electrical & electronics component

7/23/2019 Electrical & Electronics Component

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Capacitors

Summary

Inside a capacitor are two surfaces, separated by insulating material. When the

capacitor is charged, one surface is positively charged, the other is negatively

charged.

A capacitor can quickly store a small amount of electrical energy. It's then said to

be charged.

Inside, are two surfaces, separated by insulating material. When the capacitor is

charged, one surface is positively charged, the other is negative.

When a circuit is closed between its terminals, the capacitