in a short report. Length is 1,500 words including table, references etc, and all submissions will be peer reviewed by two reviewers. Please consult the website for more details.

We hope that you enjoy the latest issue of the Journal and that you will consider contributing to one of the sections in the future. Research Articles are reviewed by at least two scholars in the relevant area. Classroom Talk articles and Reviews are also reviewed by the Editorial Team. Many thanks to our external reviewers – specialists in the content areas of the articles – for giving up their valuable time to read and comment on the articles in order to ensure the highest possible standards.

In closing, thanks to the tireless efforts of our designer Derek Trow, to the ongoing support of the English Australia Secretariat, and to the Editorial Board.

Phil ChappellExecutive Editor [email protected]

Sophia KhanClassroom Talk Editor [email protected]

Tamzen ArmerReviews Editor [email protected]


Utilising art museums as learning and teaching resources for adult English language learners: The strategies and benefits

Purnima Ruanglertbutr

The University of Melbourne

English language teachers can enhance and enliven language learning by using art museums as a learning and teaching resource. This research report details findings from a qualitative and quantitative evaluation project conducted at the Ian Potter Museum of Art, with 240 students undertaking adult English courses across Melbourne. The report reveals the benefits of using art objects in museums to facilitate development of students’ linguistic and museum literacy skills. It offers teachers suggestions for organising curriculum-linked excursions to museums with reference to literature that acknowledges the similarities between the visual and verbal arts and its potential for developing English language macro skills.

IntroductionI was standing on a large stone with another surf lifesaver. I saw a man fly into the water when he was surfing. I swam quickly to that area. The water was salty and cold. I was worried because the waves were monstrous. It looked like it was going to eat me. I’m a surf lifesaver and I have been working for the Melbourne Surf Lifesaver club for two years. Everyday I swim in the ocean and rescue someone. I feel frightened when I work. Sometimes, I worry about the people who swim far and deep in the ocean, like today. I could hear the screams of people. It was difficult to help. I felt the adrenaline going up my body and my heart started to beat very fast.

Extract from a short story written by an intermediate level General English student, in response to William Mckinnon’s painting, The Passage (2014).

William Mckinnon’s painting represents the coastline of Shoreham and its surfers. The extract above, from an intermediate-level student’s short story reveals an imaginative response to the action-packed scene; a large-scale painting the student viewed on an excursion to the Ian Potter Museum of Art (the Potter), Melbourne. The visual imagery stimulates creative description in the first person using the five senses to convey both the exhilaration and fear experienced by a surf lifesaver.


This ESL student is one of many whose intellect and emotions have been stirred by the complex issues that art explores. In fact, artworks are like ‘visual texts’ that can be deciphered and ‘read’. As such, the medium invites students to think critically, form and justify their opinions about an image in written or spoken text. These visual literacy skills can be transferred to practise finding meaning in literary texts, making art a powerful aid in language learning.

At a time when it is vital to justify the educational outcomes of excursions and their links to curriculum, it seems beneficial to provide teachers with insight into the pedagogical value of engaging students with original art objects in museums. This research report examines the approaches and benefits of teaching English language through artistic forms of communication, such as painting and sculpture within a museum environment. It utilises data collected from an evaluation survey conducted from 2012–2015 with 240 ESL students undertaking English language courses in Melbourne, and with 15 English language teachers. The evaluation was conducted by the author of this report at the Potter, where she was working as the ESL Education Officer for the 2012 Basil Sellers Art Prize (BSAP) exhibition, and then as a classroom English language teacher in 2014–2015, who took her students to the 2014 BSAP. Student outcomes will be analysed with reference to samples of writing inspired by visual art, as well as reflective comments from participating teachers and students.

Background

Visual Art as a pedagogical tool for English language teachers

Existing literature highlights the inextricable link between visual and written expression. Current museum practices also emphasise the increment in museum-based interdisciplinary programs that cater to English language learners.

Research reveals students can respond to art unimpeded by language barriers, emphasising its socially inclusive potential (Allan, 2008; Garibay, Stein & Wilson, 2008). ESL learners use visual perception to construct knowledge, enabling higher-order thinking in their first language, while practicing communication and meaning-making in English (Allan, 2008). As the National Advocates for Arts Education highlights, this implies that visual art has the ability to inspire the imaginations of students and to promote ‘culturally rich education . . . fostering creativity, innovation [and] cultural understanding’ (NAAE, 2008). Numerous researchers have identified visual art as a tool for engaging students with particular learning needs, who might otherwise be at risk of disengagement, isolation or marginalisation (e.g., Bearden, 1993; Fake, 1995; Groves & Hubert, 2003; Ivanova, 2004; Jabali, 2009). They have also discovered the social and emotional value of participating in art activities (Bresler, 1994; Grant, Hutchison, Hornsby, & Brooke, 2008; Jensen, 2001), as well


as using visual stimuli to develop linguistic skills (Moorman, 2006; Ruanglertbutr & May, 2014). ESL students can benefit, both socially and academically, from visual art education in terms of positive identity construction, negotiation of shared meanings, and celebration of students’ linguistic and cultural capital (Carre, 1996; Rodriguez-Remedi, 2008; Torres-Oritz, 1995).

Similarities between art and English

The term ekphrasis is commonly used today to describe prose or poetry inspired by a work of visual art (Moorman, 2006). In comparing art to text, and text to art, Barkan (2012) reinforces the potential of art to practice critical-thinking skills; art that a whole classroom of students can interact with, providing a common point of reference. Furthermore, Blackhawk suggests:

Art gives us imagery . . . Art requires leaps of perceiving and experiencing . . . This “otherness” or detachment from the rest of the world . . . may be one reason why art can provide such a wonderful stimulus for writing.

Blackhawk, cited in Foster & Prevallet, 2002

Teachers of English literature in secondary schools are realising the value of taking students to art museums and adopting the practice of writing inspired by visual art (Moorman, 2006; Ruanglertbutr & May, 2014). However, little research has been undertaken that documents the impact class visits to art museums have towards’ ESL students’ development of key macro skills and sociocultural knowledge.

Museum-based interdisciplinary art and English language programs

Many Australian museums have designated education departments that offer programs to supplement the school curriculum (primary, secondary, adult and tertiary). However, it has only been in the last decade that numerous museums in Australia have implemented creative learning strategies for ESL students to support their understanding of exhibitions and collections, and to improve English language and museum literacy skills (Carre, 1996). Some museums that aim to support museum literacy for ESL groups include, for example, the Heidi Museum of Art, the National Gallery of Victoria, the Immigration Museum, the Melbourne Museum and the Australian Museum. These museums’ education resources have supported visitation to exhibitions – in the case of the Australian Museum for example, their teacher and student education kits support ESL students’ learning about Australian animals, minerals, and indigenous Australians (The Australian Museum, 2014). Arguably, museum literacy is becoming increasingly important – as Falk (1998) emphasises, these audiences are often unfamiliar with the cultural ideals that museums prescribe; they may feel unwelcome and view museums with little importance. As such,


museum literacy is a means to develop students’ confidence and comfort in using and exploring cultural institutions.

Museum learning situations are distinct from formal educational institutions as they encourage ‘free choice learning situations’ (Singh, 2004, p. 73) and inquiry-based learning and teaching. This honours open-ended conversational pedagogies that can

‘foster aesthetic engagements and understanding of the two disciplines (art and English) through pleasurable, narrative, analytical and interpretive experiences’ (Ruanglertbutr & May, 2014). In other words, it provides opportunities for students and teachers to collaboratively build, test and reflect on their learning (Stephenson, 2007).

Indeed, inquiry-based learning with art was introduced to meet the diverse requirements of an expanding immigrant population and globalised public society of which museums are a part (Garibay, Stein & Wilson, 2008). They have been developed as a result of museums’ increasing understanding of how ‘different consistuencies engage with, and make meaning of, their museum experiences’ (Garibay, Stein & Wilson, 2008, p. 184) by acknowledging how a visitor’s culture, religion, country of origin, ethnicity, socioeconomic background, literacy, education and English language skills, may influence their engagement with art objects.

With this in mind, visits to museums are serving as enrichment to curriculum or to support curriculum studied at school. Students can be taken on a self-guided tour of an exhibition, or book an ESL museum educator to plan and deliver the lesson. These educators are trained with classroom-based experience in teaching ESL. They develop education resources, select which works of art to include in school visits, guide art interpretation, analysis (Singh, 2004), and facilitate English skills while engaging with contemporary art. Museum educators embrace cooperative strategies with schoolteachers in preparation for a visit (Singh, 2004), in which classroom teachers negotiate the lesson outcomes and content.

The following case study will demonstrate how teachers can build students’ comfort with cultural sites by not only teaching English skills, but also by becoming facilitators of their students’ new social and cultural capital.

Case study: The Basil Sellers Art Prize exhibition ESL program

Held at the Potter biennially, the BSAP is an art competition and exhibition for Australian artists to make art that explores themes of sport and sporting culture in Australia. Supported by the philanthropist, Basil Sellers AM, a prize of $100,000 is awarded to one artwork in the exhibition.

Teachers may be able to book a free ESL program with the museum educator for a negotiable duration, or conduct a self-guided visit to support students’ interpretation,


as during the 2012 BSAP exhibition. Due to a lack of funding, no education programs were offered for the BSAP 2014 exhibition, resulting in many ESL teachers conducting self-guided activities instead.

Engaging ESL students in gallery-based pedagogy

This section describes the teaching methodology used for the 2012 BSAP exhibition ESL program.

• Exhibition theme

The educator familiarised herself with the artists and artworks by accessing the exhibition before the visit, researching the issues artists address in their works, particularly how these are influenced by their personal, cultural and social context.

• Education resources

The BSAP 2012 ESL education kit and the 2014 education kit, written by the author, comprises activities that could be conducted prior to visiting the museum (refer to Table 2, Appendix A), during a visit (Figure 2, Appendix B), and post-visit in the classroom (refer to Table 3, Appendix C), each focusing on a selection of artworks suitable for beginner, intermediate and advanced General English students. The following steps were taken to maximise educational use of the artworks.

1. Foster prolonged looking and observation.

Participants were asked observe an artwork in silence before delving into discussion. This extended the process of engaging with small, sometimes unnoticed details – ‘the artwork’s exact size, colour, detail and purpose’ (Foster & Prevallet, 2002).

2. Ask open-ended questions.

Students were asked questions based upon the Visual Thinking Strategies (VTS) supported by Harvard Graduate School of Education (Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2014), designed to encourage critical and divergent thinking about what students saw. Students were encouraged to respond using their observations, for example, ‘What do you see?’ and ‘What does the work make you think about?’

3. Engage students in a visual analysis

Students were asked to find descriptors (adjectives, similes and alliteration) about the artwork and to infer a story using visual clues based on what they saw. For example,

‘What do you think happened before and after the scene shown in the artwork?’

4. Interpretation

Students used the ‘clues’ they deciphered to explain what they thought was happening in the image, and the artist’s intention. For example, ‘What might the


artwork be about? How do we know?’ and ‘Why do you think the artist made this work?’

5. Provide contextual information

Contextual information about the artist was woven gradually into students’ interpretations, in order to provide deeper knowledge about the work and prompt further discussion.

6. Evaluation

Students were asked to express their opinions about the artwork in whole-group discussion, pair-discussion, or by completing question-and-answer activities, whereby marks were allocated for participation.

7. Productive tasks

A productive task was completed at the conclusion of viewing each artwork, for example:

• speaking using topic-cards relating to the artwork

• writing a narrative written from the perspective of a character in the artwork.

Research methodology

A qualitative and quantitative survey was distributed to find out whether learning with visual art objects leads to improved ESL student outcomes in a museum environment. This involved formulating multiple-choice and open-ended, short-answer questions to test the following hypothesis: that learning with visual art in museum environments improves ESL students’ sociocultural knowledge and English language macro skills. The survey asked participants (teachers and students) to rate and describe how effective they perceived their learning experience to be and to consider the factors impacting their learning/teaching experience. In order to quantify and analyse their feedback, the survey questions addressed the following aspects of their experience:

• students’ and teachers’ perceptions of improved sociocultural and linguistic knowledge, skills attitudes and behaviour

• perceptions of the program in order to identify its strengths and weaknesses

• specific ways in which the education resources and museum educator were effective in facilitating teaching and learning in a museum environment.

Participants comprised students and teachers, all of whom completed an ethics statement providing consent for the anonymous use of material in research


publications. The participants completed qualitative and quantitative surveys at the conclusion of the excursion, hence the response rate was 100%. Appendix D outlines components of the student survey (Table 4) and the teacher survey (Table 5).

Participants

Attendees of the ESL education program came from inner-city suburbs that are in close proximity to the Potter. Fifteen teachers participated in the education program. Table 1 illustrates the participating students.

Table 1Institutions and Number of Students Participating in the 2012–2014 BSAP ESL Program at the Potter

Educational institution English language course and level

Number of participants

Cambridge International College, Melbourne

General English, Intermediate 16

Cambridge International College, Melbourne

General English, Advanced 10

Trinity Foundation College, Melbourne

Academic English, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) 98

AMES Flagstaff, Melbourne General English, Certificate 3 in Written and Spoken English, and Adult Migration English Program (AMEP)

100

AMES Footscray, Melbourne Language, Literacy and Numeracy Program (LLNP) 16

Total participants 240

As illustrated in Figure 1, the students came from a range of cultural backgrounds and ranged from 18–60 years old, with 70% of the participants being in the 18–40 years old age bracket.


Malaysia India

South Korea FijiTurke

y

Sri Lanka

Spain

Vietnam

Hong Kong

Afghanistan

EgyptBurm

a

Colombia

Pakistan

Thailand

Philippines

Sudan

EthiopiaTibet

MongoliaRussi

aChina

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

Number ofParticipants

Figure 1. Demographics of the participating students

Findings and discussion

The data from the surveys presents key findings that evidences learning with visual art objects in museums improves ESL student outcomes. This was suggested by the participants’ responses to the following questions in the surveys:

• Why teachers visited the art museum and used art to teach English

• Why teachers intend to bring their students to art museums in the future

• What the students’ perceived learning outcomes were from being inspired by art objects.

Teachers’ perceptions for visitation

• Curriculum enrichment

Eighty-five percent of the teachers integrated the excursion as an enrichment activity to develop students’ knowledge, skills and understandings of Australian culture and identity. This implies that the BSAP was an appealing and fitting exhibition choice to engage ESL students, particularly newly arrived students and refugees, who were able to further their knowledge about issues of settlement, Australian culture and history through ‘reading’ visual texts. Teachers found the theme of sport as accessible to their students’ interests, suggesting that considered selection of an exhibition is vital in fostering student engagement and developing sociocultural knowledge.

Themes museums may herald in various exhibitions that resonate with the student pool, i.e., the State Library Persian exhibition, are reasons why we attend. The students are very keen to learn about cultures in general, for example, we went


to the indigenous exhibition at the Ian Potter Federation Square, Multicultural Museum Victoria, along with learning art history, for example, Napoleon at the National Gallery of Victoria. The BSAP allowed our students to learn about sport and Australian culture. Teacher of General English, AMES Flagstaff

Furthermore, as a Certificate of Spoken and Written English (CSWE) teacher at AMES Flagstaff, Melbourne noted:

one of the objectives for visitation was for students to interact with each other in an informal environment where they could practice their conversation . . . [to] expose students to cultural activities Melbourne has to offer.

Indeed, by teaching with pictures, objects and cultural artifacts, these teachers perceived themselves to be simultaneously cultivating students’ knowledge about the role of museums in society and involving students in authentic social and cultural experiences.

In support of their motivations, an evaluation conducted by the J. Paul Getty Museum (2009) reveals that incorporating art excursions based on curriculum enrichment yields the following benefits:

- develops English language acquisition, supports oral, discussion, and writing assignments; and

- broadens the scope of school programs through workshops offered at the Museum.

• Application of innovative pedagogy by exposure to contemporary art

The participating teachers revealed the importance of being open to experimenting with interdisciplinary-based pedagogies to support classroom-based learning. None of the teacher participants had ever visited the Potter before and were curious to experience how different styles of contemporary art could facilitate their students to think laterally about representations of culture.

We wanted to engage students in dialogue about different artworks and how the elements and principles of artworks convey the artists’ messages, and also to explore interpretations of a common theme in very different results.

Teacher of English for Academic Purposes, Trinity Foundation College, Melbourne

Whilst these teachers were eager to trial an innovative approach to language learning, 60% of the teacher participants indicated the need to improve their ability to use object-based learning and VTS independently in the future. This suggests that further professional learning about how to use original artworks in lessons is required in


order for teachers to engage their students confidently with them, particularly as museum educators may not always be accessible.

As such, 90% of the teachers expressed that having access to the museum educator reduced their apprehension about delivering a first lesson/excursion using art objects. Eighty percent of the teachers believed that the expertise of the museum educator enabled content to be specifically tailored to ESL students, whilst also modelling museum education pedagogy to classroom teachers. This clearly indicates the benefits for teachers to access the expertise of museum educators during their first few visits.

Simple, easy language was used by the educator who understood learning needs of ESL students (including pace, pitch and activities) that helped students to understand the information that was presented. Now I am more comfortable to use art with my students on my own!

Teacher of AMEP, AMES Flagstaff Melbourne

• Education resources

All participating teachers perceived the education resources supplied by the museum as an incentive for visitation, particularly commenting on their effectiveness in preparing students for their visit. Their comments echo research that reveals that using related learning resources to prepare students for a visit to an art museum makes a significant difference to the quality of students’ museum learning experience (Idea Museum, 2015). As a General English teacher from AMES Flagstaff commented:

The pre-visit and gallery activities helped my students in their understanding of what they were going to see, learn about the BSAP and the rules and regulations relating to the museum . . . they were fantastic to develop my students’ English skills.

The pre-visit resource comprises information on the exhibition, museum manners/etiquette, vocabulary and language structures required to discuss and engage with artwork meanings, and hints on what students may experience and be asked in the museum. All participating teachers perceived these as necessary for maximising student contribution and engagement with the artworks during the excursion, also acknowledging increased student interest: ‘the resources helped to orient the students towards the visit and generated an interest in the exhibition’ (Teacher of AMEP, AMES Flagstaff).

Furthermore, provision of post-visit resources helps teachers assess what students learnt during the visit. Research reveals that reviewing material after an excursion prolongs the impact of what students saw, and will stimulate more creative thinking


(Singh, 2004). Overall, Cooker & Pemberton (2004) reinforce the value of educational resources, particularly to:

- give students an opportunity to contribute their own views, e.g., favourite/most important elements of the museum visit

- be authentic in task and text

- allow for uncertainty in interaction to reflect everyday experiences

- make explicit links to the curriculum – in this case, with the CSWE certificate, the Certificate in General Education for Adults, and the Certificate in English Language, Literacies and Numeracy (LLNP).

However, it is important to note that the generic resources supplied by the museum may not always be suitable for every student cohort and ability, explaining why 10% of the teachers adapted the material provided. For example, one teacher commented:

‘I ended up writing my own materials based on the model given, for other exhibitions that would interest my students’ (Teacher of General English, Cambridge International College).

Overall, 90% of the participating teachers rated the quality of their visit as ‘excellent’, with 85% of this number strongly agreeing that the visit met their expectations for achieving student outcomes.

Student learning outcomes

Recurring comments pertaining to the development of students’ new knowledge and skills were grouped into the following key student outcomes.

• Developed knowledge of the museum as accessible

For all participating students, this was their first visit to the Potter. In fact, 95% of the students had never visited a museum in Australia and displayed a lack of awareness regarding the role of museums in society. Following their visit, 85% of the students expressed they felt more of a sense of inclusion, belonging and involvement in Australian culture.

I didn’t know it [this museum] also is for me. I realise it relates to me and what I learn in school.

LLNP student, AMES Flagstaff

Looking and talking about the art helped improve my English. I study right next to the museum but I didn’t even know this museum is for everybody and I can come to the museum anytime to practice my English.

Student, Trinity Foundation College


This clearly demonstrates that ESL teachers have a responsibility to support students’ assimilation in new cultural and social contexts, as argued by Stein & Wyman (2013). A report titled ‘Art as a tool for English language learners’ (The New York State Education Department, 2010), emphasises the need for teachers to consider what issues and themes they want to explore with certain exhibitions, which are powerful tools to develop pride and understanding of local cultures and customs and foster intercultural understanding. For example, as a student reflected upon her learning about indigenous history, Australian identity and sporting culture from viewing the BSAP exhibition: ‘I learnt that art can communicate about the country people live in, and how Australians love sport’ (Academic English, Trinity Foundation College).

Similarly, Cooker & Pemberton (2010) remind teachers to consider the cultures represented in the collection of a museum when choosing where to go for an excursion, and to question how well this collection could represent the demographic of the class.

• Increased appreciation and enjoyment of contemporary art

Through exposure to a range of art styles, students developed an understanding of how different things can be called art and the value of art appreciation.

I recommend others to visit the museum because there is different art like sculpture, painting and video. I didn’t know video is art.

General English student, Cambridge International College

Students come to this appreciation in numerous ways. Watt (2004) emphasises that the idea is not to teach students about art, but to discover artworks with them by eliciting personal responses. Teachers can do this by questioning students about what the artworks suggest about Australian culture and values – this is often different to students’ countries, and consequentially they find it fascinating.

This visit enriched my students’ cultural knowledge relating to the arts and exposed them to some aboriginal art. Since a visit to an art gallery was a first for most of the students, it provided them an insight into the socio-cultural environment in Australia. After this introduction, it is likely they will visit the Potter again with family and friends.

Teacher of CSWE I, AMES Flagstaff

• Developed visual literacy and interpretive skills

According to Gawner (2009), a person who is visually literate can express thoughts and ideas in visual form, as well as decode the content and meaning of visual images. Surprisingly, 62% of the students acknowledged they did not perceive art as a form of text prior to their visit. After their visit, 26% of the students expressed


the medium of art as liberating, acknowledging that it enabled them to express their opinions freely without the teacher’s expectations of having the ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answers, provided that the reasons behind their interpretations were explained. By experiencing the subjective nature of art, students were able to practice visual literacy and speaking skills:

I learn there is no limit in painting. Art can express emotion, interests and tell stories. I can tell my opinion, don’t have to worry about correct answer.

Student of CSWE III, AMES Flagstaff

Evidently, this helped students to communicate their honest opinions, which is a critical skill for everyday life; for example, one student said: ‘I didn’t like the artwork [but] I didn’t have to worry about telling teacher I liked it’ (AMEP student, AMES Footscray).

Overall, through the process of ‘reading’ artworks, students also deepened their understanding of art as:

- a vehicle to communicate issues of personal and national identity

- an evocation of our senses

- a reflection of society

- produced in a specific context that we need to understand

- something that makes viewers think

- open to interpretation

- learning a new language – for example: ‘I learnt about colour, composition, value, tone and texture, subject matter and shape in artworks. Each artwork taught me new words’ (General English student, Cambridge International College).

• Developed language skills

Students were able to apply their new vocabulary to their own extended written responses inspired by the artworks, producing a rich and diverse vocabulary and experimentation with language (Walsh-Piper, 2002). Students demonstrated increased confidence in using literary devices, such as simile and alliteration. For example, when asked to create a simile in response to the big wave in William Mckinnon’s painting, several students wrote that ‘the wave looks like an ice-cream melting’, or ‘the wave looks like a tongue curling’.

Following, are examples of alliterative headlines students were asked to create for a caption of the artwork in a newspaper:


The angry rush of the roaring wave rumbles rhythmically right to the rim of the beach

The surfers shout, scream, skate and slide to the shore

By writing in front of a large-scale painting, students were able to feel the wave hovering over them, experienced by the height of the painting – as a teacher commented, ‘the properties inherent in original artworks contributed to vocabulary learnt that extended beyond normal classroom learning context’ (Teacher of CSWE II, AMES Flagstaff).

Moreover, 20% of teachers emphasised that authentic visual stimuli helped to engage students in speaking who were usually disengaged, suggesting that visual art helped generate cooperation and lively discussion through multiple ways of learning:

Everybody was engaged, even the boys who usually display some disruptive behaviour were really interested and asked questions.

Teacher at Cambridge International College

• Deepened enjoyment of creative writing

Eighty-seven percent of the students indicated that writing in response to art was an interesting way to learn writing. Carter, Holland, Mladic, Sarbiewski & Sebastian (1998) acknowledge that when students feel writing is fun, they will be more confident in sharing their thoughts and feelings on paper. As such, 75% of the teachers felt their students built self-confidence by proudly performing their writing to the class, which also enabled them to learn from each other’s ideas. This suggests that using art can be a successful way to motivate students to develop their writing as it can enhance their enjoyment and provide a context for creative writing. As an Advanced General English student stated:

the painting gave me so many ideas, topics and words in my head . . . I can see, feel and think about what I am writing. It was more fun than sitting in a classroom . . . I can use my imagination.

The subjective nature of art, and the open-endedness of questions that were asked, enabled students to exercise their creativity and develop their own narratives, as they were encouraged to think from new perspectives. In other words, fostering divergent thinking skills can contribute to students’ enjoyment in writing. For example, while looking intently at Christian Thompson’s photograph, To make you feel this way (2012), students were asked what the plain pink colour in the background of the photograph reminded them of. Students shared their descriptions, such as ‘cotton candy’, ‘lipstick’, ‘sea of roses’, and ‘the blush of a shy girl’. They then associated


their descriptions with personal interpretations, such as: ‘I see a dying man floating up towards a pink cloud’, or ‘Tired and exhausted. Running around yet still. Sleeping with eyes wide open in a pool of fresh blood.’ Students were able to use their ideas to develop storytelling skills, and expanded their higher order thinking as they thought divergently about what they saw.

• Future visitation

Ninety-two percent of the teachers ‘strongly agreed’ they would consider bringing more students on excursions to museums in the future. Additionally, 79% of students strongly agreed the Potter is an enjoyable place to learn, and that they would like to re-visit independently or with others, indicating a desire to share their positive experience:

I want to take more time to discover the other exhibitions with my friends. Not only about sport – different topics. It’s great to come back to because I can learn lots . . .

AMEP student, AMES Flagstaff

Sixty percent of students expressed that they would visit again to improve knowledge of Australian art and culture, indicating a strong desire to assimilate in their new environment.

One can propose that increased museum literacy skills – that is, cultural knowledge of museum manners, etiquette and the roles and functions of museums, motivates students to visit museums in the future. As a participating teacher stated, ‘students will be more likely to visit an art museum in the future because they know how to behave, converse, understand art, and access a museum.’

• The education resource

The education resources motivated teachers to re-visit the Potter:

I would consider bringing my students to museum’s education program repeatedly especially if the same amount of pre- and post-visit excursion activities are provided for my students.

Teacher, AMES Flagstaff

Eighty-seven percent of the students indicated the worksheets helped improve their English; 93% of the students recorded that the worksheets improved their knowledge about the Potter and the BSAP; 81% expressed that on-site gallery worksheets made their visit more interesting. However, only 40% of the teachers said that they would be comfortable making their own resources, indicating the need for professional development.


• Professional development

All the teachers acknowledged professional development would facilitate their integration of art in the curriculum. However, participating teachers all appreciated the fact they didn’t need any knowledge about art to deliver and participate in the experience. According to Chappel and Faltis (2003), professional development in this area of expertise will help teachers develop techniques that ‘link’ art to thematic instruction, discussion and student self-expression.

Conclusion

This report examined the multiple benefits of using museums’ artworks in teaching and learning, both from the perspective of students and teachers. Findings demonstrate how original art objects in museums can introduce new opportunities for high levels of observation, analysis, interpretation, comprehension, reflection, critical thinking, visual literacy and English skills, and also challenge students to explore themselves and their environment. The benefits of using art were twofold: (1) to improve knowledge of culture and (2) to practise English.

Participating students and teachers expressed that visits to museums facilitates development of sociocultural knowledge and a sense of inclusion. Students wanted to share their positive experience with family and friends, leaving the excursion as active members of culture in their new civic contexts, and able to communicate in English using vocabulary related to artwork meanings and content. Additionally, they came to understand the value of cultural resources in a democratic society.

Recommendations

The theoretical and practical evidence presented in this report makes a strong case for the integration of art museum visits in the ESL classroom. It also demonstrates some useful suggestions that classroom teachers can adopt when planning a visit to a museum:

• connect students’ personal experiences and prior knowledge to an artwork

• use open-ended questions to draw students’ attention to an artwork to foster creative thinking and allow students to express their personal reactions to the artwork through multiple ways of learning – group discussion, individual

‘deciphering’ or pair work.

• foster higher order thinking skills by accepting that there is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer, provided that ideas are justified, and by promoting high levels of analysis, reasoning and questioning using inquiry-based learning strategies


• create a narrative or thematic understanding about the artwork

• connect contextual information about the artist, artwork and historical information in students’ interpretations

• scaffold instruction

• create a bridge between written and visual texts

• make learning relevant and meaningful by selecting an appropriate exhibit

• help students develop self-esteem and presentation skills by encouraging them to share and perform their written pieces

• model ‘deciphering’ an artwork (problem-solving)

• encourage students to notice the scale, size, texture, height and placement of an artwork that is not visible in artwork reproductions

• create or use ready-made education resources during pre-visit, post-visit and during-the-visit.

Future research implications

While looking at and discussing original art objects in a museum environment can have numerous benefits, it is appreciated that not all teachers may have the opportunity to take their students to a museum. This could be due to a number of factors ranging from geographical location to disapproval by school administration. This leads to future research questions, particularly with regard to the strategies that teachers could use to integrate high-resolution art reproductions or virtual reality tools in the classroom. Would reproductions or virtual reality imaging have the same impact on students’ writing as taking students to a museum? Another focus could be an examination of the obstacles teachers may be facing in developing successful resources to support learning with artworks in museum environments, and professional learning that could facilitate their participation in museum experiences.

References

Australian Museum, Programs for ESL and Adult Students (2014). Retrieved from http://australianmuseum.net.au/programs-for-esl-and-adult-literacy-students

Allan, J. (2008). Rethinking inclusive education: The philosophers of difference in practice. Dordrecht: Springer.


Barkan, L. (2012). Mute Poetry, Speaking Pictures. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Bearden, A. (1993). Effect of contingent visual arts experiences on attendance of students with behaviour disorders. Normal: Illinois State University.

Bresler, L. (1994). Imitative, complementary, and expansive: Three roles of visual arts curricula. Studies in Art Education 35(2), 90–104.

Carre, I. (1996). Visual art and the teaching of English as a second language. Mayaguez: University of Puerto Rico.

Carter, P. A., Holland, S. M., Mladic, S. L. , Sarbiewski, G. M., & Sebastian, D. M. (1998). Improving student writing skills using wordless picture books. Unpublished Master thesis. Chicago: Saint Xavier University.

Chappel, S. V., & Faltis, C., (2003). The Arts and Emergent Bilingual Youth: Building Culturally Responsive, Critical and Creative Education in School and Community Contexts. New York: Routledge.

Cooker, L., & Pemberton, R. (2010). Self-access language learning in museums: A materials development project. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 1(2), 87–99.

Fake, I. (1995). Adaptations: Teaching the learning disabled student in the visual arts. Kutztown: University of Pennsylvania.

Falk, John, H. (1998). Visitors: Who does, who doesn’t and why. Museums News, 77(2), 38–43.

Foster, T., & Prevallet, K. (2002). Third mind: Creative writing through visual art. New York: Teachers & Writers Collaborative.

Garibay, C., Stein., J.K. and Wilson, K. (2008). Engaging immigrant audiences in museums. Social Issues, 3(2), 178–196.

Grant, A., Hutchison, K., Hornsby, D. & Brooke, S. (2008). Creative pedagogies: ‘Art-full’ reading and writing. English Teaching Practice & Critique, 7(1), 57–72.

Groves, J., & Hubert, T. (2003). Art and anger management: Using art education to calm at-risk students. The Clearing House, 76(4), 186–192.

Harvard Graduate School of Education. (2014). Visible Thinking. Retrieved from http://www. pz.harvard.edu/visible_thinking.php

Idea Museum (2015). Build It, February 13–May 24, 2015: Guided tour information. Retrieved from http://www.ideamuseum.org/assets/buid-it_teacherspacket_2015_final.pdf

Ivanova, A. (2004). Therapeutic art practices with orphan children in Bulgaria. American Art Therapy Association 21(1), 13–17.


Jabali, J. (2009). Picture this: Developing deaf students’ ASL and written English through picture journals. San Diego: University of California.

Jensen, E. (2001). Arts with the brain in mind. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Moorman, H. (2006). Backing into ekphrasis: Reading and writing poetry about visual art. English Journal, 96(2), 46–53.

National Advocates for Arts Education. (2008). Education Revolution? The arts have it! NAAE Media Release. Retrieved from http://www.docstoc.com/docs/31302129/Education-Revolution-The-Arts-Have-It.

Rodriguez-Remedi, A. (2008). The arts as a means of cultural integration: A Chilean case study. Aberdeen: Robert Gordon University.

Ruanglertbutr, P., & May, S. (2014). The art of English: An interdisciplinary approach to supporting English and Literature Curricula at the National Gallery of Victoria. Journal of Artistic and Creative Education, 7(1), 194–229.

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Stein, R. & Wyman., B. (2013). Nurturing engagement: How technology and business model alignment can transform visitor participation in the museum. Retrieved from http://mw2013.museumsandtheweb.com/paper/nurturing-engagement/

Stephenson, N. (2007). Introduction to inquiry based learning. Retrieved from http://www.teachinquiry.com/index/Introduction.html

The J. Paul Getty Museum. (2009). Evaluation of the J. Paul Getty Museum’s Language through Art: An ESL Curriculum. Retrieved March 25, 2015 from https://www.getty.edu/education/museum_educators/downloads/getty_eslcurriculum_evaluation.pdf

The New York State Education Department, Office of Bilingual and Foreign Languages Studies (2010). Art as a tool for teachers of English Language learners. Retrieved from www.p12.nysed.gov/biling/docs/Art_as_a_Tool-for_Teachers.pdf

Torres-Oritz, G. (1995). Improving the self-concept of minority students with art activities. Amherst: University of Massachusetts.

Walsh-Piper, K. (2002). Image to word: Art and creative writing. Lanham, M.d.: Scarecrow Education.

Watt, D. (2004). Using modern art to teach language and culture to ESL students. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol. 10. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Lessons/Watt-ModernArt.html


Purnima Ruanglertbutr is an English and Art teacher at Valley Park School, UK, and research assistant at the Melbourne Graduate School of Education, where she has also lectured. She has also worked at the Ian Potter Museum of Art and the National Gallery of Victoria, and has taught ESL in numerous colleges. Her research interest is museum education pedagogies.

[email protected]


Appendix A

Table 2 BSAP Pre-Visit Education Resource Kit Activities (2012 & 2014)

Name of activity Purpose of activity ESL strategies Skills addressed

Leisure sites in Melbourne

An orientation to leisure sites in Melbourne

Matching pictures of sites with names of places

Recall

What is a museum? Building the field Group discussion about students’ prior experiences in a museum (What, why, where, when, how).

Elicit and introduce vocabulary associated with museums.

Sort the words under the headings: The museum building; the museum foyer; museum exhibitions; things visitors do.

Speaking and vocabulary

The purpose of museums

An orientation to the museum as a public institution and to see public institutions as accessible community resources.

Use the prompts provided about museums, to discuss agreement or disagreement with the statements.

Speaking and development of sociocultural knowledge

Introduction to The Ian Potter Museum of Art

Introduce the Ian Potter Museum of Art and explore the services provided by the museum.

Complete a cloze activity about the Ian Potter Museum of Art (where it is, when it opened, what is inside).

Complete short answer questions using a reading passage comprising information about opening hours, admission and contact.



Complete True and False questions on a reading passage about Visitor Behaviour

Visit the Museum exhibitions’ webpage on the Internet and find information to answer questions about the exhibition and museum.

Reading

Directions to the museum and museum floor maps

To provide information about where the museum is and facilitate independent access to the site, as well as an idea of how to navigate the building once there.

Print a map showing directions from school to the museum. Conduct an information-gap activity where one partner has a map without directions and the other gives directions to the museum. You could do the same with floor maps obtained from the museum.

Listening, reading and speaking

Basil Sellers Art Prize To introduce students to the theme and concept of exhibition they are going to visit.

Read information about the BSAP and answer multiple choice and short answer questions about the exhibition.

Complete a vocabulary worksheet with new words found in the text.

Listen/watch an interview with the Director of the museum talking about the exhibition to complete short answer questions.

Listening, reading and vocabulary

Basic vocabulary for talking about art

Introduce vocabulary related to museum exhibitions

Match pictures with words (e.g. wall label, gallery, sculpture, painting, artist).

Vocabulary



Design elements and principles vocabulary

Introduce adjectives of different kinds of line (e.g. curvy, straight, horizontal); colour (e.g. cool, warm, monochrome); shape (e.g. two-dimensional; geometric; organic); form (height, width, depth); texture; space (e.g. foreground, middle-ground); repetition; focal point, pattern.

Use a dictionary to find the meaning of words and draw/find a picture to represent the word.

Vocabulary

Vocabulary to describe mood and feelings

Introduce students to the idea that artworks evoke and express feelings and mood, and that adjectives can be used to describe this (e.g. serious, frightening, depressing).

Show students pictures of artworks communicating the adjectives provided in their worksheet. Students identify which artworks relate to each adjective. They find meaning of the words in a dictionary.

Vocabulary


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Appendix C

Table 3 BSAP Post-Visit Education Resource Kit Activities (2012 & 2014)

Name of activity Purpose of activity ESL strategies Skills addressedMy visit to the Ian Potter Museum of Art

Encourages students to recall what they saw, felt and did at the Museum.

Write or draw notes in the mind map worksheet provided.

Recall prior knowledge

Write an email To encourage students to reflect on their experience in the museum in more detail, and write using formal language to an audience.

Write an email in the template provided, to the museum educator or teacher, about the experience at the museum. This includes describing a favorite artwork with reasons about why it is a favourite, writing about the best part of the visit, and what was learnt. Address the questions and scaffolds provided.

Writing

Write a postcard To encourage students to use written informal language to communicate their memorable moments in museum.

Write a letter in a postcard template provided, to a friend or family member, about the experience at the museum.

Writing

Create a work of art Investigate how creative work is influenced by other work and

Create an artwork inspired by an artwork seen or admired at the exhibition. Write a paragraph describing how the artwork influenced your creative work and the meanings behind your creative work.

Drawing and writing


Appendix D

Table 4BSAP 2012–2014 Student Survey

Sections in survey Details requested

Personal details • Languages spoken, cultural background, age, school

Visit to the Ian Potter Museum of Art • Whether they have visited the Potter before; whether this is their first visit to a museum in Melbourne; what words they would use to describe the museum to a friend

Experience of the education program • What they enjoyed most; four things they learnt most during the visit; what they didn’t like about the visit; how their visit could have been better

Perceptions of the pre-visit activities • Usefulness in helping to improve their English, knowledge of the exhibition and museum

Perceptions of the museum educator • Impact of teaching on their learning; whether the lesson was interesting and how well they could understand the content

Plans for future visitation • Recommendations for others to visit and their own plans to re-visit the museum, including additional feedback

Table 5BSAP 2012–2014 Teacher Survey

Sections in survey Details requestedPersonal details • Name of school

• Subjects currently teaching• Whether the teacher has visited the Potter

before• Whether the teacher has integrated

museum visits or art in the English classroom before

Experience of the education program • Rating from a scale of ‘excellent’ to ‘poor’:• the overall quality of the education

program• Rating from a scale of ‘strongly agree’ to

‘strongly disagree’: • Whether the program met the teacher’s

expectations• The purpose of the visit: curriculum

connection, enrichment activities or other• List the learning outcomes


Sections in survey Details requested• Describe how well the overall discussion

and selection of artworks extended students’ deep thinking and exploration about art, sport and Australian culture

• Describe the most enjoyable part of the visit;

• Describe the most helpful aspect of the program

Perceptions of the education resources • Whether the teacher used any of the education resources provided by the museum and if so, which ones

• Comment on the effectiveness and usefulness of the resources in helping students prepare for their visit and consolidate what they learnt

• Perceptions on whether the resources stimulated the students’ interest and helped students engage with artworks in the museum

Perceptions of the museum educators performance

Rating from a scale of ‘strongly agree’ to ‘strongly disagree’, the following aspects about the museum educator: • Asked open-ended questions to guide

students through the content; maintained the students’ attention and interest

• Presented content and questions appropriate to students’ language level

• Friendly and interested in the students• Catered for different learning styles;

made the lesson well-balanced in terms of looking, thinking, listening, speaking, reading and writing

• Allowed the teacher to provide input into the planning for the lesson

• Planned a well-balanced lesson with a combination of group and independent learning activities

Future visitation ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers to the following aspects: • Recommending the program to other

teachers• Considering bringing other students to the

program• Interest in professional development

participation for ESL teachers


Imagined communities: Perspectives of English learners in Australia

Andrew Ross

University of Canberra

Sarah Bayes

University of Canberra College

International students face the challenge of embarking on a new stage of life in another country, and they are often unprepared for the experience that awaits them. Before arriving, they often have a vision of what their experience in their new location will be; that is, they have a vision of the different communities they will join – as a student and as a member of society. These communities are known as ‘imagined communities’ (Kanno & Norton, 2003). However, there is often a discrepancy between the imagined communities and identities of students and the actual reality they experience in their new location of Australia. This study employs interviews with students of different nationalities and linguistic backgrounds to gain an insight into both their imagined communities and identities and their reality, with a particular emphasis on the role of cultural knowledge in attaining membership to an imagined community. The interview data were analysed in accordance with Kvale’s (1996) ‘meaning interpretation’ approach and showed that over time students became more aware of the importance of cultural awareness and that this awareness is of great value in helping students reconcile their imagined and actual identities. To conclude, implications for the language classroom are discussed and suggestions made for improving cultural awareness.

Introduction

Language teachers are intricately intertwined with the lives of international students, but often little is known about student lives beyond the situated classroom context. The current study finds its roots in the notion of culture shock and the effect of intercultural contact, or lack thereof, with members of the host country and culture (Ward, Bouchner & Furnham, 2001). More specifically, the study targets observations


of tertiary English language learners in Australia and the influence the lives they lead outside of the classroom has on their overall experience as international students. The authors noticed that it was very common for the free time of students to be spent in association with friends of the same nationality, or their classmates who were also from foreign countries. This association also commonly extends to home life in Australia, where it is almost the norm for students of the same nationality to end up living together, so often the only real association with Australians, for many students, appears to come from the relationship they have with their classroom teacher. While the classroom provides a cultural mix and a platform for language practice and development, access to the cultural elements associated with living in another country are often absent. This can be problematic as pointed out by Pruitt (1978), who suggested that adjustment of international students was poorer if they spent more leisure time with compatriots than with members of the host culture and language.

This led the authors to wonder whether this was, in fact, the scenario that students had actually envisaged for themselves before they came to Australia – if, indeed, their current situation was close to what they had imagined at all. Further to this, the authors broach the issue of the teaching of culture in a foreign language learning environment in terms of its potential to bridge a gap between that community a learner imagines and what they are eventually faced with in reality. Culture learning is of particular import to international students as, together with language fluency and contact with host nationals, culture-specific knowledge has been associated with levels of sociocultural difficulty (Ward, 1996). Increased knowledge and understanding of the target culture can be facilitated through interactive encounters in the target language and culture in the context of language education (see Duff, 2007; Schiefflin & Ochs, 1986).

Theoretical backdrop

The theoretical foundations of the current study revolve around the notion of an imagined community – a concept of great relevance to the described situation. The concept of an imagined community was first put forward by Anderson (1991, p. 7) when he used the term to define the idea of nationalism. He stated that his own perception of the nation was as an ‘imagined political community’. It was imagined because ‘the members of even the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow members, meet them, or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their communion’. He further explained that it is imagined as a community because even though there may exist severe inequality in any given country, the nation is still ‘conceived as a deep, horizontal comradeship’ .


Since his valuable work in 1991, his concept of an imagined community has been adapted and applied to the field of applied linguistics, where it was re-defined by Kanno and Norton (2003, p. 241) as ‘groups of people, not immediately tangible and accessible, with whom we connect through the power of the imagination’. This combined Anderson’s concept with the idea of communities of practice put forward by Lave and Wenger (1991), whose view was that the act of learning moves beyond merely acquiring a set of knowledge and skills, but more importantly occurs due to changing patterns of participation within communities that share practices. As the level of competence of an individual increases in the performance of these community practices, they are able to become more active participants. For many language learners in Australia at university level, including the participants in the current study, imagined communities are mostly made up of visions outside of the language classroom. For example, it is understandable that the imagined communities of future nursing students are made up of fellow nursing students, and beyond that it could be a professional community within the healthcare field. Similar examples to this can be found in Norton (2001).

The link with increasing competence in these community practices draws heavily on the notion of what is now commonly known as Intercultural Communicative Competence, a concept Byram (1991) and Kramsch (1993) developed as an extension of Hymes’s (1972) initial notion of Communicative Competence. Intercultural Communicative Competence is defined by Byram (2000) as ‘the ability to interact effectively with people of cultures other than one’s own’ (p. 297), a definition that bears great relevance and significance to the participants in the current study, and the many other students like them. The work of Andrew (2011) built on this in its exploration of the lived experiences of learners beyond the classroom through journals of learners in community volunteer placements. The study, and the journals, revealed that through active participation in the target culture in a context beyond the educational setting helped learners ability to work appropriately and effectively to integrate more into the culture and community.

In extending the idea from the physical, or situated, sense to the imagined, the concept of imagined communities and identities has taken on an important new dimension. Now, the concept of imagined identities has become a central theme in the study of identity – in particular in the relationship that exists between imagined communities and imagined identities (Norton 2001). This relationship has been further explored in the work of several researchers such as Dageanis, Moore, Lamarre, Sabatier, & Armand (2008), who provided elementary school children in Canada with an avenue to document how they imagined the language of their neighborhoods and how they constructed their own identities in relation to them.


Most studies revolving around the concept of imagined communities have a focus on the future and who learners envisage their future self to be, and what their commonalities might be when they undertake language studies (Norton & Toohey, 2011). This study adopts the same focus in attempting to uncover any disparities or communalities between the community and the identity that the students imagined for themselves before arriving in Australia, and that of the reality they faced after they arrived. In line with Lave and Wenger’s (1991) view regarding the necessary development of competence in shared community practices and behaviour, the importance of increasing cultural awareness and knowledge in international students must be considered. This ideal links with the notion of cultural capital introduced by Bourdieu and Passeron (1977), which refers to the knowledge and thinking processes that characterise and differentiate between cultural groups. Norton and Toohey (2011) mentioned the notion of investment (see Norton Peirce, 1995) in language learning and that as learners invest more in the language and target culture, they are also increasing their cultural capital. The notion in investment itself refers to the fact that while learners may be highly motivated, they may also have significantly different and fluctuating levels of investment in classroom practices and the learning process at different points in time. Without an increasing awareness of the cultural intricacies, idiosyncrasies, norms, and realities of life in a foreign culture and country, the ability of individuals to become more active participants is severely hindered. It is also extremely difficult for students to just go out and experience life in the new culture. There are many factors preventing this such as anxiety, lack of linguistic and communicative competence and confidence, and the absence of the social circles that usually act as facilitators of new experiences and growing cultural understanding.

A final concept of relevance and importance is that of acculturation. Schumann (1978) introduced this concept in his Acculturation Model, in which he states that it is an overarching concept that includes second language acquisition, but also ventures beyond that into the need for cultural knowledge and adaptation. When discussing this, he states:

. . . second language acquisition is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target-language group will control the degree to which he acquires the second language. (p. 34)

Thus, by this theory it is possible for international students in a new country to improve their language proficiency more substantially if they combine their language study with increased knowledge of and integration with the target culture.

After presenting the results of the qualitative interviews in the form of comments from participating students, the importance and impact of the teaching of culture in


order to improve learners’ intercultural communicative competence will be discussed as a means of enabling learners to become more active participants in the foreign, previously imagined but now actual community they find themselves attempting to negotiate a new identity within.

Research context and participants

The research was conducted at an Australian university with a cohort of four students. In selecting the participants, the researchers attempted to ensure that they were not students who had already been living in Australia for an extended period already at the time of the study and who had adapted to their new environment, or had forgotten what their initial perceptions were. Rather, it was deemed that recruiting the students not long after their arrival would ensure the participants were more likely to have their imagined ideas about their new situation (from before they arrived) fresh in their minds, and that they would be better equipped and able to attempt to reconcile them. Such an approach is in line with a purposive sample approach, whereby principled decisions were made regarding the specific respondents that were recruited so as to match the purposes of the study (Dörnyei, 2007).

A brief overview of the participants is provided below in Table 1 to contextualise them a little further. It should also be noted that all participants were of roughly equal English proficiency, with all four being enrolled in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course at approximately the high upper-intermediate level.

Table 1General Information on Project Participants

Name* Gender Age Nationality Situation

Maria Female 27 Brazilian On pathway into a Master of Nursing, and then aims work as a nurse in Australia

Kohei Male 21 Japanese Exchange student from Fukuoka – returned to Japan after nine-month stay

Lucy Female 20 Chinese On pathway to study Bachelor of Management

Annie Female 25 Bangladeshi On pathway into a Master of Nursing

*pseudonyms used

Methodology

Data collection

The goal of the study was to gain an insight into the experience the participants encountered in their study and, more importantly, in their general lives in Australia, and as such it was determined that a qualitative, interview-driven approach would be most beneficial. Such a rationale is supported by Richards (2009, p. 183), who states


that interviews allow researchers to ‘probe beneath the surface of things and try to see things from the students’ perspective.’ Garrett and Young (2009) also point out the importance of the interview process as an extremely valuable means of discovery.

As the focus of the project was on how the nature of the imagined communities of students changed over the first period of their time in Australia as well as to consider the implications of culture to these perspectives, two interviews were held several weeks apart. The interviews were semi-structured in nature in order to allow the participants the opportunity to expand on anything when and if they felt the need or desire to do so. The first of these was held very soon after the students’ arrival and commencement of their language studies, and the second interview was held 10 weeks later, once they had had time to settle in to their new life and studies and for their initial perceptions to undergo change (if, indeed, they changed at all).

In order to provide some direction for the project and maintain a focus on the specific insights desired by the researchers, four key research questions were posed:

1. What did students ‘imagine’ their life would be like before they came?

2. How does their experience to date align with their imagined reality?

3. What value is placed on cultural knowledge and understanding, and how can this be gained?

4. What are the implications for the teaching of culture in ESL classrooms?

It was the first time that these students had studied abroad as well as being the first time they had spent a significant amount of time abroad, so the emphasis in the initial interview was on trying to take them back to the thoughts and imaginings they had had in their country before they arrived in Australia. On top of this, an added emphasis was on establishing rapport with the participants during this interview. Developing rapport is one of the most critical aspects of successful and rewarding interviews. Rapport does not necessarily mean liking, or pretending to like the interviewee, but rather involves a focus on clarity, politeness, non-threatening behaviour, friendliness and personability, as well as demonstrating respect towards the interviewee, and to the context of the interview in general (Cohen, Manion & Morrisson, 2011).

The final interview focused on any discrepancy that existed between the reality of educational and daily life in Australia, and what they had imagined it would be before they arrived. In addition, there was an emphasis on the role that culture knowledge did or did not play, in their new reality. The following sections will highlight the situations and perspectives outlined by the participants through their comments, as well as delve into the implications of the notion of culture in the experiences of international students and make some practical classroom suggestions.


Data analysis

The data analysis stage of the study began with verbatim transcription of the interviews for further interpretive analysis. Following the transcription, the data were coded in accordance to discrepancy between their imagined reality and their actual reality, and comments relating to the value of culture knowledge in enhancing their experience. The primary approach to the analysis was Kvale’s (1996) meaning interpretation approach. This approach was adopted in order to ‘develop the meanings of the interviews, bringing the subjects’ own understanding into the light as well as providing new perspectives from the researcher’ (Kvale, 1996, p. 190). The result was that the comments of the participants were able to be combined with interpretations by the authors, which allowed the analysis of the data to go

‘beyond what is directly said’ (Kvale, 1996, p. 201). The interpretations of the authors, although the primary subjective element in the process, can be seen as a strength rather than a validity threat, as the interviewer is sensitive to any nuances in the relationship, the impact of the interview setting, and nonverbal messages, and can use these sensitivities to enhance insight, and ensure a fuller understanding of the experience recounted by the participant.

Interview outcomes

The comments provided by the participants in the interviews were quite revealing, and provided some insights into the experiences of international students. Each participant will be discussed individually here in the interest of clarity.

Maria

Maria was a trained and experienced nurse from Brazil, and she was preparing to study Nursing in Australia to attain an Australian qualification. Her specific long-term imagined community was a professional one, in the medical domain. In the short-term, however, her primary imagined communities were her personal one with her partner, about which she was very comfortable, and the other was within the educational sphere, about which she was quite apprehensive. Maria’s description of the reality she had imagined before arriving in Australia contained an element of fear, as shown when she said, ‘I was scared of the educational environment’. Often during her interviews, she expressed that she had not been worried about the ‘cultural’ aspects of life in Australia as she had an Australian partner whom she assumed would help with the cultural transition. In essence, in the cultural sense, she had already reconciled the community she imagined she would be entering with what she knew from the cultural awareness her partner had provided her. It was more the aspects of educational life she was concerned about. However, she went


on to state that if she didn’t adapt or accept the culture, living in Australia would be very difficult for her in the future. She stated:

To be sincere, everyday I am learning how the country works, how they do things . . . for me it’s totally different from my country.

Whilst this difference is not surprising, the issue of the potential benefit of increased cultural knowledge or cultural education first arises here. Even with the help of her Australian partner, Maria found her new situation and that which she had imagined were quite different as evidenced by another of her comments when she remarked

‘If I don’t adapt or if I don’t accept this culture, it’s very difficult to live here for me.’

This is of interest, as before arriving, Maria believed she already possessed the cultural knowledge she needed to be able to live comfortably and happily as a member of a new society and community that reflected that which she had predicted. However, her experiences upon arriving showed her that she was still lacking in cultural knowledge and understanding, and expressed how this lack of awareness could affect her life.

Kohei

Kohei was an exchange student to Australia, and this fact made him different from the other participants in that he was not on a pathway into a university award course, so in the academic sense he did not have as much at stake as the others. However, of course, he still needed to live and survive in the foreign environment of Australia, so the Australian community that he had imagined, and that in which he landed, are just as important as the other participants. His specific imagined community was one focused on Australian society, which he was aware was multicultural. He came to Australia wishing to be able to engage in that community as effectively and as often as he could. He made it clear what he had expected when he commented:

In Australia there are many people from abroad. So, maybe the language or culture are very mixed. So, I expected to find some different values or ways of thinking.

Here, it could be said the Kohei appeared to be a little more prepared for the difference from his own country than Maria was. He was aware of the multicultural nature of Australian society, both inside and outside of the educational setting, but he did not know in advance how he would fit into that.

Kohei talked about not being able to clearly identify exactly what Australian culture was, and mentioned that this knowledge would have helped him in his life in Australia. Firstly, he mentioned that if he acted ‘more like an Australian maybe it will be more comfortable, more easy to get into Australian life’. Of course, it is very difficult for an individual of another nationality or culture to act like a member of a different culture


or nationality, but to even attempt this, some significant knowledge and awareness of the culture is essential. This, like Maria, is what Kohei seemed to be alluding to. However, he went on to say that he ‘did not find what Australian culture is’ and that as a result he could not acculturate as he would have liked.

This discrepancy between what Kohei knew and expected life in Australia to be like and his difficulty in becoming a part of it was founded upon the lack of cultural knowledge and awareness, and this is an important issue that needs to be addressed.

Lucy

Lucy’s imagined community was also one in which she could participate in the local society, with local Australians, frequently and effectively. Lucy was under no illusion as to the role that the English language, and her own linguistic competence in it, would have on her time in Australia as a student and member of the community:

It is important for me to learn a lot here about English and practise English, but also I need to know about Australian people and culture. If I don’t know about it then it is difficult for me to know how to communicate with Australian people.

This comment is significant as it first addresses the role of linguistic competence, but then moves to the notion of communicative competence. Of course, linguistic proficiency plays a major role in communicative competence, but cultural awareness and knowledge can play an equally important role in effective communication, and this is what Lucy seemed to be acutely aware of.

For Lucy, however, what was also obvious was that, as with Kohei, a degree of cultural knowledge was necessary, and she certainly felt that she did not have this, even by the time of the second interview. Lucy also pointed out that becoming a fully-fledged member of the community she imagined in Australia, and that she wished to be a part of, was bound to be very difficult to achieve due to the degree of adaptation she needed to undergo – a process that is generally not rapid:

I really want to join Australian friends and become a part of that, but I think that sometimes that is very hard because of the culture. I lived in China for a long time. I can’t change in a short time.

The difficulties associated with becoming a member of an imagined community, to realise membership of that community, are very evident here in this comment from Lucy.

Annie

The final of the participants was Annie, a Bangladeshi student who was on her way to becoming a nursing student in Australia. Thus, like Maria, her ultimate imagined


community was one in which she was a nursing student, and then a working nurse in Australia. However, before this she imagined herself as a functioning member of society in Australia, and she was aware of the impact this would have on her future in Australia as well. She was fortunate enough to have family in Australia, whom she lived with, and this helped her to ease into life in Australia and significantly reduce the homesickness aspect that affects most other students. She commented that the transition was ‘simple’ for her. What was of most interest in the comments of Annie was that even though she found the transition simple, she still recognised the need to adapt and change to maximise her experience in a new and different country and culture:

I need to learn about the Australian lifestyle, to make friendship, and to get a good idea about the lifestyle. If I know them well, then I can make change.

This remark by Annie could be seen as evidence for the need for increasing and improving the amount of cultural education provided either before arriving in Australia, but perhaps more beneficially, in Australia as part of their English language courses – considering these courses are the first education experience many international students have when arriving in Australia. It also links back to what Lucy said about the need to be able to communicate effectively, which always requires adequate cultural awareness and understanding.

Discussion

The most important change that was observed between the two interviews revolved around the notion of cultural knowledge and awareness. In the initial interview, the participants made only minor reference to the importance of cultural knowledge in attaining membership to their imagined communities, and when they did it was often in conjunction with a major focus on the role that linguistic proficiency played. The imagined communities of the participants were mostly in the real world; that is, the imagined community of the situated classroom environment was as they had imagined, but beyond that were quite different. To reiterate, the imagined communities beyond the classroom for the participants were different, ranging from profession (nursing), to being of a more personal nature where the participants imagined themselves as engaged members of the Australian community of native English speakers. Overall, the initial interview brought out that the community the participants had imagined was one in which linguistic capital played the major role, and cultural capital was of much less import.

However, the second interview saw a significant change in the views of the participants, with the majority of their comments relating to their perceived need


for greater cultural awareness and background knowledge to be able to become fully-fledged members of their imagined community, rather than remaining merely foreign students and not participating in the community a great deal outside of the classroom. Thus, is can be said that a reversal of sorts had occurred whereby the participants now saw cultural knowledge, or cultural capital, as being the most powerful influence on their general lives beyond the classroom, rather than linguistic competence (although linguistic competence still has a very significant role to play). The interview responses can be viewed most effectively in the light of the notion of acculturation, discussed earlier and which has been given a more recent definition by Kim (2008), who defines it as the ‘acquisition of the new cultural practices in wide-ranging areas including the learning of a new language’ (p. 363). Dealing with the learning of the language is one thing, but that, at least, is something that occurs when they go to class and participate in learning activities within that situated and controlled context. However, picking up cultural practices beyond the classroom is an extremely difficult task for many students, often regardless of whether they have local social circles or not. In fact, Ward, Bouchner and Furnham, (2001) point out that the ‘most fundamental difficulties experienced by cross-cultural travellers occur in social situations, episodes and transaction’ (p. 65), and as such, skills to be able to cope in these situation become increasingly important. The language itself is, of course, critical to the acculturation process, but it needs to be coupled with enhanced cultural knowledge and awareness.

The comments of the participants highlight a need, and indeed an opportunity, to make the transition into academic and social life in Australia a better experience for international students as they attempt to reconcile their imagined community within Australia with their actual reality. Ideally, with more support through cultural education and awareness-raising, international students will very quickly become members of the community they imagined for themselves in Australia.

Implications and suggestions

The comments and experiences of the participants in the project give rise to some important implications and call for some practical recommendations. First among these implications is the role that cultural awareness and understanding can play in aiding students to become members of their imagined communities. It was clear from the comments of students that much more than linguistic improvement is needed to fully adapt and engage with Australian life and Australian people with confidence. In particular, increased understanding of the aspects in which Australian culture and life differ from that of students’ own countries would be extremely beneficial.

Whilst it is not always easy to teach culture, there are certainly some activities


or suggestions that could be adopted to help in this regard. For example, most universities boast a large number of clubs for extracurricular activities ranging from sports clubs to film clubs to clubs that actually focus on a particular culture such as Japan Club, for example. Upon arrival in Australia, the strength with which students are encouraged to join and participate in these club activities could be increased. This will provide the students with a chance to meet fellow university students, both local and international, and to engage in activities that are popular and common in Australian life as well.

In EAP (where the current study was conducted) and other language courses, a concerted effort should be made to incorporate more culturally relevant materials. If the students are realising the value in cultural knowledge in their daily lives, this should be addressed by the institutions and educators. Most ESL coursebooks are from the UK or the USA, and while the language focus in them remains relevant and important, many cultural references are often redundant and irrelevant. As a result, materials focusing more on the cultural aspects of Australian life would be of great benefit for students as they strive to become members of the community they now reside in.

Another possibility relates to class activities. Group activities engaging the students with local sites and various aspects of the community should be encouraged. This might be in the form of visiting sites of local relevance, interviewing locals, or of organising study groups with other students in the university, in order to help increase their awareness of life for Australian students and people both inside and outside the university. This will have the dual benefit of continuing to develop English language proficiency, but doing so in a context that will increase cultural awareness and knowledge to a much greater extent than is the case when sitting in class and primarily focusing on the language, and often with materials that bypass cultural aspects of Australian life.

Finally, it is helpful to also consider how the teaching of culture has been undertaken in other countries. For example, from the Canadian context, Courchêne (1996) pointed out the importance of preparing teachers to effectively be able to integrate culture teaching into their teaching practices. This included an emphasis on consciousness-raising that could be carried out through noticing everyday activities of members of the target culture and comparing these to their own. Further, an emphasis was placed on helping learners deal with conflicting cultural visions through clear explanation and presentation with the norms of the target culture. Through the methods mentioned above, and the numerous other possibilities, it becomes possible for teachers and learners to work together to increase cultural awareness and knowledge.


CONCLUSION

There is no doubt that it is a difficult and often seemingly impossible task for an international student to become a member of the community they had imagined for themselves in Australia, and this is especially true for students from different linguistic backgrounds. Having to manage the linguistic challenges associated with life in a new country can be incredibly difficult, but when combined with the need and desire to develop the cultural awareness necessary to really have the best experience possible as a member of the new cultural community, it becomes even more so. It has become clear in the present study that students arrive in a new country with the linguistic challenges at the forefront of their minds, but very quickly the cultural aspects essential to engaging in everyday life in a community come to be seen as the most critical element.

For students to effectively be able to engage in the local community as they had imagined they might, strategies need to be put in place to make the transition easier. These strategies must necessarily revolve around increasing the students’ cultural awareness and understanding which, when combined with their developing linguistic proficiency, improve their overall communicative competence.

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Andrew Ross is a PhD graduate from the University of Canberra where he works as a lecturer on the TESOL program. His current research interests focus on the emotions and motivation of language learners as well as the sociolinguistics of hip-hop music.

[email protected]

Sarah Bayes is a former ESL teacher for the University of Canberra English Language Institute, and is currently the IELTS Administrator for the University of Canberra College IELTS test centre.

[email protected]


‘According to . . . ’: Analysing learner development of referencing and evidence integration

Cassi Liardét & Sharyn Black

Macquarie University

The conversation regarding referencing often focuses on punitive measures to respond to plagiarism rather than developing appropriate citation practices. Students are required to reference established scholars; however, as learners developing their ‘academic voice’, many struggle to effectively synthesise the evidence into their arguments. The aim of this study is to investigate how students in an undergraduate academic communication unit integrate evidence using various voice markers (i.e., direct, indirect and external). Using both quantitative and qualitative analyses, this study examines 16 English as a first language (L1) and English as an additional language (EAL) learners’ texts to identify the voice types on which students rely. The findings reveal little variation between the referencing practices of the L1 and EAL students. Furthermore, problematic patterns of deployment were identified with each voice type (e.g., ‘drop in’ quotes, ‘tag on’ citations) and overall, students demonstrated limited proficiency in their ability to effectively synthesise the evidence to develop their authorial stance. The paper concludes with pedagogical recommendations regarding the role of referencing as an epistemological construction rather than a punitive measure.

Introduction

Academic communication is distinct from the language of everyday interactions and most academic texts involve the acknowledgment and integration of other ‘expert’ resources (Swales & Feak, 2004; Thompson & Tribble, 2001). Referencing the work of other authors is particularly important in academic persuasion, situating the author’s position within a disciplinary framework and establishing the author’s voice as credible and as ‘insider’ (Hyland, 2008, p. 552). In the transition from secondary learning to university education, students commonly struggle with the shift from absorbing and retaining information toward questioning and creating knowledge,


often viewing knowledge as ‘uncontested’ (Hendricks & Quinn, 2000, p. 448; see also Hellqvist, 2010; Murray 2012). University education seeks to develop students’

‘intellect and powers of analysis, [their] specialist knowledge of the subject [they] have chosen to study and [their] ability to play a role in taking forward the field of study through [their] own ideas and creativity’ (Murray 2012, p. 9). Central to these aims is the ability to critically read, select and synthesise expert knowledge; as Hendricks and Quinn (2000) argue: ‘It is through knowing when and how to reference that students demonstrate their ability to integrate, in their writing, the knowledge they have gained from their reading with their own ideas’ (p. 448).

Recent investigations into learners’ development of referencing and evidence integration tend to focus on the discourses of plagiarism and academic honesty (Angelil-Carter, 1995; Deckert, 1993; Park, 2003; Pennycook, 1996; Roig, 2001; Sowden, 2005). Notably, many of these discussions involve stereotypes of language background and the suggestion that students from particular cultures are more likely to plagiarise due to cultural norms and practices (Flowerdew & Li, 2007; Shi, 2006). For example, it is suggested that certain cultures privilege normative thinking, and the practices of ‘copying’ and over-use of direct quotes, over creativity and critical thinking; thus, students from these backgrounds are enculturated to accept plagiarism as a legitimate writing strategy (Gu & Brooks, 2008; Keck, 2014; Kumaravadivelu, 2003; Leask, 2006).

The reputational status of a university is directly related to its claims of academic integrity, yet research has indicated that Australian universities lack cohesive teaching and learning strategies to mitigate the scourge of plagiarism (East & Donnelly, 2012, p. 1). Incidents of dishonesty often lead to a revision of policies and guidelines focused on increased vigilance and information campaigns to avoid plagiarism (McGowan, 2005, p. 49). Universities invest extensively in detection software (e.g., Turnitin) and online learning tools to counteract the ‘plague and pestilence’ of academic dishonesty (Neville, 2007, p. 4; see also McCabe & Trevino, 1993, 2002; Warn, 2006). However, there is increasing evidence that the treatment of plagiarism as a matter of honesty rather than a skill for adopting appropriate referencing protocols has impeded efforts to develop students’ academic writing skills (Pittam, Elander, Lusher, Fox & Payne, 2009; Valentine, 2006). In a sense, by reducing the focus of referencing pedagogy to plagiarism avoidance, university instruction is missing the critical function of referencing practices: to synthesise expert knowledge and develop new ideas (Hendricks & Quinn, 2000, p. 454).

Over the last decade, several studies have examined how students’ writing skills relate to referencing and citation practices (Barry, 2006; Emerson, Rees, & MacKay, 2005; Homewood, 2007; Landau, Druen, & Arcuri, 2002; Schuetze, 2004). Research


indicates that while the technical aspects of referencing, citation and paraphrasing may reduce the occurrence or frequency of plagiarism, these skills may be more beneficial if learners are concurrently taught to perceive themselves as authors and encouraged to ‘construct and adopt more authorial identities as academic writers’ (Pittman et al., 2009, p. 166).

Referencing and citation instruction are embedded in the university curriculum and communication textbooks typically include a perfunctory chapter on the requirements of academic honesty. One such textbook captures the fundamental purpose of referencing:

As an undergraduate your primary aim is to become proficient in the skills expected of your discipline area and to demonstrate that you can communicate your knowledge in the ways expected in your field. That means you are expected to read existing material, analyse it, compare one author with another, question its validity and relevance, and synthesise your ideas using evidence you have gathered from your reading.

Archee, Gurney, & Mohan (2013, p. 361)

Communication textbooks also include some basic instruction as to the mechanics of citation conventions and frequently conclude with a set of rationale for referencing (e.g., Cottrell, 2013; Fairbairn & Winch, 2011; Tynan et al., 2013). Routinely, the foremost reason for referencing perpetuates the discourse of plagiarism avoidance, as illustrated in the following example of the ‘Top 6 Reasons to Reference’:

● If you use the work of others, you must give them credit for it. If you don’t, it is considered plagiarism, a serious form of academic conduct.

● Referencing indicates that you have read and understood key publications.

● Referencing helps you to keep track of the arguments of different experts in your field.

● Referencing helps others find the citations you list. While the conventions may seem pedantic, consistently following the designated style (which may be different from discipline to discipline) allows a reader to find that reference for themselves.

● Referencing correctly signifies that you know the conventions of your given discipline.

● Referencing also signifies that you respect the way that knowledge is shared and extended.

Archee, Gurney, & Mohan (2013, pp. 361–362)


Notably absent in this rationale is any mention of the value of referencing to appropriately integrate evidence and establish the merits and legitimacy of the author’s argument through its relationships to other credible researchers. The excerpt above illustrates a prominent theme repeated throughout the university curriculum: the paradigm of plagiarism avoidance prevails over the concept of referencing as an epistemological practice.

The study

The present study seeks to expand the current conversation on referencing practices by examining how university learners develop the tools of evidence integration for the purpose of demonstrating knowledge. Although citation and referencing instruction often focus on academic honesty in the pursuit of avoiding charges of plagiarism, this examination aims to identify how university learners effectively integrate outside sources to build their arguments and establish their authority on the subject matter.

The texts analysed in this study were collected as part of a metropolitan Sydney university’s Longitudinal Learner Corpus, a longitudinal examination of student texts collected throughout their university careers from a first year Academic Communication (AC hereafter) unit throughout students’ university degrees. These AC units are broadly defined according to the varying disciplinary distinctions of the university’s four faculties: AC for Business and Economics (i.e., ACBE; Faculty of Business and Economics), AC for the Sciences (i.e., ACSC; Faculty of Science) and AC for the Social Sciences and Humanities (i.e., ACSH; Faculty of Arts and Faculty of Human Sciences). However, considering the broad range of disciplines found within these faculties, the units are somewhat decontextualised from the students’ specific areas of study, instead directing the content to the units’ designation as ‘People’ units. People units are required electives at the University, aimed at developing students’ understandings of issues and challenges faced in today’s world, as well as developing their social and cultural literacy. Each AC unit focuses on global issues of social inclusion and scaffolds learners to research their chosen topics (e.g., gender income inequality, vaccine delivery, refugee resettlement, etc.) to define the issue and persuade their readers to respond as informed global citizens.

Throughout the 13-week semester, the AC curriculum scaffolds assignments along a genre-based continuum in which learners develop a portfolio of texts based on their social inclusion topics. The portfolio comprises four assignments designed to follow the learning trajectories outlined in Martin and Rose (2008), drawing upon prior work in educational linguistics (e.g., Achugar, Schleppegrell, & Orteíza, 2007; Coffin, 2006; Gebhard, Chen, Graham, & Gunawan, 2013). Research and the development of new ideas based on this research are common themes throughout the semester.


Students are required to investigate a social inclusion issue, critically summarise the research (critical summary), report on their issue (information report, group presentation), problem-solve and persuade their audience to respond and remediate the issue (persuasive essay).

This study examines 16 students’ texts representing each of the three AC units (i.e., ACBE, ACSC, and ACSH). Two texts were collected from each student, one from a mid-semester task (i.e., business report, research report or literature review) and one from a final task (i.e., persuasive or explanation essay). Among the 16 participants, there is an equal balance of English as a first language (English L1) learners and English as an additional language (EAL) learners. The EAL learners represent five different language backgrounds and the texts are coded according to the type of task (i.e., Business Report as BR, Research Report as RR, Literature Review as LR, Persuasive Essay as PE and Explanation Essay as EE), as illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1Participant Language Background and Assignment Codes

Language Background

Identification Number

AC Unit Mid Semester Task

Final Task

English 0005 ACSH LR PEEnglish 0011 ACSH LR PEEnglish 0046 ACSC RR EEEnglish 0052 ACSC RR EEEnglish 0086 ACBE BR PEEnglish 0088 ACBE BR PEEnglish 0101 ACBE BR PEKorean 0124 ACSH LR PEEnglish 0129 ACBE BR PEMandarin 0163 ACBE BR PEMandarin 0169 ACBE BR PEMandarin 0204 ACSC RR EEArabic 0209 ACSC RR EEBahasa Indonesian

0231 ACBE BR PE

Bahasa Indonesian

0246 ACBE BR PE

Teochew 0248 ACSH LR PE

In selecting an equal representation of English L1 and EAL students, the aim is not to propagate or essentialise ‘culturally conditioned views of plagiarism’ (Flowerdew & Li, 2007, p. 166). Instead, the goal for analysing both L1 and EAL student texts is to identify any patterns of reliance distinct to participants’ L1 background and to identify possible obstacles associated with either learner group.


Notably, the texts were selected according to the assignment and learners’ language background with no distinction being made according to student performance (i.e., the marks students earned on the given assignment were not a factor). Rather, the purpose of this study is to simply observe what referencing methods the students relied upon when integrating evidence, regardless of their score on the given task.

Across the AC curriculum, several sub-skills of academic literacy are embedded. For example, students are required to redraft and incorporate peer feedback into their revisions. Furthermore, a central skill in each of the assignments is the ability to reference appropriately and develop authorial stance by effectively integrating the voices of other experts. Students are taught three different ‘voice types’ for referencing the work of others: direct, indirect and external (Brick, 2011, pp. 9–100). Direct, indirect and external voice can be mapped along complementary descriptions of in-text citations. For example, Swales (1981, 1986, 1990) categorises in-text citations as performing either an explicit or non-explicit grammatical role within the sentence. Explicit references are characterised as ‘integral citations’ and can be further categorised as ‘verb controlling’ or ‘naming’ (i.e., indirect or direct voice [Thompson & Tribble, 2001, p. 95]). Non-explicit references are considered ‘non-integral’, attributing a proposition to another author through occluded reference, positioned only within parentheses with no mention of the source text in the body of the sentence (i.e., external voice).

In this study, direct voice refers to a direct, word-for-word quotation that is either explicitly or non-explicitly introduced. In other words, the source of the quotation may be explicitly named or the quotation may simply be integrated and the source backgrounded in parentheses. For example, the same quoted material is included in both sentences below; however, in Example 1, the author, Vardi, is foregrounded and explicitly named in the text whereas in Example 2, the author is backgrounded in the concluding citation.

Example 1

Vardi (2012) argues that referencing is ‘fundamental to demonstrating critical engagement’ (p. 924).

Example 2

Referencing is understood to be ‘fundamental to demonstrating critical engagement’ (Vardi, 2012, p. 924).

Indirect voice refers to integral, verb-controlling references in which the source of the evidence is explicitly named in the text. A reporting structure is used to introduce the paraphrased evidence attributed to that source (e.g., Martin argues,


Johnson suggests, etc.). This reporting structure may explicitly name the source of the evidence (i.e., Hendricks & Quinn, 2000), as illustrated in Example 3, or it may foreground the research or study, as illustrated in Example 4.

Example 3

Hendricks and Quinn (2000) argue that the inability to delineate between what is common knowledge and what is not may impede a student’s ability to identify when acknowledgement of a source is required.

Example 4

Research has found that the inability to delineate between what is common knowledge and what is not may impede a student’s ability to identify when acknowledgement of a source is required (Hendricks & Quinn, 2000).

External voice refers to non-integral, non-explicit references within the text. When external voice is used, the information is summarised and the source of the evidence placed within parentheses, with no mention of the source within the body of the sentence, as illustrated in Example 5.

Example 5

Overuse of direct voice and quotation fragments are key indicators that the learner must transcend to develop from unpracticed to expert writer (Petrić, 2012).

Selecting different methods of voice integration is central to how writers position their arguments in the text, guiding the audience to align, reject or even be sceptical of the information.

As discussed above, much of the research into referencing focuses on plagiarism. However, this study aims to expand the gaze beyond simple missteps of reference omission and plagiarism to examine how effectively university learners synthesise evidence and situate their positions as informed, rather than unsubstantiated conjecture. The analysis is both qualitative and quantitative and seeks to answer the following research questions:

1. How do students use references to demonstrate knowledge and present their positions as informed and justified?

2. What methods of evidence integration (i.e., direct quotes, indirect reporting, external) do the students rely on and is there any change in this reliance from the mid-semester assignment to the final assessment?


3. Do the English L1 learners and the EAL learners differ in how they integrate evidence and how effectively do they reference the voice of others?

To analyse the instances of each voice type, each of the 32 texts are manually examined for all occurrences of referencing. These instances are then categorised according to the voice type employed (i.e., direct, indirect and external) to situate the referenced evidence. Once this analysis is complete, each of the instances is further reviewed for the quality with which they integrate the evidence into the given argument. The following section responds to these three lines of enquiry, providing specific examples from the data to illustrate how the students employ these voice types.

Findings

The first research question aims to examine how the students synthesise evidence to demonstrate their positions as informed. The first method for integrating the voice of others is to quote information directly. Direct voice is used when a paraphrase or summary of the original words from the source text inadequately capture the essence of the quote and often involves specific data, statistics or definitions. In Excerpts 1 and 2, the quoted material is effectively integrated into the sentence to support the author’s claim or stance.

Excerpt 1

Hydro energy usage has increased on a global scale due to its reliability and cheap energy production, with a ‘global average annual increase of 2% between 2000 and 2007’ (Geoscience Australia, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism & ABARE, 2010 p. 230).1 [0052-S1RR] 2

Excerpt 2

Malnutrition is defined as ‘the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong proportions’ (Imdad (2010), cited in Shah et al. 2014, p. 94)3. [0231-S1PE]

1 Fuller context of the sample excerpts is provided in Appendix A.2Texts are coded according to an anonymising identification number (e.g., 0052), the semester in which the text was written (e.g., S1 for Semester 1), and the type of text (e.g., RR for Research Report). 3Students are instructed to follow APA or Harvard citation conventions, according to their AC unit of enrolment. As demonstrated in Excerpt 2, students often misapply these conventions. For purposes of scope, however, this study will focus on the type of referencing voice marker and the quality of the synthesis rather than the mechanics of proper citation.


However, direct quotes are not always used to synthesise expert voices and integrate evidence. Some, in fact, are simply ‘dropped in’ or inadequately integrated. In these examples, the students have failed to demonstrate how the quoted material supports their argument. In a sense, these examples simply demonstrate the students’ ability to copy and paste, as demonstrated in Excerpt 3 and 4.

Excerpt 3

‘Every year, Australian communities face devastating losses caused by disasters’ (Australian Emergency Management Institute, PII 2009). [0086-S1BR]

Excerpt 4

‘Data mining, or knowledge discovery in databases (KDD), is the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data (Frawley J, Piatesky-Shapiro G, Matheus J, 1992).‘ [0204-S1RR]

The second method for integrating evidence is to explicitly name the source within the sentence using indirect voice. Indirect voice is one of the more powerful resources for situating evidence and demonstrating how the information supports the author’s position. Often indirect voice employs a reporting structure such as

‘Howard suggests . . .’ or ‘According to Smith . . .’ Therefore, the effect of using indirect voice to synthesise evidence is directly related to the quality and choice of reporting structure or reporting verb. For example, in Excerpts 5–8, the students effectively use the reporting verbs to situate the information being cited as more reliable (i.e., argues, asserts, and of specific interest) or less reliable (i.e., posits).

Excerpt 5

However, Garnier (2014) argues that changing Australian refugee policies and regulation is restricted by the pre-established trend of migration process, pre-established organisations under operation, and the convention of the process that have been prolonged, affecting the way various people are decided whether to resettle or not. [0124-S1LR]

Excerpt 6

Kornai (2013) asserts that mainstream languages as well as dialects become prevalent due to its constant usage and often results in the degradation of other languages (pp. 1). [0248-S1LR]

Excerpt 7

Guilherme (2013) posits ideas that are shaped around Paulo Freire’s ideas which are constructed to assist in revitalising local languages, cultures and


communities primarily through formal and informal education. [0248-S1LR]

Excerpt 8

Of specific interest in McKay’s (2012) study was that 49. 2% of those surveyed believed that the government are ‘too soft’ on asylum seekers (p. 8). [0005-S1PE]

However, indirect voice does not always effectively demonstrate the author’s ability to synthesise evidence. For example, in Excerpts 9–11, in which according to and states are used, the reporting structure is simply an attribution (i.e., this piece of information was sourced from this expert) rather than clearly demonstrating how the evidence fits within the author’s position.

Excerpt 9

According to Rai, Ramadhan & Tulchinsky (2012, p. 1141), international organisations needs to socialise basic knowledge on health supplements and nutrition enrichment in society, which could also be useful in effort to reduce malnutrition rates. [0231-S1PE]

Excerpt 10

Impacts of limited water from drought and desertification will produce water restrictions and a higher water demand from urban and agricultural areas, according to Geoscience Australia, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism & ABARE (2010, p. 236). [0052-S1RR]

Excerpt 11

George (2012) states that the law enforcement, first response teams, and government officials of each country need to be educated to what sex trafficking involves, and how to identify victims and how to treat them. [0011-S1LR]

The third method for synthesising voices is to summarise the evidence and background the source in parentheses through an external reference. External voice is somewhat difficult to analyse for the quality with which it integrates and synthesises information. In general, effective external references tend to summarise or highlight a perspective or research finding, making connections between different viewpoints and the author’s arguments, as illustrated in Excerpts 12–14.

Excerpt 12

Incarcerating on-shore asylum in mandatory detention centres perpetuates the belief that they are undeserving individuals (Tazreiter, 2012, p. 35). [0005-S1PE]


Excerpt 13

The other viewpoint is that sex trafficking legislation needs to be improved, even the strongest legislation, due to the rising numbers of victims (Acharya, 2006, p. 23) and the responses of inadequate legal powers, bias policies and lack of treatment for victims. [0011-S1PE]

Excerpt 14

Within South Asia there is a treaty of countries called SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Co-Operation) which conform to ECPAT International’s (2014, pp. 24) belief that every country needs to work together to effectively target a transnational crime. [0011-S1LR]

However, many of the external references analysed here appear to be ‘tagged on’ and the purpose for including the citation is unclear and possibly misplaced, with no clear distinction between the ‘expert’ reference to the author’s stance. For example, in Excerpts 15 and 16, the only indication that the entire paragraph or section is not simply the author’s conjecture is the last minute addition of the external citation at the conclusion of the paragraph.

Excerpt 15

The most effective emergency response in Australia occurs when the affected community responds independently towards a flood. By responding effectively, they cooperate and increase resilience within the community. By increasing resilience the short term and long term impacts of the disaster can be reduced. However, within the community, there are varying levels of resilience. Thus, it is important to make use of our existing emergency response systems established by both non-government and government organisations. Whilst utilising these services, it is also necessary to focus more on action-based resilience planning, with a larger emphasis on community responses. (Australian Emergency Management Institute, 2009) [0086-S1PE]

Excerpt 16

The variation of the punishments for trafficking implies that each specific punishment has a high chance of unsuccessfully matching a crime and is based largely on a judge’s discretion. Thailand’s classifications are also flawed with perpetrators receiving lighter punishments if the victim gave consent – this applies even if the consenting victim is a child. This is a sub-standard of international standards where it is recognised that only 18 year olds and above can give legally recognised consent. (Patane, 2014, pp. 19) [0011-S1LR]

This ‘tag-on’ approach is also seen in shorter passages where there is no indication


of how the evidence is contributing to the author’s position. This sometimes involves an unnecessary attribution to general, widely known information, indicating a lack of awareness as to what distinguishes common from uncommon knowledge in relation to the topic. In other words, it is not necessary to reference commonly held notions, whereas new or specific information requires citation.

Excerpt 17 Hygiene is lacking in these communities due to lack of education and access to facilities (Bailie et al. 2010). [0046-S1RR]

Excerpt 18 As politicians utilise public opinion polls to guide public policy making (Mackay, 2012, p. 4), the reporting media becomes a crucial middle ground of perceptions of asylum seekers. [0005-S1LR]

In a sense, this tendency to ‘tag on’ an external reference serves a ‘just in case’ function, ensuring the information is attributed to an outside source, even without a clear connection or comparison to other synthesised evidence. Rather than attributing specific ideas or concepts to a specific source, this practice appears to simply serve as a tool for plagiarism avoidance.

In summary, when deploying each of the three voice types, the participants demonstrated varying patterns of effective synthesis. These patterns are summarised along a continuum of more or less effective voice integration in Figure 1.

Drop In Quote Integrated Quote

/asic Repor4ng Structure (i.e., simple a;ribu4on= Proficient

Repor4ng Structure

Tag-‐on Reference (i.e., no clear relevance between content &

cita4on= Relevant Summary Reference to Research

Direct

Indirect

External Less Effective More Effective

Figure 1: Patterns of deployment by voice type


The second line of enquiry in this study aims to identify learners’ patterns of reliance through a quantitative analysis, measuring the frequency of each voice type. As illustrated in Figure 2, external references are the most popular choice of voice deployed in this study; with 346 instances across both texts, it comprises 69% of all references. The second most frequently deployed type of reference is indirect voice (i.e., 100 instances), comprising 20% of all citations, whereas direct quotations account for only 11% of all references (i.e., 55 instances).

0

50

100

150

200

250

Direct Indirect External

3421

45 55

210

136

Mid-Semester Task

Final Task

Figure 2: Frequency of each voice type per assignment

Figure 2 further illustrates the variation of voice type from the mid-semester task to the final task (i.e., from the literature review or report assignment to the persuasive or explanation essay). In total, there were 289 references to outside sources in the mid-semester task and only 212 references in the final task. It is pertinent to note that the higher frequency of references was expected in the mid-semester task and this disparity can be explained partially by the type of task prescribed for this assessment (i.e., an information report or literature review).

Overall, there is a small shift in the reliance on certain voice types from the mid-semester text to the final assessment. For example, there was a 9% decrease in the use of external voice, a 2% decrease in direct voice, and a 10% increase in indirect voice. Despite these shifts, the data indicates that in both the mid-semester and final task, the students primarily rely on external voice.

The final research question explores whether English L1 learners and EAL learners


differ in their approach to integrating evidence using these three voice types. Figure 3 distinguishes the patterns of reliance on different voice types between English L1 and EAL learners.

English L1 Students

Direct voice

Indirect voice External voice64%

15%

21%

EAL Students

74%

19%

7%

Direct voice

Indirect voice

External voice

Figure 3: Voice type reliance between English L1 and EAL students4

4As previewed in Table 1, a total of 16 students are included in the present analysis and two texts were collected from each student for a total of 32 texts. Eight of those participants are English L1 speakers and eight are EAL speakers; thus, the proportions illustrated in Figure 3 are calculated according to the 16 texts written by English L1 participants and the 16 texts written by the EAL participants, respectively.


Overall, both the English L1 and the EAL students deploy the three voice types with similar preference, relying primarily on external voice to reference outside sources. However, EAL students rely on external voice proportionally more than the English L1 students (i.e., 74% as compared to 64%). The second most frequently deployed voice type, indirect voice, is similar among both groups of students; however, the reliance on direct quotations is significantly higher among the English L1 students (i.e., 15% as compared to 7%). Notably, this preference for external and indirect voice among EAL students contradicts the stereotype that EAL students rely more on direct quotation.

Discussion

This analysis has identified how the learners integrate the voice of others in their writing and the frequency with which they rely on certain voice types. With each of the three voice types, the students demonstrate a limited ability to effectively synthesise the evidence. However, there are also several instances in which the citation is included but the integration is ineffective, resulting in vague references that lack clear contribution to the author’s arguments. Of particular concern is the students’ frequent use of external voice and the prevalence of ‘tag-on’ or inept reference to the evidence. In many of these occurrences, it appears the students are simply summarising information from another source rather than using that evidence as support for their own positions.

There are several factors that may contribute to the high proportion of external voice in these learner texts. For example, students are often encouraged to minimise the length and frequency of direct quotations in their writing. As an alternative, students may choose to simply summarise the information and employ external voice to reduce the overall number of quotations. Furthermore, students who are competent in their ability to paraphrase may not be confident in their ability to situate evidence using appropriate reporting verb structures. In these instances, external voice offers a safe alternative that ensures the text is not plagiarised. Unfortunately, this transference does not ensure that the summarised evidence will effectively contribute to the author’s arguments. Therefore, if the aim of referencing is to demonstrate knowledge and present positions as informed and justified rather than unsupported conjecture, then students require further instruction on how to integrate evidence using external voice.

Further investigated in this study is the reliance on voice types according to learners’ language background. As discussed earlier, research often presupposes that EAL learners from particular cultural backgrounds over-rely on direct voice or simply

‘copying’ from source texts (Hirvela & Du, 2013; Petrić, 2012; Shi, 2004). However,


in this study, the EAL students primarily employed external and indirect voice, with only 7% of their references involving direct quotation. In comparison, the English L1 students used direct voice more than twice as frequently. The present study, however, is somewhat small in scope (i.e.,16 participants and 32 texts); therefore, further exploration with a larger sample size is necessary to determine if more extensive analyses of EAL learners are consistent with these findings.

Conclusion

This study has closely examined the ways in which undergraduate AC students integrate evidence using direct, indirect and external voice and has identified several problematic patterns in learners’ deployment. These findings support the notion that referencing and integrating evidence requires more than ‘dropping in’ quotes, ‘tagging on’ citations or summarising information that simply ‘sounds good’. Effective referencing requires higher-level thinking skills to select and prioritise what is most credible, reliable and relevant to the topic being researched. It involves the ability to extract critical information from a variety of sources, not simply to report on what has been said, but to develop new ideas and present them with an authorial voice. Therefore, we propose a holistic definition for understanding referencing as more than a convention or a preventative measure to simply avoid plagiarism. Rather, referencing is an epistemological construction, the practice of demonstrating knowledge and distinguishing informed, justified positions from unsupported conjecture.

Referencing as an epistemological construction encompasses more than applying the mechanics of proper citation conventions or the skills of paraphrase and summary; it is about establishing an understanding of how evidence can best be situated through direct, indirect or external voice to promulgate the argument. When students achieve this ‘performative transformation’, they may no longer be fearful of plagiarism, instead demonstrating their competence as proficient writers, promoting their authorial position (Warner, 2011, p. 142).

In conclusion, how we perceive referencing and what we believe about the role it plays in academic communication will determine our students’ referencing paradigm and practice. If referencing is conceived simply as a process, students will align to a regulatory approach, performing the minimum standard to avoid being penalised. If it is an epistemological tool, then learners can develop increasing skill over the integration of evidence to demonstrate their knowledge of the subject matter and propose new ways of understanding it.


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Cassi Liardét is a lecturer of linguistics at Macquarie University, Sydney, where she convenes Academic Communication units and oversees the development of the Macquarie University Longitudinal Learner Corpus (MQLLC), a unique diachronic corpus of learner assignments. Her research interests include academic literacy, genre-based pedagogy, systemic functional linguistics, and corpus linguistics.

[email protected]

Sharyn Black is a lecturer and tutor at Macquarie University, Sydney where she teaches on the Academic Communication units and assists in the development of the Macquarie University Longitudinal Learner Corpus (MQLLC). Her research interests include academic literacy, genre-based pedagogy, systemic functional linguistics, corpus linguistics and early childhood literacy.

[email protected]


Appendix A

Text excerpts in context

Excerpt 1This report applies for funding for further research and development of Hydro energy production in Australia as an alternative renewable energy resource. Hydro energy usage has increased on a global scale due to its reliability and cheap energy production, with a “global average annual increase of 2% between 2000 and 2007” (Geoscience Australia, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism & ABARE, 2010 p.230). It also shows potential in providing power for rural communities and developing countries; such as Africa. (Bahadori, A, Zahedi, G & Zendehoudi, S, 2013, p.566). [0052-S1RR]

Excerpt 2It can be caused by poverty, poor food quality, and lack of education on health. Malnutrition is defined as “the condition that results from taking an unbalanced diet in which certain nutrients are lacking, in excess (too high an intake), or in the wrong proportions” (Imdad (2010), cited in Shah et al. 2014, p. 94). Some policies and recommendations had been created to decrease malnutrition rate. [0231-S1PE]

Excerpt 3This report will focus on the natural phenomena of Flooding and the emergency response to this. “Every year, Australian communities face devastating losses caused by disasters.” (Australian Emergency Management Institute, PII 2009) A disaster can be defined as “a serious event that causes ecological breakdown in the relationship between humans and their environment on a scale that requires extraordinary efforts to allow the community to cope”. [0086-S1BR]

Excerpt 4Accompany with the dramatically development and evolution of information technology, data mining is used as a normal strategy for companies and governments to monitor and manage implicit progresses in their field. “Data mining, or knowledge discovery in databases (KDD), is the nontrivial extraction of implicit, previously unknown, and potentially useful information from data (Frawley J, Piatesky-Shapiro G, Matheus J, 1992).” The original method of information and data mining is manual extraction from datasets which can be traced back to 1960s, but now it combines a series of applications and algorithms in information technology includes cluster analysis, decision trees, genetic algorithms. [0204-S1RR]


Excerpt 5Clearly there is a need for modification in the migration process of asylum-seeking children to resolve the issues related with unsupportive environment being established around asylum-seeking children and to meet Australian international human rights obligations and comply with UN Convention of children’s right (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2013; Evenhuis, 2013). However, Garnier (2014) argues that changing Australian refugee policies and regulation is restricted by the pre-established trend of migration process, pre-established organisations under operation, and the convention of the process that have been prolonged, affecting the way various people are decided whether to resettle or not. Francis (2006) signals that rather, review of the process from an external organisation, outside the government body will generate objective and precise assessment. [0124-S1LR]

Excerpt 6This linguistic clash causes adaptive processes to ensue in order to thrive within the evolving socioeconomic and lifestyle circumstances (Mufwene, S. S, 2004, pp. 219; Wurm, 1991, pp. 5). Kornai (2013) asserts that mainstream languages as well as dialects become prevalent due to its constant usage and often results in the degradation of other languages (pp. 1). [0248-S1LR]

Excerpt 7Wheeler (1999) asserts the necessity to celebrate language-cultural diversity through bilingualism and multilingualism which is encouraged through national events such as Multicultural Day in Australia, which encourages people of all races to express their ethnicities by sharing traditional foods or traditionally cultural activities. Guilherme (2013) posits ideas that are shaped around Paulo Freire’s ideas which are constructed to assist in revitalising local languages, cultures and communities primarily through formal and informal education. The intervention of educators and students can contribute towards a more linguistic and culturally diverse society. [0248-S1LR]

Excerpt 8This shows that there is a perception in the community that those asylum seekers who arrive via boat are queue jumpers and not in need of protection. Of specific interest in McKay’s (2012) study was that 49.2% of those surveyed believed that the government are ‘too soft’ on asylum seekers (p.8). These findings are significant as they show that even though the government has taken strong measures against asylum seekers, many in the community believe it is not enough. [0005-S1PE]

Excerpt 9It may promote vaccination and immunization that can prevent further negative


effects on the illness (Burki, 2011, cited in Rai, Ramadhan & Tulchinsky 2012, p. 1140). According to Rai, Ramadhan & Tulchinsky (2012, p. 1141), international organisations needs to socialise basic knowledge on health supplements and nutrition enrichment in society, which could also be useful in effort to reduce malnutrition rates. [0231-S1PE]

Excerpt 10Impacts of limited water from drought and desertification will produce water restrictions and a higher water demand from urban and agricultural areas, according to Geoscience Australia, Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism & ABARE (2010, p.236). Limited water availability will result in Urban and agricultural needs being prioritized over power generation, further decreasing hydroelectric productivity and development in Australia. [0052-S1RR]

Excerpt 11Both George (2012, pp. 575) and ECPAT International (2014, pp. 5) emphasis a need for education to solidify responses. George (2012) states that the law enforcement, first response teams, and government officials of each country need to be educated to what sex trafficking involves, and how to identify victims and how to treat them. The NGO Stop Enslavement publishes the ‘Stop Trafficking! Anti-Human Trafficking Newsletter’ which provides information on awareness, advocacy and action against the issue of sex trafficking (George, 2012, pp. 579). [0011-S1LR]

Excerpt 12The Government identified the threat and provided the solution in the form of off-shore detention centres. Incarcerating on-shore asylum in mandatory detention centres perpetuates the belief that they are undeserving individuals (Tazreiter, 2012, p.35). The more these on-shore asylum seekers are seen as a threat to Australia’s security the more politicians have to gain by taking strong measures to defend against them. [0005-S1PE]

Excerpt 13In its present state, legislation against sex trafficking exists in the majority of countries but it is under-developed and little or no prosecution of offenders have been recorded. The other viewpoint is that sex trafficking legislation needs to be improved, even the strongest legislation, due to the rising numbers of victims (Acharya, 2006, p. 23) and the responses of inadequate legal powers, bias policies and lack of treatment for victims. Repair to global legislation is essential to fight sex trafficking effectively and efficiently. [0011-S1PE]


Excerpt 14Although more international work needs to be carried out by governments, there is already processes progressing. Within South Asia there is a treaty of countries called SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Co-Operation) which conform to ECPAT International’s (2014, pp. 24) belief that every country needs to work together to effectively target a transnational crime. SAARC aims to employ prevention, interdiction and suppression of trafficking in women and children; treat trafficked victims; and prevent women and children from being absorbed into international prostitution networks. [0011-S1LR]

Excerpt 15The most effective emergency response in Australia occurs when the affected community responds independently towards a flood. By responding effectively, they cooperate and increase resilience within the community. By increasing resilience the short term and long term impacts of the disaster can be reduced. However, within the community, there are varying levels of resilience. Thus, it is important to make use of our existing emergency response systems established by both non-government and government organisations. Whilst utilising these services, it is also necessary to focus more on action-based resilience planning, with a larger emphasis on community responses. (Australian Emergency Management Institute, 2009) [0086-S1PE]

Excerpt 16The variation of the punishments for trafficking implies that each specific punishment has a high chance of unsuccessfully matching a crime and is based largely on a judge’s discretion. Thailand’s classifications are also flawed with perpetrators receiving lighter punishments if the victim gave consent - this applies even if the consenting victim is a child. This is a sub-standard of international standards where it is recognised that only 18 year olds and above can give legally recognised consent (Patane, 2014, pp.19) [0011-S1LR]

Excerpt 17Remote Aboriginal health can be a difficult concept to encapsulate as there are many factors that make up the issues. The largest issues contributing to the spread of preventable disease are hygiene, sanitation and water quality. Hygiene is lacking in these communities due to lack of education and access to facilities (Bailie et al. 2010). Sanitation is both underfunded and not considered a societal priority. In addition water quality is often forgotten as many communities are unaware of the dangers of unsafe drinking water. [0046-S1RR]


Excerpt 18As politicians utilise public opinion polls to guide public policy making (McKay, 2012, p. 4), the reporting by the media becomes a crucial middle ground of perceptions of asylum seekers. The media improved their ratings by reporting negative and extreme behaviours of asylum seekers, just as the politicians utalised the same negativity to improve their opinion polls. [0005-S1LR]

Keep in touch with ELICOS PD news & opportunitiesWant to keep in touch with ELICOS professional development news and opportunities?

If you work for an English Australia member college and have an institutional email address, sign up for regular English Australia ‘PD Updates’.

If you work elsewhere, join English Australia as a Professional Affiliate to receive the ‘PD Updates’ plus an annual subscription to the English Australia Journal.

Please visit www.englishaustralia.com.au/professional-affiliate-program or contact [email protected] for more information.


5 top tips to refresh your teaching

Find more ideas for your professional development:

www.cambridgeenglish.org/teaching-english

1

2

3

4

5

Attend a conference, workshop or webinar.

Ask a colleague to observe your teaching and give you feedback.

Record one of your lessons and evaluate your performance.

Keep a journal or teaching portfolio.

Read reference materials to extend your knowledge.

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14


C L A S S R O O M T A L K

‘Classroom Talk’ is a space for teachers, trainers and managers to share new ideas, activities and tools. It aims to inspire readers to reflect on or experiment with their classroom practice. If you would like to contribute, please contact the Classroom Talk Editor: [email protected]

Teaching Rhythm and Rhythm Grouping: The Butterfly Technique

M i c h a e l B u r r i & A m a n d a B a k e r

For years, teachers have been lamenting how difficult pronunciation is to teach to second language learners (Baker, 2011; Macdonald, 2002). So challenging, in fact, it may even be neglected in the classroom. In cases where it is included in the classroom, it may be either treated in isolation (e.g., done for 5 minutes at the end of a lesson) or done unsystematically (e.g., without a clear goal or learner needs in mind). Another reason for pronunciation’s lack of attention in the classroom may be that teachers and students alike may simply find pronunciation boring to teach or to learn.

These pressing issues have led us to kinaesthetic language teaching (e.g., Acton, 1984) and specifically to the development of a haptic pronunciation teaching system (Acton, 2015). Simply put, haptics is the use of movement and touch to make pronunciation learning and practice more systematic, engaging and enjoyable. So, ‘How is haptics different than just clapping hands or tapping out word/sentence stress on my desk?’ Good question. In some ways, haptic teaching in general, and tapping/clapping are similar – except that we do not use hand clapping for emphasizing stressed syllables. Haptic pronunciation teaching is not just a technique for one feature of pronunciation, but rather a complete system, encompassing a combination of kinaesthetic and tactile learning to teach most areas of pronunciation (Acton, Baker, Burri, & Teaman, 2013).


In classes we have taught over the years, our students have repeatedly commented on how ‘fun’ and ‘easy’ this practice is, leading to an increase in confidence in speaking English. In this article, we will demonstrate how to use one of the 10 techniques in this system1, that is, the Butterfly Technique.

What is the Butterfly Technique?

The Butterfly Technique – inspired by the ‘Butterfly Hug’ used by some psychologists to help their patients maintain focus or control distraction (The Institute, 2010) – has been adapted by Acton for L2 learners to feel and experience strong and weak syllables while working on rhythm (thought) groups.

As the picture below illustrates, students place their left hand on their right shoulder and their right hand on their left forearm (brachio-radialis) muscle. The right shoulder signifies stressed (i.e., strong) syllables whereas the left forearm represents all of the unstressed (i.e., weak) syllables occurring in individual words and/or rhythm groups. In other words, when a multi-syllabic word or rhythm group is pronounced, the left hand firmly taps the right shoulder on the strong syllable and the right hand gently taps the left forearm on every single weak syllable (Acton, 2014). It is important to note that this rhythmic touch, not just the gesturing, enhances the process of L2 students experiencing and learning English rhythm.

© Lesley Cioccarelli, 2nd Pronunciation Symposium at the University of New South Wales Canberra (December 5, 2014)

1 The Butterfly Technique is one of 10 distinct techniques in Acton’s ‘Essential haptic-integrated English pronunciation’ (2015). These 10 techniques are used to teach various segmental (vowels and consonants) and suprasegmental (stress, rhythm, intonation) features of the English sound system. More information about the haptic system, including Acton’s blog and several demo videos of the different teaching techniques can be found at http://hipoeces.blogspot.com.au/


Procedure

Once students have been introduced to how to tap according to strong and weak syllables, the following key words are used to train the learners in the Butterfly Technique (the underlined parts represent strong syllables):

1. Nice – one firm tap on right shoulder

2. Easy – one firm tap one right shoulder, one gentle tap on left forearm

3. Beautiful – one firm tap on right shoulder, two gentle taps on left forearm

4. Fascinating – one firm tap on right shoulder, three gentle taps on left forearm

Once completed, weak syllables preceding the target words are added, such as:

1. That’s nice

2. Very easy

3. That’s very fascinating

The following link can be accessed for further details on the Butterfly Technique: http://vimeo.com/61190793

In the initial training phase, doing these key words and rhythm groups should be done slowly to ensure that all the learners are able to feel the strong and weak syllables. At the same time, they should become comfortable with moving their bodies, attending to the syllables and articulating English (for some students this can challenging at first). However, once the entire cycle is completed, the pace can be increased. Also, when students have gained confidence (and the classroom volume increases while overall enjoyment rises), they can practice by themselves and/or be put in pairs to go through the cycle.

After a few minutes of practice, the class then typically moves on to dialogue work. Simple dialogues (such as those in a speaking textbook) in which the strong syllables are highlighted and rhythm groups are identified typically suffice for this (more advanced students could be asked to highlight the prominent/strong syllables by themselves or in small groups). The following is an example of a dialogue we created and used with students during a lesson featuring the theme of ‘travelling’:

A: Hey, Peter. // How’s it goin’?

B: Super. // You?


A: Same. // What’cha got there?

B: A travel brochure. // I think I’ll go / on a hiking trip.

A: Cool! // Where?

B: It’s a trek / in the Snowy Mountains. // Wanna come?

A: Sure!

It should be noted that the teacher should model the dialogue first. Once done, students can then practise the dialogue a few times in pairs. Afterwards, learners should be given opportunities to use the Butterfly Technique in a less controlled setting. To achieve this, we usually use a question and answer format. For example, the students could be given the following question and answer (more advanced students might be asked to create their own questions based on the lesson theme):

A: What did you do / on the weekend?

B: I went to a movie / and ate some popcorn.

Again, the instructor models the question and answers before having the students practice in pairs. Proficiency level and time permitting, students can then create their own questions (still indicating strong syllables and rhythm groups) and mix and mingle, asking and answering questions. This final stage tends to be a great deal of fun and often results in high student engagement.

Additional applications

Once students are trained in the Butterfly Technique, it can easily be integrated in any L2 lesson. We have used the technique even with beginner-level students, having adjusted the dialogue(s) and questions/answers according to the proficiency level of the learners. Based on our experience, we would argue that the Butterfly Technique can be used in almost any L2 teaching context, irrespective of learners’ ages and proficiency levels (although using it with small children might be a bit of a stretch).

The Butterfly Technique may also be used as a feedback tool. In large classes, it can be very difficult for a teacher to identify which students experience difficulties correctly stressing the strong syllable. But, with the Butterfly Technique, it is very easy for a teacher to visually spot whether a student attends to the strong syllable correctly. If it is done incorrectly or a student finds it challenging to attend to the appropriate syllable (occasionally learners tend to tap the shoulder on every syllable, especially in the early stages of learning the technique), the instructor can provide immediate feedback and assistance.


Furthermore, the Butterfly Technique (like all the other haptic techniques) can be utilised to assist with vocabulary learning (Burri, 2014; Burri, Baker, & Acton, in press). Students could, for example, use the Butterfly Technique to practice new words, first in isolation and then in context, following the same process as outlined above.

Conclusion

The Butterfly Technique is a fun and effective way to have students experience English syllables and syllable grouping, and later transfer this knowledge into their spontaneous speech. We have found that in some contexts, for the technique to work best, learners (and teachers alike) need to be given opportunities to practice outside of the classroom. This can be achieved, for example, by giving them additional dialogues to practice as homework. But, by far the most effective approach is still to integrate the Butterfly Technique, as with many other pronunciation teaching techniques, into regular classroom instruction in all skills.

References

Acton, W. (2015). Haptic-integrated clinical pronunciation research. Retrieved from http://hipoeces.blogspot.com.au/

Acton, W. (2014). Acton haptic–English pronunciation system: Guide book (version 3.0). Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved from www.actonhaptic.com

Acton, W. (1984). Changing fossilized pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 18(1), 71–85.

Acton, W., Baker, A., Burri, M., & Teaman, B. (2013). Preliminaries to haptic-integrated pronunciation instruction. In J. Levis & K. LeVelle (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Pronunciation in Second Language Learning and Teaching Conference, August 2012. (pp. 234–244). Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Retrieved from http://jlevis.public.iastate.edu/pslltconference/4th%20Proceedings/ActonBakerBurriTeaman%20PSLLT%202012.pdf

Baker, A. A. (2011). Discourse prosody and teachers’ stated beliefs and practices. TESOL Journal, 2(3), 263–292.

Burri, M. (2014). Haptic-assisted vocabulary and pronunciation teaching technique. In A. Coxhead (Ed.), New ways in teaching vocabulary (2nd ed.). (pp.189–191). Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.

Burri, M., Baker, A., & Acton, W. (in press). Anchoring academic vocabulary with a “hard hitting” haptic pronunciation teaching technique. In T. Jones (Ed.), Integrating pronunciation with other skills areas. Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.


Macdonald, S. (2002). Pronunciation – views and practices of reluctant teachers. Prospect, 17(3), 3–18.

The Institute for Relational Harm Reduction and Public Psychopathy Education (2010). Managing Anxiety Through the Butterfly Method. (2010). Retrieved from http://saferelationshipsmagazine.com/the-butterfly-hug

Michael Burri is a PhD candidate in the School of Education at the University of Wollongong. He has taught and researched in Japan, Canada and Australia in a variety of contexts. His research interests include language teacher education and pronunciation pedagogy.

[email protected]

Twitter: @michaelburri

www.michaelburri.weebly.com

Amanda Baker is Coordinator of the TESOL program at the University of Wollongong. Her research interests focus on the dynamic relationships that exist between second language (L2) teachers’ knowledge, beliefs and practices, especially in the areas of L2 pronunciation, speaking and listening pedagogy.

[email protected]


Using text chat in ELT

M a r k O l i v e r

With the rise of mobile technology and social networks, text chat has become a common means of communicating for many around the world. With the aid of smartphones and tablets, we can text chat with friends whenever and wherever we like. We use it every day and, more importantly, our students do too. By giving our learners language practice in a text-chat environment, we can help them develop an important real world skill. And the benefits of using text chat in our classes do not stop there. Over the last decade computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research has identified a number of ways in which communicative tasks performed using text chat facilitate second-language learning. In this article I will discuss the advantages of using text chat in ELT, recommend a website where learners and teacher can meet to text chat and provide outlines for using text chat activities. For the purposes of this article I have assumed that teachers have access to a classroom computer and a class set of tablet devices, such as iPads, or laptops. However if this proves not to be the case, teachers can consider asking their leaners to bring a device (smartphone or tablet) to class.

The benefits of text-chat language practice

As a text chat conversation proceeds messages are automatically saved, and participants have access to an instant visual record of the on-going conversation. They can scroll backwards at any time to reread previous messages without hindering the flow of the conversation. Therefore not only is the conversation more visually salient, it is also enduring. The need to read and type messages also slows down turn taking leading to what Beauvois (1992, p. 255) called ‘conversation in slow motion’.

There is significant evidence (Lai & Zhao, 2006; Smith, 2004) that the saliency and enduring nature of text chat, and the slower turn taking it affords, facilitates the

‘noticing’ that Schmidt (1990) argued was necessary for second language acquisition. Learners participating in text chat have frequently been found to re-read previous messages, notice inconsistencies in their target language output and self-correct (Lai & Zhao, 2006). Research has also shown increased learner-noticing of feedback in a text chat environment (Lai & Zhao, 2006; Smith, 2004).


Text chat also has benefits in terms of learner output. The slowing down of turn-taking gives learners more time to plan what they want to say, leading to more accurate production, greater risk-taking and exclusive use of the target language (Smith, 2004). In addition, the anonymity of text chat means shy students feel more confident, resulting in greater participation (Warschauer, 1996).

A free and safe environment for text chat

Considering these many benefits, I set out to design a range of text chat tasks to use with my students. As with traditional communicative tasks, it was essential that the tasks were engaging, personalised, relevant and presented learners with a reason to communicate. I also had to find a safe and controlled environment where teachers and students could text chat. Our students use a wide range of text chat programs and apps in their daily communication: Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp, Viber, and Skype, to name a few. However, using these in our classes presents two key issues. Firstly, we cannot guarantee that everyone in class, teacher included, uses the same program. Secondly, students have a right to privacy and we should avoid forcing them to share personal contact details.

After some head-scratching and Internet forum discussion, I found a solution to this problem in Todaysmeet.com. TodaysMeet is a free backchannel chat platform designed for classroom use, which allows teachers to create temporary chat rooms which students can then join by typing the room’s Web address (for example, www.todaysmeet.com/pair1) into the Internet browser.

When carrying out text chat tasks, the teacher can put students into pairs (or groups) and create a chat room for each pair – these can be displayed on the whiteboard for later reference. Each student is then given an iPad and sits on a different table from their partner. They type the URL of their pair’s chat room, write their name in the nickname box and join the room. Students do not need an account to do this. The teacher can also join the rooms in order to copy and paste in task instructions, monitor chats, or provide corrective feedback. By opening multiple tabs on the classroom computer the teacher can follow all of the chats.

Using text chat activities

Teachers will find that with a little adaptation many of their favourite communicative activities can be carried out via text chat. Below I provide three text chat tasks that teachers could use with their students. They have been adapted from traditional pair-work activities. I also suggest some ways that chatscripts can be used conveniently to conduct delayed feedback.


Stage 1: Conducting the activity

• Get to know you (GTKY)

This is a useful activity to familiarise students with using text chat in the classroom and is a good warmer to use before moving onto a second chat task. The teacher begins the activity by eliciting topics that students would ask someone about when they meet for the first. Next, the teacher assigns each student a partner from a different table. Students spend ten minutes asking each other GTKY questions via text chat.

• Spot the difference

This activity requires students to identify the differences in two spot-the-difference pictures. The teacher divides students into two groups. They give one group Picture A and the other Picture B. Before the text chat, they can prepare by discussing what they see in their picture with a student from their group while the teacher monitors to help with any unknown vocabulary.

The teacher then assigns each student a partner from the other group and explains that there pictures are slightly different and that students will need to identify the differences by describing and asking about the pictures. Useful language can be also elicited onto the board (for example, prepositions; is/are + there). The teacher then hands out the iPads and displays the Web addresses of their TodaysMeet chat rooms. Students perform the task, circling any differences they discover on their picture.

• Survivor interview

In this activity students perform a text chat role play. Half of the class have been recently rescued from a desert island and the other half are journalists given the job of interviewing them. Before the text chat begins, the survivors get together in small groups (face-to-face) and develop the story of their time on the island. The journalists also work together, coming up with interesting questions to ask the survivor. The teacher monitors, providing assistance as needed. After five minutes’ preparation, students perform the interview on text chat.

Stage 2: Post-task language feedback

On TodaysMeet teachers can choose how long the chat windows remain open for: two hours, a day, a week. This means that you have extended opportunities to provide feedback after the text chat tasks and to drawing on the conversations of the whole class, rather than just those you happen to be listening to at a given time. This could be done in a number of ways. For instance:

• directly after completing the task, skim through the chatscripts, identify a handful of common errors and show them to the students, eliciting the errors are and how they should be corrected.


• ask students to read through each other’s chatscripts at a later time and make a note of the possible errors they notice.

• copy and paste selected erroneous sentences along with a few correct sentences onto a Word document or flipchart on an interactive whiteboard. The students then bet which sentences are correct and which are wrong in a sentence gambling game.

Conclusion

Text chat is here and here to stay. For that reason alone we should use it with our language learners. When you take into account all of the language learning benefits it provides, the argument for its inclusion in our syllabi is clear.

References

Beauvois, M. (1992). Computer-assisted classroom discussion in the foreign language classroom: Conversation in slow motion. Foreign Language Annals, 25, 455–464.

Lai, C. & Zhao, Y. (2006). Noticing and text-based chat. Language Learning and Technology. 10 (3), 102–120

Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied linguistics, 11, 129–58.

Smith, B. (2004). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction and lexical acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 365–398. Cambridge University Press.

Warschauer, M. (1996). Comparing face-to-face and electronic discussion in the second language classroom. CALICO Journal, 13 (2&3), 7–26.

Mark Oliver has spent the last 13 years’ travelling the world and teaching English. He works for the British Council, Singapore and is the author of Text Chat Activities: A Resource Book for Teachers, and also blogs at textchatteacher.wordpress.com. To join his mailing list visit markjoliver.co.uk

[email protected]

Twitter: @textchatteacher


Lesson plan: Quantifier mingle

P e t e r G y u l ay

Introduction

Quantifiers can be troublesome for many English language learners. As Parrot (2010, p. 36) points out, ‘choosing the correct quantifier is complicated, and learners often leave them out altogether.’ Some of the quantifiers they often confuse and misuse are a lot of, many, much and any, and their connection with countable and uncountable nouns. This confusion can even be seen in the emergent first language of young children, such as my six-year-old son, who says things such as ‘How much people?’ No doubt it is even more troublesome for L2 learners, which makes it important to formulate effective ways to teach and practice these grammatical items. This is the aim of the activity described below. Since this is such a widespread language issue for students from a variety of linguistic groups, and across different levels of English proficiency, this activity can be used in many different contexts. The amount of instruction, scaffolding, and time needed will depend on the extent of students’ prior knowledge of the target language, and whether you wish to use it: as a practice activity that follows explicit instruction, to practice as a review, or to test students’ usage to determine whether instruction, if any, is required.

Aims

The activity can be used to practice and/or test students’ knowledge and/or actual acquisition of:

• many to ask questions about the quantity of countable nouns

• much to ask questions about the quantity of uncountable nouns

• any to ask questions about the possession of countable and uncountable nouns, and make negative statements about each.

Materials

Scrap paper + scissors

Procedure

Tell students that together you are going to write a recipe. Fried rice is an easy one,


as students from a variety of countries are familiar with it – though there are certainly variations of the dish from region to region.

On the board write ‘Fried Rice’ and elicit 3 countable ingredients you will need and 3 uncountable ones. After you have these on the board, decide together the quantity of each ingredient. This could become a short discussion in groups or can be done quite quickly as a class. The recipe may look something like this:

Fried Rice

Countable

• 1 onion

• 2 eggs

• 1 carrot

Uncountable

• 1 cup of rice

• 2 tbs of oil

• 1 tbs of soy sauce

NB: This is also an opportunity to point out that something uncountable can become countable by the container it is in, e.g., a can of coke. You may even want to explain that it does not even require a container to become countable, e.g., Can I have a coke please? (It could also serve as a chance to teach/review cooking utensil abbreviations, as shown above).

After you have done this as a class, ask the students to do the same with a recipe of their own choice. Make sure to point out that they can only use six ingredients: three countable and three uncountable, and they must specify the quantity of each ingredient. Give each student some paper to write their recipe on.

After the students have completed this step, give each of them 6 small pieces of paper. Instruct them to write each of their six ingredients (including the quantities) on a different piece of paper. Demonstrate on the board (especially if you have lower-level learners). For example:

1 onion 1 cup of rice2 eggs 2 tbs of oil1 carrot 1 tbs of soy sauce


Next, collect all the small pieces of paper into one pile. Randomly ask the students, ‘How’s the weather?’ – and throw all the pieces of paper into the air. If you throw them ‘correctly’, all the pieces will fall all over the classroom, just like snow – at which point you can answer your own question: ‘It’s snowing.’

Now task the students to pick up three countable ingredients and three uncountable ingredients, but not their own. Most students will be pleasantly surprised by this unexpected chaos and will eagerly arise to get the papers.

Once they all have six small papers, explain that the students need to get back their own ingredients and ask how they can do this. Elicit that they need to mingle and ask questions – tell them they can use their complete recipes to remind themselves what they need to ask for. For higher level students or students whose actual acquisition of quantifier usage you wish to test, give no further instruction. Simply say that they cannot look at other people’s papers and that their first question cannot specify the exact quantity of the ingredients, so, for example, ‘Do you have two tomatoes?’ is not allowed as a first question, but ‘Do you have any tomatoes?’ is. For lower-levels, who will require more direction, co-construct a conversation by which the ingredients can be retrieved. For example:

− Do you have any onions?

− Yes, I do. How many onions do you need?

− I need one.

− Here you are!

− Thanks!

− Do you have any milk?

− Sorry, I don’t have any milk.

NB: If you are leading into a controlled practice activity which follows on from recent instruction on the grammar, you can leave this language on the board to start with. The dialogues on the board could then be erased after a few minutes, or words could be gradually erased from the board.

Monitor the students and offer assistance where necessary. You can either correct the target grammar on the spot or take note of common errors to focus on after the activity is finished. Once all the students have their six ingredients back, ask the class to return to their seats.


Conclusion

I have used this activity a number of times, from elementary all the way up to upper-intermediate level; the reason being that errors with these basic quantifiers are often re-occurring and fossilised in L2 learners across the board. For teachers, this activity requires minimal preparation and yet is highly effective. For students, the element of surprise, the familiar content, and the information gap created, all make for an engaging whole class activity.

REFERENCES

Parrot, M. (2010). Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Peter Gyulay has been working as an English language teacher for over 10 years and has taught in Korea, China and his home country of Australia. He has an interest in Critical ELT.

[email protected]


10 QsTENQUESTIONS

Y

forJack C.Richards

ou’d be hard pressed to find anyone in ELT with the depth and range of experience of this month’s interviewee. Jack C. Richards is a home-grown talent, born in New

Zealand, and in his more than 40 years in the industry, he has taught and presented in numerous countries, including Canada, Singapore and Hong Kong, and has written over 150 articles and books, among them The Language Teaching Matrix (Cambridge University Press, 1990), Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching (with Ted Rodgers, Cambridge University Press, 3rd ed., 2014), and Key Issues in Language Teaching (Cambridge University Press, 2015). Although he has retired from full-time work, he continues to teach at the University of Sydney and the Regional Language Centre Singapore and is a regular speaker at conferences around the world. It is a privilege to have him as our 10 Questions guest for this issue.


Q2

Q11. In a career spanning more than 40 years, you have undoubtedly seen numerous changes in the TESOL field. For you, what have been some of the most significant changes you have observed?

Well for one thing, the theoretical foundations of the profession have changed enormously as well as the requirements of those entering the field. English language teaching is no longer thought of as something that anyone who can speak English can do. It is now seen to require a specialised knowledge base, obtained through both academic study and practical experience, and it is a field of work where membership is based on entry requirements and standards.

Another source of change has been the result of the global spread of English and the emergence of English as the world’s second language. 40 years ago the assumption was that teaching English was a politically neutral activity and acquiring it would bring untold blessings to those who succeeded in learning it. English was regarded as the property of the English-speaking world, particularly Britain and the US. Native-speakers of the language had special insights and superior knowledge about teaching it. And it was above all the vehicle for the expression of a rich and advanced culture or cultures, whose literary artifacts had universal value. This picture has changed somewhat today. Now that English is the language of globalisation, international communication, commerce and trade, the media and pop culture, different motivations for learning it come into play. English is no longer viewed as the property of the English-speaking world but is an international commodity that we refer to as World English or English as an International Language. The cultural values of Britain and the US are often seen as irrelevant to language teaching, except in situations where the learner has a pragmatic need for such information. The language teacher need no longer be an expert on British and American culture and a literature specialist as well.

Thirdly I think the location for the learning of English has moved beyond the classroom. Looking back to the pre-Internet days, the assumption was that the learning of English was dependent on improvement in classroom practices. The method was seen as central and the assumption was that effective learning was the result of micro-managing classroom processes based on the techniques prescribed in the method. However today most learners learn more from contacts with English beyond the classroom through the use of technology and the Internet and so the role of classroom teaching is often very different. It serves to prepare them for out of class learning, much of which they do independently.

2. Speaking personally, can you tell us about an ‘a-ha’ moment you had in your career?

A crucial event for me was the 1970 TESOL Convention in San Francisco, where I presented a paper on error analysis that caused quite a ripple at the event and ‘launched’ me into


Q4Q3

Q5

the applied linguistics community and led to many conference invitations and publications. I was half-way through my PhD at the time so this was a major turning point for me. I wonder how my career would have developed had I not attended that conference.

3. If you were a careers advisor, what would you say to someone thinking of going into TESOL now?

I would advise them to decide what and where they would like to teach, to prepare themselves as thoroughly as possible and to aim to complete a master’s degree in the field as soon as possible. I would encourage them not to avoid the tough courses and to make sure they had a good grounding in language assessment and in the use of technology. However I would also let them know that in many places ESL teachers face many difficulties in establishing a long-term career in the field, due to poor employment conditions and to the status of the teaching profession in some contexts.

4. As the author of numerous reference books and coursebooks, how have you seen the ELT publishing industry change over time? Do you have any advice for would-be writers wanting to find a way in?

There are very different factors involved in writing professional or academic books and in writing coursebooks and in both cases there are no easy routes to enter publishing. In the case of the former, many of the major publishers are reducing the number of academic titles they publish because they are often not particularly profitable. For example, a typical academic title that might be on the reading list of an MA course might not sell more than 10,000 copies during its lifetime. Some of course sell a lot more but many also sell a lot less. Writing books of this kind involves finding an area where a new book might be needed, submitting a proposal with sample chapters, and if the book is commissioned, working under the guidance of an editor to prepare the book for a particular market.

In the case of coursebooks, there is much less scope for authors than there was 40 years ago. Increasingly many publishers are doing away with the role of an author. Some publishers will not consider any unsolicited proposals from prospective authors. More commonly, a publisher identifies the need for a new book through market research and comes up with an initial concept for a course. A number of writers are then invited to submit sample materials and the most appropriate is chosen. It’s not unusual for a team of writers to be commissioned to work on a course which consists of a number of levels and components. Increasingly the writers are freelancers who receive a fee rather than a royalty based on sales.

5. It has often been said that there is a significant research-practice gap in this field – do you think this is still true and if so, how can we bridge that gap?

I think there will always be a divide between research and practice since researchers


Q7

Q6and practitioners often have very different goals and needs. Researchers often pursue issues that they are interested in and that they feel will help establish their reputation as scholars and are often less interested in potential applications to teaching if any. However there is also a growing group of researchers who focus on teaching-related and teacher-education issues and their work often has implications for teaching. I think there is room for both approaches, since advances in knowledge often come from the first approach while changes in practice are often informed by the second approach.

6.There are many different varieties of English at work in the Asia-Pacific region (as anywhere). What does this mean for teachers (and teacher trainers) in the region, not only with regard to their learners, but also to themselves?

For teachers whose first language is not English, they need to decide what kind of spoken English they value and how English relates to the sense of their individual identity. These days there are many options, and teachers and learners have choices as to the kind of English they want to speak. Since in many contexts learners will be using English as a lingua franca there is less pressure to try to mimic ‘native-speaker’ accents and styles of speaking. When it comes to writing, however, there is an international standard that does not vary much from country to country. Depending on the teaching context, learners need to understand that there are many different Englishes and they will need to decide what an appropriate target is for them.

7. You have worked extensively in the Asia-Pacific region, as well as around the world. Do you think the ELT ‘scene’ in our part of the world differs from its US and European counterparts? In what ways?

I have spent a great deal of time teaching and meeting teachers in many parts of the world in the last 30 years, though mainly in Latin America and Asia. There are different kinds

”“English language teaching is no longer thought of as something

that anyone who can speak English can do. It is now seen to require a specialised knowledge base, obtained through both

academic study and practical experience targets we are asked to strive for.


Q8Q9

of ELT communities in these countries. One group are those with little training and who work in private institutes, using my textbooks in many cases. These are typically young people who see their ability to speak English as a resource that can help them develop a career. Many would have an intermediate-level command of English. They recognize their limitations, and in many cases are keen to develop themselves professionally. This is the work force that is responsible for teaching millions of learners worldwide. Another smaller group are those who work at universities and other kinds of institutions, who have TESOL qualifications and may be keen to go further with their academic studies.

In Australia and New Zealand we have a different demographic and there is a greater number of teachers with higher-level qualifications. Conferences of ELT professionals often have a more academic focus, since there are so many universities producing teacher-researchers with a solid grounding in research and current issues. There is less need for the kind of basic-level support that is still the focus of many professional events I participate in elsewhere.

8. Are you still involved in teaching?

Yes, I am one of those fortunate people who can choose how much teaching I want to do and where. This year for example I will be teaching graduate courses in Singapore and the Philippines as well as speaking at conferences and workshops in the UK, Qatar, Oman, Iran, Hong Kong, Thailand and elsewhere. I enjoy these opportunities since I meet fascinating people from many different backgrounds who all share a concern to improve standards of teaching and learning in the places where they live and work.

9. Are you working on any special projects at the moment? What’s next for you?

Cambridge have just published my latest book – Key Issues in Language Teaching – an 800+-page overview of the field as I see it. I have two other projects with Cambridge to appear in 2017. One is a substantially revised version of my book Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, and the other is The Cambridge Guide to Learning Second Languages, which Anne Burns and I have edited. I am currently planning a book on pre-service TESOL teacher education. I have also recently recorded a series of video talks that will be available throughout 2016 on the Cambridge English Teacher site.


Q1010. What are some of your other interests?

About half of my time involves activities in music and the arts. In the music domain I sponsor a number of emerging musicians in both Australia and New Zealand, I co-sponsor a composer-in-residence program in Wellington, I am a patron of the Gisborne International Music Competition, and I organize some 10 concerts by young musicians each year in New Zealand. In the arts field I have a decorative arts gallery in the Tairawhiti Museum in Gisborne New Zealand showing items from my art collection, and am also patron of a program for young Maori artists, also in Gisborne.

Jack Richards has had an active career in the Asia-Pacific region and is currently an honorary professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of Sydney. In 2011 he was awarded an honorary doctorate of literature by Victoria University, Wellington, for his services to education and the arts and in 2014 received the Award for Patronage from the Arts Foundation of New Zealand.

www.professorjackrichards.com

If you would like to write an article in Classroom Talk for the English Australia Journal, please contact:[email protected]


R E V I E W S

Innovations in the Continuing Professional Development of English Language Teachers

DAV I D H AY E S ( e d. )

British Council Innovations Series, 2014

R e v i e w e d by B e t h a n y R a n d e l l

Of benefit to both the newly trained and the experienced, David Hayes’ collection of 13 case studies in Continuing Professional Development (CPD) in India, Bulgaria, Africa, Korea, Greece, Oman, Uzbekistan, Ethiopia, Afghanistan and Australia, demands readers engage critically with the challenges that face teachers who wish to hone their craft, such as poor resourcing, overly bureaucratic state regulation, heavy workloads, poor infrastructure, financial restraints, and institutional and collegial apathy. It also challenges assumptions about what teachers think about their own professional development and the perceived value of life-long learning.

Hayes has had a diverse career in teaching, teacher education, and consultancy working in a wide variety of countries, and brings insights gained from these experiences to bear on the importance of context in CPD in practice. His overview highlights two crucial points: firstly, ‘what is innovative in a school system with good resources . . . will not be the same as what is innovative in a resource-poor system . . . [where innovation] could be the introduction of pair and group work’ (p. 5). This may seem obvious, but it an important take-away for recently trained and experienced teachers coming from resource-rich environments to employment in resource-poor environments. He also highlights that innovations are adopted on the basis of the perception of the changes teachers will be required to make, not on the basis of the ‘intrinsic value’ of the innovation itself (p. 7).


I have worked in resource-rich and resource-poor teaching environments. In my experience, the main barrier to innovation is the teachers’ beliefs and feelings about the purpose and concepts of teaching and learning in their context. When trying to foster innovation in CPD, fostering a belief in, and feeling of the value of, CPD is essential for success. The Indian CPD Policy ‘Think Tank’ initiative highlights success in ‘triggering . . . a gradual shift in perception of CPD from a peripheral issue to a central concern in teacher education’ (p. 249). This initiative placed the ‘burden’ for initiating CPD not on the academic body but on classroom practitioners themselves, turning CPD into a ‘bottom-up’ initiative and placing control firmly in the hands of the teachers. This dovetails nicely with the third case study: ‘Introducing innovation though action research (AR) in an Australian national programme: insights and experiences’ in which we learn about AR as a ‘means of empowering teachers and enabling them to acquire deeper insights and understanding about their practices’ (p. 65), and specifically about English Australia’s AR initiative that aims to ‘equip teachers with the skills to enable them to explore and address their own identified teaching challenges and to share the outcomes of this research’(p. 68). This case study argues that institutions implementing CPD innovations must be careful to avoid viewing these innovations as ‘a product with a pre-determined end point’ (p. 80), something imposed from above. Teachers would do well to remember that CPD is a journey and that, for institutions seeking to experiment with innovations in CPD, the cultural shift can be harder to implement than the programme; it is this cultural shift that will foster continued innovation in practice. For me, as a teaching practitioner that has moved in to management in the Australian university sector, this has exciting implications – shared AR programmes that marry Australian AR with CPD activities of transnational partners! (but I may be getting ahead of myself).

The studies are littered with insights of note for those in ELT management and ‘senior teachers’ who may have responsibility for the CPD of others. The emphasis on the teacher as central to CPD recurs throughout the collection; this is heartening, but not unexpected in a collection commissioned by the British Council. The use of technology to facilitate, but not dictate, CPD is also stressed: case studies 7–10 explicitly focus on the role of technology in CPD and discuss the challenges of normalising the use of technology for CPD where infrastructure and resourcing are poor. We are reminded of the affordances of technology; teachers can be made aware of their global network by participating in communities of practice which link up those who may have little opportunity to connect with peers in similar or different contexts. Despite the challenges discussed alongside affordances, these case studies illustrate the need for normalisation of the use of technology for CPD, and that the need for well-designed programmes with ‘tech-champion’ users is common to all teaching contexts.


Of particular interest to me was the final case study ‘“My life changed when I saw that notice”: an analysis of the long-term impact of a CPD programme in Bulgaria’, which highlights the fact that many teachers do not realise the professional avenues available to them. This was certainly my experience; I viewed ELT as a ‘gap year’ job, and it wasn’t until I actually worked for the British Council and was exposed to the multifarious options for teachers who choose to engage in CPD that I became ambitious for a career within the sector. One of my mentors for my DELTA, Andy Keedwell, authored the 6th case study in this collection; without his guidance, I may not be writing this review. It behoves institutions to expose teachers to these opportunities; this will engage them, make them more responsive to CPD initiatives and ultimately make them better, more responsive teachers. Better, more responsive teachers result in better, more responsive students.

Innovations in the Continuing Professional Development of English Language Teachers is of use to all CPD enthusiasts seeking to engage professionally. It is especially useful for managers of ELT institutions in Australia, and in fact, teaching institutions in general, as the challenges and requirements of CPD innovation in ELT are common to all teaching contexts.

Bethany Randell currently manages University of Canberra’s Learning Support Team. She has 13 years’ experience in the ELT sector, working in Australia, China, Egypt, the UK and in Syria for the British Council. She is interested in international education, learning motivation, and international education as diplomacy.

[email protected]


Learn The Oxford 3000™ Oxford University Press, 2015

R e v i e w e d by Va n e s s a To d d

On my train trip home each afternoon, everyone seems to be using a phone or tablet. There’s bright colour, there’s movement, there’s communication: movies, games, photos, texting. The Learn the Oxford 3000™ app immediately looks different: calm colours, and a focus on words and text. Your first impression is a fair one: it’s a tool with a serious, rather traditional, approach to learning the meaning and use of English vocabulary.

First of all, some background. The Oxford 3000™ was developed to help teachers and students learn English vocabulary in a systematic way. According to the Oxford Dictionaries website, the 3000 words in the collection include frequently used words (based on word frequency in language corpora) as well as less frequent but ‘important’ words. These criteria mean that no proper nouns are included (so, no Tuesday or Christmas), yet somehow the gender-specific chairman managed to sneak in along the way. The Oxford 3000™ is now being used to develop a variety of teaching resources, such as Inside Writing (see English Australia Journal 30.2).

Learn the Oxford 3000™ is available on the iOS platform and, at the time of writing, retails for $9.99 in Australia. It contains a dictionary of the words in the Oxford 3000™ list, as well as activities to practice memorising them. The dictionary function allows you to search for a specific word, jump to a particular letter, or simply scroll. Information in entries includes phonemic transcription, recordings of British and American English pronunciations, definitions and examples of usage. Helpfully for learners, entries also highlight information on grammar and collocations. One problem, however, is that antonyms get hidden: for example, comfort – comforting

–comfortable all appear in the same search, but uncomfortable does not. Another


problem is that some definitions are grammatically complex, even though only terms contained within the Oxford 3000 are used. Thus, freedom, for example, is defined as ‘the state of being able to do what you want, without anything stopping you’: note the nominalisation, embedding and gerund!

The learning tool in the app is designed as an ‘intelligent tutor’, to use a computing term: in this case, the app maps out a series of tests for learning the words, then monitors/controls your progress through them. There are three levels: ‘Bronze’ with 100 tests, ‘Silver’ with 75 tests, and ‘Gold’ with 50 tests. The number of questions in each test increases across the level: in Bronze, Test 1 has 23 questions, while Test 100 has 98 questions. When beginning each level, only the first test is unlocked. Further tests open as each one is completed, but you can’t simply skip to, say, Test 47 (although you can have tests open at all three levels at once). And although your progress is shown on the front page, working through fifty to one hundred long tests at each level would require a fair amount of perseverance, especially since at every level the tests have identical activity types and format.

The test questions focus on three aspects of vocabulary: meaning (most common), usage, and listening/spelling (least common), and activity types are similar to those used in traditional paper-based tests. These include selecting words/phrases to match definitions, selecting words/phrases to complete a sentence, and listening and typing in a missing word (an activity which provides good contrast to the multiple choice activities). Again, the language-based prompts (many of which are taken directly from the definitions in the dictionary section) sometimes require good reading skills to decode complex grammatical structures (e.g., ‘Used to say that you think somebody should do something soon’ is the definition given to elicit the phrase it’s about time).

So how would the app help the user improve? You get correct/incorrect feedback after every question (with a link to the dictionary entry in case you want to review the word being tested). Very importantly, to finish a test, you MUST answer every question correctly; any questions you get wrong during the test you’ll have to redo at the end (with answers shuffled so it’s not too easy) until you get them right. Moreover, vocabulary is also ‘recycled’ (tested again) across several tests. However, the amount you learn would depend on whether you actively notice patterns (for example, grammatical patterns) and think about the mistakes you make. It would be very easy to simply choose answers at random until you arrive at the correct one, and so get only minimal benefit from the app.

Basically, this app is a screen with a dictionary behind it. It has a clean but serious aesthetic, and presents content using traditional methods with little variety. While it’s not fun enough or collaborative enough to be used in a classroom, it would be a good


fit for the adult learner looking to improve their lexical accuracy for professional or academic purposes. Most of us have gaps in our vocabulary knowledge, and because of its comprehensive, if unexciting, nature, the Learn the Oxford 3000™ app could be of use in filling these gaps. You could even use it on the train home – just don’t get distracted by the colour and movement on screens around you.

Vanessa Todd is a Learning Adviser at Macquarie University, New South Wales where she designs activities (online and face-to-face) developing English language and academic literacy skills. She’s also interested in technology-enhanced assessment and gamification.

[email protected]


Using Technology to Enhance WritingInnovative Approaches to Literacy Instruction

R i c h a r d E . F e r d i g , T i m ot h y V. R a s i n s k i & K r i s t i n e E . P y ta s h ( e d s )

Solution Tree, 2014

R e v i e w e d by K a r e n H a i r e

In an EFL/ESL General English classroom, writing is often one of the skills that falls through the cracks, either because the writing in many course books can seem irrelevant to learners, or because students’ reactions to a writing lesson can prevent a teacher from pushing them to do something they perceive as being dull. However, with more and more students wanting to move into either higher education pathways or to work and live in Australia permanently, teachers have a responsibility to give their students a foundation in writing that will be useful for their future plans. This is where books like Using Technology to Enhance Writing can come in handy as a guide for teachers looking to find innovative ways to bring writing into their classrooms.

Using Technology to Enhance Writing is a well-presented book divided into eight sections which deal with different areas of the writing process from pre-writing to editing and assessment, as well as looking at different approaches to writing instruction. Each of these sections is subdivided into chapters which have been produced by different authors. Each chapter is further divided into four parts: an introductory section that outlines the purpose or reasoning behind the chapter, a section entitled ‘How Do I Do it?’, which gives a basic overview of what technology or online resource will be used in the chapter and how it pertains to the topic, a ‘Classroom Example’ section, which shows how the technology has been used with a class and finally a ‘Your Turn’ section to give teachers and instructors an understanding of how to turn the example into something the can use in their own classrooms. This consistent structure throughout the book means that despite the many authors, it is always easily navigated.

However, not all chapters are created equal; some provide plenty of practical help


and examples, while others are rather vague and leave you wondering if you could practically use the technology suggested. The best chapters, such as Chapter 15

‘The 4E Wiki Writing Model’, present one method clearly, in this case collaborative writing using a wiki, where students help each other to edit and expand upon their writing. It uses images from the classroom examples as a guide, and also offers up ideas for ways to adapt the technology for use in different classroom environments and with different students. Less helpful chapters, for example Chapter 9 ‘Digital

Writing Workshop’, tend to go into a lot of theory about the why of using technology in the classroom and skimp on the practical usage. In this chapter the author uses the ‘How do I do it?’ section to explain generalities rather than giving any specifics of how this method could work in a classroom, which from a teacher’s standpoint makes it far more difficult to implement the ideas.

Another thing to take into account about Using Technology to Enhance Writing is that the authors, and therefore the classroom examples, are from a variety of educational contexts. This means that much of the book contains examples for use with native language speakers, with only five or six examples that are specifically set in the EFL/ESL context. In fact, most of the chapters have been

developed and trialled with children in the US in primary, middle and high school contexts using the new Common Core Standards there as benchmarks and as part of the reasoning behind many of the chapters. Obviously this means that for teachers working within primary and high school teaching, this book has a lot more practical advice and ideas than for those of us working with adults, though some chapters have been created with university students in mind as well. Despite this, however, the best chapters in the book are easily adaptable to multiple classroom environments, but as stated previously, not all chapters will be useful or have practical ideas for adaption within them.

As far as the technology being utilised is concerned, Using Technology to Enhance Writing offers plenty of sites and tools, some free and some paid for, as possibilities for use in classroom environments. Some of these will be familiar to most people, such as Facebook, YouTube, Microsoft Word or Google Docs, while others (Blogger, Sound Bible, Blendspace and Voicethread) may be less well known. In some chapters, the authors offer up plenty of possible technology for use, but they only demonstrate

WritingTECHNOLOGY

to Enhance

Innovative Approaches Literacy Instructionto

edited by Richard E. Ferdig, Timothy V. Rasinski, and Kristine E. Pytash

Using


the idea in one format, so if that format for some reason doesn’t work, you have plenty of other options but are perhaps less clear about what exactly you should do with them. They also demonstrate how you can have students engage in many different kinds of writing using these tools, from writing presentations and essays to writing stories and communicative online writing. The key thing that almost all of these technologies bring to the writing process is an authentic audience. That is, the students are not writing simply for the teacher but they are writing for peers, family or friends to see as well as the teacher. This is one of the main themes throughout the book – that these new online and digital writing resources can be used to encourage students to create better writing for an authentic audience.

Using Technology to Enhance Writing also has further resources available that are linked to each chapter available from http://www.solution-tree.com/free-resources/technology/utew. Some of these resources are simple links to the websites and digital tools that you will need to try any of the ideas – there are, for example, three links to Facebook. However, some are links to sites providing examples of what was created by teachers to demonstrate the technology to students or simple step-by-step instructions of how teachers used the sites in questions. There are also some downloadable and reproducible worksheets that the authors created for their students to use alongside the technology, for example peer editing worksheets.

In short, if you are the kind of teacher that is comfortable with new technology and interested in utilising it in your classroom, then this book would be a helpful place to go to look for ideas and resources. However, it is important to remember that you will need to be creative and adapt anything you find in Using Technology to Enhance Writing for your class level, needs and environment.

Karen Haire is currently a General English Senior Teacher at Navitas English.

[email protected]


The Principled Communicative ApproachSeven Criteria for Success

J a n e A r n o l d, Zo ltá n D ö r n y e i & C h a z P u g l i e s e

Helbling, 2015

Reviewed by Sarah Williams

In 1981, linguist William Littlewood claimed that ‘communicative ability is the goal of foreign language learning’, and while over 30 years have passed, this statement still rings true. It can, however, be difficult for teachers to decide the ‘best’ methods for teaching communication skills and to find innovative ways to engage students in communicative tasks. In response to this dilemma, Jane Arnold, Zoltán Dörnyei and Chaz Pugliese have written The Principled Communicative Approach: Seven Criteria for Success – an informative resource book based on the latest research in linguistics and psychology. The book centres on the concept (initially posited by Dörnyei) of the

‘Principled Communicative Approach’ (PCA), and the seven key principles which make up this approach. Drawing on these, The Principled Communicative Approach: Seven Criteria for Success provides both a theoretical text on the latest developments in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and a practical guide for use in the classroom.

The book begins with a six-page explanation of the PCA, which offers a rationale behind why an updated approach to CLT was needed. It provides an account of the history of CLT, including the theories underpinning it and the limitations of the methodology. Also discussed is the dichotomy between implicit and explicit learning and the necessity for both in the teaching of the English language. The introduction concludes with an outline of the seven principles and an overview of the following chapters.

This book is then divided into seven chapters, each dedicated to one of the seven principles in the PCA, which are as follows:

1. The Personal Significance Principle

2. The Declarative Input Principle


3. The Controlled Practice Principle

4. The Focus-on-Form Principle

5. The Formulaic Language Principle

6. The Language Exposure Principle

7. The Focused Interaction Principle

Each chapter begins with an overview explaining the significance of the principle to language teaching. This is followed by 9–12 classroom activities related to the principle, each one or two pages in length, with 75 activities in total within the book. For each activity, information is provided regarding the language focus, target level of the students, approximate duration and any preparation involved. The instructions are laid out step-by-step and they are generally short, clear and easy to follow. Also included in some of the activities are additional notes or suggestions for variations and in some instances resources, such as a poem, sample vocabulary or a set of questions, have been provided. Technology is needed for some of the tasks and links to useful webpages have been added; otherwise, most of the lessons require few additional resources or preparation, and can therefore be used in any teaching environment.

At the end of the book, there is a reference list, as well as an extensive list of further resources for each chapter, providing additional readings and materials related to the principles. The book concludes with a teacher’s quick-reference guide. This is a table outlining all the activities, their target level, focus and duration of lesson, and where they are located in the book, thus enabling ease of access to find an activity.

The main strength of this book is that it is based on extensive research and the principles are underpinned by solid theoretical understanding. The purpose of each activity is clear and they are strongly linked to the key principles in the approach. It is obvious that the activities have not been developed and arranged haphazardly, but rather that considerable research has gone into each task within the book.

Another highlight of this resource is the wide range of activities that have been included. There are tasks suitable for beginner to advanced learners, and it is a useful resource for any teacher, from the novice to the more experienced. While some of the activities may be familiar to teachers, such as ‘find someone who’ and using songs in

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THE PRINCIPLED COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Jane Arnold • Zoltán Dörnyei • Chaz Pugliese

Seven criteria for success

THE PRINCIPLED COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH offers a fresh take on communicative language teaching, based on cutting-edge research in psychology and linguistics.

THE PRINCIPLED COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH integrates scientific discoveries with the accumulated experience of classroom practitioners. In this book the three renowned authors propose seven key principles that underlie effective communicative teaching, and then illustrate these principles with 75 practical classroom activities.

THE PRINCIPLED COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH is a unique blend of theory embedded in practice, providing excellent resource material for the classroom that students will find motivating and very rewarding, but also useful information for teachers to keep up with the latest developments in the field.

THE RESOURCEFUL TEACHER Series

One of the secrets of teaching a foreign language successfully lies in balancing routine classroom work with innovative and creative activities and techniques.

This series offers teachers, teacher trainers and teacher trainees a discussion of new developments in various areas, such as linguistics, pedagogy and cognitive psychology, and shows them practical ways of using key findings in these areas to enrich their own teaching.

Jane Arnold Zoltán Dörnyei Chaz Pugliese

9 783852 729381

ISBN 978-3-85272-938-1

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the classroom, due to the sheer number of tasks included, there is something new for everyone. In addition, the authors have often provided an innovative twist to even the tried-and-true activities, and they offer the reader suggestions on how the activities can be further adapted to incorporate specific target language. The tasks are also short, engaging and can easily be included into classroom lessons, whether it be as an ice breaker, warmer, revision or practice activity.

While there are very few limitations to this book, I do believe that it is best suited to the General English classroom. Activities such as memorising song lyrics, reciting poems and expressing likes and dislikes may not be relevant to academic and exam preparation classes. There is also a greater emphasis on everyday communicative ability, rather than more specific academic situations. Despite this, there are activities which academic students may benefit from, such as the grammar- and pronunciation-focused lessons, and there is room for adapting the tasks to meet the students’ specific needs.

One thing omitted from this book, which would have been useful to include, is a short biography about the authors, including information regarding their research and teaching history. The authors have a great wealth of experience and expertise between them, and I feel that knowing more about their background would be of interest to the readers and would also add even greater authority to their arguments.

Overall, the content and the activities in this book are innovative, engaging and rewarding for English language students. The authors have designed 75 creative ways of encouraging communication in the classroom and each activity is based on the latest research in the field. In this way, it is both informative and practical, and therefore, I believe The Principled Communicative Approach would make a welcome addition to any school’s resource bank.

Reference

Littlewood, W. (1981). Communicative Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sarah Williams has worked in the ELICOS industry since 2004 and has taught in Japan, New Zealand and Australia. She is currently the Assistant Academic Manager at Deakin University English Language Institute in Melbourne.

[email protected]


Foundation IELTS MasterclassStudent’s Book

N i c k Th o r n e r & Lo u i s R o g e r s

Teacher’s Pack with Speaking CD

K at y S i m p s o n W i t h N i c k Th o r n e r

Oxford University Press, 2015

R e v i e w e d by J a k k i P o s t l e t h wa i t e

The well-known IELTS Masterclass series has a new addition – Foundation IELTS Masterclass – aimed at students preparing for the Academic IELTS test with a target band score of 4.5–5.5.

Each of the book’s 10 units has a focus on the four papers of the IELTS exam and the contents pages clearly outline which exam skill each component relates to. For example, in Unit 3, the speaking focus is ‘expressing opinions’ and provides practice for Part 3 of the Speaking Test, while the listening in this unit focuses on ‘understanding agreement’ and gives practice in answering multiple-choice and matching questions. The book is colourful, sections are well signposted, and navigation is easy, particularly seeing as the macroskills occur with exact regularity throughout the book (for example, speaking is on page 8, 18, 28, reading on page 14, 24, 34, etc.).

While the reading texts are current, my particular group of students, who are within the target band score range, found the extracts and associated tasks too simple. However, they responded particularly well to the vocabulary tasks. The book’s emphasis on synonyms also provides an appreciation and understanding of synonymy that is essential for the IELTS exam. As with most IELTS preparation books, the units are centred on a theme so as to equip students with a well-rounded vocabulary. The theme is introduced at the beginning of each unit so as to raise interest, activate


knowledge and initiate related vocabulary. In fact, one of the book’s highlights is the Vocabulary File at the back of the book, where each unit has a dedicated page with a good variety of relevant and well thought-out activities.

For Writing Task 1, the units focus on trend data and describing processes, as well as the language functions candidates will most likely need to use. The Writing File at the back of the book has practice in describing maps and plans and also contains model answers of four Task 1-type questions. For Task 2, the units sequentially progress through the stages of essay writing (from analysing the question to writing a conclusion), encouraging students to practise process writing. The Writing File has

three Task 2-type model answers. Accompanying exercises ask students to observe certain strong features in the answer and then to identify those features which are absent from another model answer to a similar task type. I believe these exercises provide important analytical practice and plainly demonstrate the desired structure of an academic IELTS writing task response. However, the model answers do not include band scores, which I find students commonly want to know. Also, the model answers appear to be higher than band 5.5 and may prove to be too demanding for those students hovering around 4.5-5.0.

In terms of grammar, the book focuses on the standard grammatical points usually found in EFL/ESL textbooks; however, they are presented with a clear focus on exam tasks. For instance, in Task 2 of the Speaking paper students may be asked to narrate past events. A grammar focus is thus provided on past simple and past continuous use. At the back of the book is the Grammar File - eight pages containing extra exercises and/or explanations. While these are level appropriate, I believe most students would need supplementary materials in order to have sufficient grammar practice, especially at the lower end of the band score spectrum. As stand-alone exercises, they would be ideal for revision.

Study Skills boxes throughout the book encourage students to reflect on their learning styles and methods and, of course, how to improve these. They inspire best study


practices, and thus, best exam outcomes. The Study Skills File at the back of the book expands on these boxes with a page devoted to each study skill.

An Exam Challenge section comes at the end of each unit and allows students to put the skills and language developed throughout the unit into practice. The speaking challenge focuses on one part of the test and should be done with a partner in order for feedback to be given on specific aspects; the reading and listening challenges use nominated sections of the practice test at the back of the book; and the writing challenge uses a combination of tasks from the practice test, the Information File pages or its own questions. I think this is a constructive way to conclude the unit.

At the rear of the book, logically arranged by unit, the Information File (an odd name considering it does not contain test information per se) has tasks, speaking test prompts, graphs and diagrams for writing tasks, and sample writing answers/plans for each unit’s Exam Challenge section. Exam Tips pages address the four test sections. They relate to certain pages within the book and provide further description of particular parts of the exam and what is expected, as well as timing. The language is easy to understand and my students found the information helpful as they could easily select which tips to read depending on their individual weaknesses.

The Student’s Book also comes with access to Online Practice (a unique code is provided with each book) with the option of being teacher-managed or used for self-study, as directed by the teacher, via the free Learning Management System. The Online Practice is an excellent extension to the Student’s Book and a useful teacher resource. It provides a vast amount of additional exam skills practice material to assist both teachers and students alike. There are resources for vocabulary, grammar, reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Teachers can manage what students do and when; view students’ results; comment on submitted writing with guidelines and sample answers; and listen to and assess students’ recorded responses. Students can view which tests they have completed and their results. There is the option for teachers to set tasks ‘with help’ (for scaffolded learning) or ‘no help’ (for assessment). It is easy to navigate and has links to PDF resources of the relevant practice test. It is certainly a valuable teaching tool and learning aid. Further IELTS practice tests can also be purchased via the LMS platform.

The accompanying Teacher’s Pack gives a course overview and, along with the answers, includes suggestions for alternative lead-ins and activities, relevant background information, an outline of each lesson’s aims and teaching tips. A handy feature of the Teacher’s Book is that the audioscripts for the listening sections have the answers highlighted. It also has a Speaking DVD (not specifically part of this course) which can be used to extend any IELTS preparation course. It includes an introduction to


If you would like to write a review for the English Australia Journal, please contact the Reviews Editor: [email protected]

the speaking test, an ‘overview and tips’ section for each part, and a video example of a ‘real’ candidate. There is commentary on the four assessment criteria, and a video sample to accompany each criterion. There is also a complete, uninterrupted speaking test with comments and an examiner breakdown of each part. An advantage of the DVD is that teachers can be selective in what order they show students the different parts. My students found the DVD not only interesting, but useful as it gave them a realistic idea of what to expect in exam conditions.

Overall, it seems that some of the material and associated tasks fail to target the linguistic range of students in the broad 4.5–5.5 band score spectrum; however, despite this, Foundation IELTS Masterclass is a well-balanced exam preparation course with very good complementary resources in the Files, Speaking DVD and Online Practice.

Jakki Postlethwaite is currently an Assistant Education Manager, and teacher, at Ability English, Melbourne. She has 12 years’ teaching experience both in Australia and overseas. Her main professional interests are developing learner autonomy and an awareness of the interconnectedness between culture and language.

[email protected]


Film in ActionTeaching language using moving images

K i e r a n D o n a g h y

DELTA Publishing, 2015

R e v i e w e d by C l a r e M c G r at h

Kieran Donaghy is the creator of Fi lm English, an online resource of short films and accompanying lessons plans, winner of a British Council ELTons Award for Innovation in Teacher Resources (see English Australia Journal 30.1). He is clearly passionate about teachers taking advantage of the explosion in video distribution sites and tools to create, edit, remix, share and respond to moving images. His book Film in Action gives insights into engaging learners with film, more than a hundred activities to exploit in class, and procedures for both teachers and learners to create and play with their own moving images.

The introduction via Part A is not to be neglected as, alongside helpful advice about the selection and exploitation of film in the classroom in general, with examples of different genres (e.g., animated lectures) and explanations of and rationales for their use, you will also find thought-provoking comments with quotes from a wide range of people in film and ELT, from Scorsese to Krashen. Donaghy examines the role of film in society, education and language learning. He puts forward a strong case for our need to teach visual literacy, developing skills in ‘reading the screen’ and

‘writing the screen’, and for educational systems to catch up with the dominance of


film elsewhere in business, communication and sharing of information. After a brief history of film in education, he lays out the educational benefits of not just watching but also creating: the motivation, variety and flexibility afforded; the integration of skills; the provision of a rich source of authentic language with context/visuality; and the enhancement of cross-cultural understanding. His general tips on ways to use film in the classroom cover thoughts on selection, aims, preparation, and pre-, while- and post-viewing; they also take in feature-length films, shorts, mash-ups and the like. Part A concludes with Donaghy most generously sharing his expertise by providing his recommended sites for films and resources, from learner films and lessons plans/projects to scripts and sites for animated movie making, subtitling and revoicing.

‘Watching actively’, the first of two chapters in Part B, provides lesson scaffolds for developing film literacy by interpreting and analysing films while integrating language systems and skills. These range from exploring film through moving and still images, sound and music, on to analysing characters and scripts, and finishing with ideas for exploiting new film genres. These include viral videos and ‘response’ films – those criticising or parodying the original commissioned by a company. Most sub-sections have at 7–12 activities. Each is presented with a brief synopsis and notes on ‘Pre-production’ – many have at least one link to a suitable source and, where necessary, to tools and tutorial videos. ‘Action’ signals the clear steps for the main stages in exploiting the resource, and ‘Post-production’ gives suggestions for how to follow-up outside of class or in subsequent lessons.

Most resources are the stimulus for a main student activity, such as ‘Trailer talk’ (p. 37) where the resources are used to stimulate discussion while also raising awareness of trailer conventions, or ‘Lasting impressions’ (p. 60) in which students use a character from the film or clip as the basis for describing their life in the next 10 years. Others are creative ways to exploit film, such as ‘Ordering the scenes’ (p. 41) where you use the DVD menu of a film to select three scenes for students to watch and sequence. A number of ideas give a visual spin to well-known tasks; in ‘I am what I am . . . or am I?’ (p. 86) the students create a video of themselves presenting their prepared self-introduction which contains some information which is not true. Another, ‘Filming an interrogation’ (a police interview, p. 94) – with an added role of ‘director’ planning the set and shots – is an example where links between some activities are highlighted, this one connecting you to ‘Eyewitness Account’ (p. 52).

The second chapter ‘Actively producing’ is presented as steps for students to create their own narratives, images or sounds before building up to producing their own moving images. These are not necessarily Cecil B. DeMille epics; for example, ‘From seeing to doing’ (p. 78) has students watch a how-to video with the sound off then


provide their script before comparing it to the original by reviewing with sound. You will appreciate Donaghy’s scaffolds as you explore this possibly less familiar territory. The layout in both sections of Part B is very user-friendly, easy to dip into and find inspiration, which makes up for the lack of an index.

Finally, Part C goes a step further with tips to guide you through the process of establishing longer-term projects integrating film into your institution and syllabus. These are a film club, a film course, film chronicles (from their class and school out to the wider community), and film circles (where students have roles to assume during their task-based projects with feature-length films). Donaghy’s experience is again very valuable here, focusing on the set-up not just the activities themselves.

Overall, with Film in Action, you will be guided and inspired. This book is particularly suited for those with a special interest in more fully appreciating all aspects of films.

Clare McGrath made her first film on a second-hand Standard 8mm camera at the age of 15, and nearly became a film editor instead of a teacher/trainer with the Australian TESOL Training Centre. She would like to thank her family.

[email protected]


Language Learning with Digital Video

B e n G o l d s t e i n & Pau l D r i v e r

Cambridge University Press, 2015

R e v i e w e d by C l a r e M c G r at h

Language Learning with Digital Video is, like Donaghy’s Film in Action (also reviewed in this issue), a resource for teachers and trainees interested in using video content in class and then in creating their own. Goldstein and Driver’s activities can also be used to inspire students from a range of ages and levels, without too much preparation.

Their introduction briefly covers the evolution in the use of moving images inside and outside of class from a passive leisure pursuit or that Friday afternoon break to becoming a

major source of integrated content for flipped learning or for communication and feedback. The reasons given for using video and the main purposes used to classify the activities which follow – for language focus, skills practice, as stimulus and as a resource for information – are similarly succinct but persuasive, making connections with examples of how people use video in their life and not just as a learner (e.g., in remixing), and of the skills required to be digitally literate decoding and encoding multi-modal texts.

The ‘Exploitation’ section in Part One uses existing video content available on sites such as YouTube and Vimeo, with activities organised according to the main focus: text, narrative, persuasion or music, with a further set arranged by topic. The introduction is well worth reading, with a brief history of examples of sources and their use, with piquant suggestions for before-watching, while-watching (focusing

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Series Editor Scott Thornbury


Language Learning with Digital Video is an ideal resource for teachers and trainee teachers who are interested in using video content in the language classroom. Activities require minimal preparation and are suitable for learners at a range of ages and levels.

Part 1, ‘Exploitation’, focuses on using existing video content available on sites such as YouTube and Vimeo. Activities are arranged according to their main focus: text, narrative, persuasion or music. A further chapter includes a range of topic-based lessons.

Part 2, ‘Creation’, focuses on making and using learner-generated video content. Its chapters are organized according to logistical complexity, the technological knowledge required and the amount of creative challenge involved.

• Lots of different activities that can be adapted according to context, giving teachers flexibility with their lesson planning.

• Includes references to a wide range of video genres, from documentaries to advertisements, encouraging variety and creativity when using digital content.

• Contains a useful list of sources where teachers can access a wide range of video clips, as well as a bank of technical tips and advice.

Ben Goldstein and Paul Driver

Goldstein and D

river Language Learning with D

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on images/objects, cinematic elements, text, inference, character types, sound, genre, and narrative) and after-watching. The gloss of basic genres and the criteria for selection are both seeded with more inspiration via more sources and general activities. Despite the brief but necessary douche of cold water re: copyright, I found myself champing at the bit to start using Goldstein and Driver’s ideas as well, from the curtain-up 1.1 ‘Translate it back’ where learners translate subtitles from L1 to English and then compare with the original, through 2.4 ‘Reconstruct the plot’ (from the trailer), 3.4 ‘Videojugs’ exploiting how-to clips and the transcripts available on this site, 4.3 ‘One song, many versions’, to 5.5 ‘Memory’, using a visual poem about memory loss. There are so many ideas which could transform an unmotivated class bored with the same old same old.

‘Creation’ in Part Two, with learners making and using their own video content, follows an encouraging progression through four levels which gradually increase the logistical complexity and the technical knowledge required as well as the amount of creative challenge involved. These are not all as daunting as they may sound, for example learners video their pitch to become the next leader of their country (6.6

‘Campaign’), make a screencast of a description of a video game and strategies to win (7.4 ‘Game On’), use video-editing software to create voice-overs for news clips (8.2 ‘News, news’) and create two-minute remakes of famous Hollywood films (9.7

‘Half-baked remake’). Goldstein and Driver’s tech tips also cover more challenging practicalities such as different types of background screens and lighting, software and hardware, sound, and sharing.

What stands out in this book is the adaptability of the generic frameworks of the activities in Part One in particular, with the numbered steps in procedures suggesting varying avenues of exploration enabling teachers to choose appropriate contexts and resources, and the huge list of examples and sources (including Donaghy’s Film English). The presentation of each activity in Part One gives an outline, the primary and secondary focus, and preparation, but also time and suggested levels. Most also have follow-ups and/or variations. The range of genres, from documentaries to ads, is also very appealing, and the technical tips and suggestions for sequencing activities from either section according to theme or the learning focus or the procedure or by genre are very helpful. The extensive index at the end is a real bonus too as it lists the activities by title as well as by type, source, genre, device, or the language or skills focus, which makes planning so much easier.

Overall, Language Learning with Digital Video is a sparkling resource. Your learners and their learning will be transformed.


Navigate Intermediate B1+

R a c h a e l R o b e r t s , H e at h e r B u c h a n a n & E m m a Pat h a r e

Oxford University Press, 2015

R e v i e w e d by B e c k y St e v e n

Navigate Intermediate B1+ is a brand new General English course book for adult learners at CEFR B1+ level, the third in a planned series of six levels. The resources for each level comprise a Coursebook with DVD, along with a Workbook with key and CD. There is an extensive range of support materials in the form of a Teacher ’s Book which includes support articles, a Resource Disc, photocopiable materials and tests. Also available for teachers are the Teacher e-Book, iTools, website and even an LMS to track learner progress. Navigate Intermediate B1+ is also packaged with the Oxford Online Skills

Program, which provides another source of extra practice for listening, speaking, reading and writing either at home or in the classroom. These supplementary resources have not been trialled by the reviewer.

A good range of relevant and up-to-date topics are included in the course, and include snippets in social media format (blogs, Twitter, and other social media pages) amongst the texts. The topics are interesting and the students enjoyed the ones we trialled. It is good to see that an effort has been made to make the Coursebook less Eurocentric and more universally appealing. Some of my colleagues have commented that the way that Navigate has units which contain unrelated topics and/or language points can be confusing to teachers and students, and make it difficult to put together a coherent programme. Let’s say this is a matter of taste. Generally speaking, we were


all in agreement that the contemporary topics are a refreshing change however they are arranged in the book.

I liked the way that the skills are well integrated, which makes for more dynamic and realistic lessons, as well as space for encouraging spontaneity. An example of this was the ‘Mosquito Squasher’ text which created great discussion and interaction in the class, with students downloading the game and then teaching each other how to play it. They also spontaneously engaged in critiquing the game! This then led to their showing and teaching each other their own favourite games, such as Candy Crush.

The speaking lessons cover engaging topics; however, as with many EFL/ESL coursebooks, the tasks for developing fluency are very superficial and do not directly target fluency sufficiently. More could be done to explore aspects of fluency such as fillers and interjections, and to support students to produce sustained spontaneous speech.

The reading texts in the course book are rather short, and we found we needed to supplement them with longer articles in order to challenge our students. The workbook does have some ‘reading for enjoyment’ supplementary activities, which is a good way to stimulate reading practice.

The writing lessons include a very good mix of formal and informal texts, ranging from personal and professional correspondence, writing narratives, learning summary skills through note-taking and writing reviews, through to developing opinion pieces and a formal advantages and disadvantages essay. There is also an activity to support students in participating in online discussion forums, which could be used to establish a real online discussion through one’s preferred online platform.

The listening tasks do not just give students exposure to the texts and simple comprehension activities, but also provide further support with small samples of natural speech to explore aspects of speech which can make it difficult for students to understand texts, such as word recognition, decoding, linking and connected speech. As our students’ confidence builds, it is very important to extend them. All of my colleagues who have trialled Navigate’s videos and extra listening resources were generally happy with the way they challenged the high B1+ students; the videos are generally ‘difficult’, but this is a good thing for these students, and they provide good high-level practice.

The grammar activities cover a good challenging range of grammar including comparatives and superlatives which tend to be missed in coursebooks at this level, but which are so important for students to master in order to express themselves as they explore their world and that of their peers.


The Teachers’ Book is very well thought out and organised. I was very impressed with the professional articles on ‘The Navigate Approach’ in the Teacher’s Support section of the Teacher’s Guide, which help teachers to quickly and easily understand the pedagogy of the coursebooks. These articles are written by well-established and respected professionals such as Catherine Walter, John Field, Jill Hadfield and Anthony Green. There is also quite an extensive list of references with each of the articles, which would encourage new teachers to keep up-to-date with professional reading, and provide a good starting point on their professional development journey. Each article explores current trends in the teaching of reading, listening, grammar and vocabulary, as well as the reasoning behind the use of the photocopiable materials and the Navigate testing package. Teachers can feel assured that there is a clear reason for the coursebook lessons, support materials and tests in Navigate.

The directions for each of the units in the Teachers’ Book are clear enough for a teacher to pick up and run with it if they are teaching a last-minute relief lesson. For instance, I taught half of Unit 7 as a relief teacher may have to, unprepared and handed it on the spot, and I found it easy to teach with using the Teacher’s Book; the other half I prepared as usual and found the additional professional articles in the pedagogy section gave added insights into the lessons.

Overall, I found that the Navigate coursebook was pitched at the right level, and provided good supplementary materials. The range of activities cater for different levels and the stronger students in the class can be challenged using the supplementary e-Materials and the videos. The series looks to be a refreshing new resource for General English classes, and having moved to teaching Upper Intermediate B2, I await with excitement the roll out of the higher-level coursebooks throughout this year.

Becky Steven is a senior teacher at the University of Western Australia CELT. She has been teaching since 1987 in Australia and South Korea. She and her colleague won the English Australia Action Research in ELICOS 2013 award for their project on developing speaking fluency with technology. Her new passion is using technology in the classroom.

[email protected]


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General Information

The English Australia Journal is published twice each year, in April and September. It welcomes contributions from those involved in TESOL teaching, training and research. Contributors will receive a complimentary copy of the journal issue in which their article or review appears. Published articles and reviews will also appear on the English Australia website when the issue goes online.

Guidelines for contributors

General information and detailed guidelines for contributors may be found on the English Australia website, http://www.englishaustralia.com.au/english_australia_journal.html (scan the QR code at the bottom of this page to go there directly). Contributors are asked to refer to these and observe them closely, as submissions that do not meet requirements may not be accepted. Please direct any queries to the Editor before submitting.

Important note:

• all articles are subject to a revision process. If an article cannot be revised in time for a print deadline, it will be carried over to a subsequent issue.

• accepted articles are the property of the English Australia Journal and may be republished only with permission.

• English Australia reserves the right to reject submissions or withdraw articles from publication.


Advertising

The English Australia Journal is read by professionals involved in TESOL throughout Australia and, increasingly, overseas. Advertising for relevant courses, publications, computer software, hardware or any other products is welcome. Details of rates are to be found at the end of this issue.

Contact

For further information please contact English Australia or the relevant editor, using the contact details below:

English Australia

PO Box 1437

Darlinghurst

NSW 1300

Australia

Telephone: (02) 9264 4700

General email: [email protected]

Executive Editor: [email protected]

Classroom Talk Editor: [email protected]

Reviews Editor: [email protected]

The English Australia Journal is published by English Australia Ltd.


English Australia Member Colleges

April 2016

Australian Capital Territory (ACT)ANU College UC College English Language Centre (UCCELC)

New South Wales (NSW)Ability English - Sydney Academy of English - Blue MountainsAcademy of English - Sydney Access Language CentreACU English Language Centre - North SydneyAustralia Onsung International CollegeAustralian Institute of Professional EducationAustralian International College of EnglishAustralian Pacific College - Sydney (Clarence Street)Australian Pacific College - Sydney (Kent Street)Centre for English Teaching, The University of SydneyCQUniversity English Language Centre - SydneyEF International Language SchoolsELS Universal English CollegeELSIS SydneyEmbassy English - SydneyEnglish Language CompanyGreenwich English CollegeILSC Australia - SydneyInternational House - SydneyKaplan International College - Sydney CityKaplan International College - Sydney - ManlyKingsway InstituteMacquarie University English Language CentreNan Tien Institute-Sydney


Navitas English - Bondi Navitas English - ManlyNavitas English - Sydney North Coast Institute English Language Centre - KingscliffNSW English Language Centre TAFE Hunter Institute - NewcastleSELC Australia - Bondi SELC Australia - Sydney City Specialty Language Centre and Oxford College of EnglishStrathfield CollegeSydney College of EnglishTAFE English Language Centre (TELC) - MeadowbankTAFE International Education Centre (TIEC) - Liverpool TAFE NSW Sydney Institute English Centre (SITEC)Taylors College - SydneyThink Colleges CLASSUniversity of New England English Language CentreUniversity of Newcastle Language Centre - NewcastleUniversity of Newcastle Language Centre - SydneyUNSW Global Pty Ltd T/A Institute of LanguagesUOW CollegeUTS:INSEARCHWestern Sydney University, The CollegeWollongong English Language & Cultural Centre, TAFE Illawarra Institute

Northern Territory (NT)Navitas English - Darwin

Queensland (QLD)ACU English Language Centre - BrisbaneBond University English Language InstituteCairns Language Centre / Eurocentres CairnsCQUniversity English Language Centre - BrisbaneCQUniversity English Language Centre - Rockhampton Embassy English - Brisbane Embassy English - Surfers ParadiseEnglish Unlimited


Griffith English Language Institute - Brisbane Griffith English Language Institute - Gold CoastILSC Australia – BrisbaneImpact English BrisbaneInstitute of Continuing & TESOL Education, The University of Queensland (ICTE-UQ)Kaplan International College - BrisbaneKaplan International College - CairnsLangports English Language College - Brisbane Langports English Language College - Gold CoastLexis English - BrisbaneLexis English - NoosaLexis English - Sunshine CoastNavitas English - BrisbaneQUT International CollegeSarina Russo InstituteShafston International College - Brisbane Shafston International College - Gold CoastSouthbank Institute Language CentreWhitsundays College of English SACE

South Australia (SA)Bradford CollegeCentre for English Language in the University of South Australia (CELUSA)Eynesbury College Academy of EnglishIntensive English Language InstituteKaplan International College - AdelaideSouth Australian College of EnglishTAFE SA Adelaide English Language CentreUniversity of Adelaide

Tasmania (TAS)University of Tasmania English Language Centre - LauncestonUniversity of Tasmania English Language Centre - Hobart

Victoria (VIC)Ability English - MelbourneAcademia International


ACU English Language Centre - MelbourneAustralian National College of EnglishChambers InstituteCQUniversity English Language Centre - MelbourneDeakin University English Language InstituteDiscover EnglishELSIS MelbourneEmbassy English - MelbourneHawthorn-MelbourneHolmes English Language CentreImpact English CollegeINUS Australia – Education & TrainingKangan InstituteKaplan International College - MelbourneLa Trobe MelbourneLyceum English Language AustraliaMonash College Pty LtdOzford English Language CentrePerformance Education - MelbourneRMIT English WorldwideSwinburne University English Language CentreVU English

Western Australia (WA)Australian English Language CentreCentre for English Language Teaching, The University of Western AustraliaCurtin EnglishKaplan International College - PerthLexis English - PerthMilner International College of EnglishMurdoch Language Centre, Murdoch Institute of TechnologyNavitas English - PerthPerth International College of EnglishTAFE Western Australia - Bentley CampusTAFE Western Australia - Perth Campus


English Australia Journal Subscriptions

Annual (two issues) Amount AU$

• Australia $50*

• New Zealand $60**

• Outside Australasia $75**

Two years (four issues) Amount AU$

• Australia $90*



Individual copies Issue Amount AU$

• Australia $30*



*incl. postage & GST **incl. postage

Name:

Postal address:

Postcode:

Amount enclosed: AU$

Signature:

EFT payment may be made within Australia:BSB: 082 057 (NAB) Account number: 79 919 2081Account name: English Australia Limited

Please email or fax a remittance advice to the English Australia Secretariat if you use EFT.

Please post cheques or money orders, payable in Australian dollars, made out to English Australia Limited, to: English Australia, PO Box 1437 Darlinghurst NSW 1300 Australia


English Australia Journal Advertising

The English Australia Journal, featuring peer-reviewed and teacher-prepared articles, as well as reviews of recent ELT resources, is published twice a year, in April and in September.

Copies of the English Australia Journal are sent to every English Australia member college, professional affiliate member and an increasing number of independent subscribers.

Each issue of the English Australia Journal is also promptly posted, in full colour, on the English Australia website.

Advertisements are submitted in full colour and are published in greyscale in the hard copy of the English Australia Journal, and in full colour in the online version. Advertising rates include publication in both hard copy and online:

TYPE OF AD DEPTH WIDTH COST (GST included)

FULL PAGE 205mm 130mm $550.00

1/2 PAGE 100mm 130mm $330.00

Please note

1 These rates are for advertising space ONLY.2 Copy must be submitted in the correct size (i.e., be able to fit WITHIN an

area of the above dimensions) as a digital file.3 The preferred format for files to be supplied is a high resolution PDF

(include trim marks).4 A design service is available at extra cost. Advertisers wishing to make use

of this service should contact the English Australia Secretariat.5 An invoice will be forwarded on acceptance of the advertisement.

Contact the English Australia Secretariat ([email protected] or phone (02) 9264 4700), to discuss your advertisement in the next English Australia Journal.

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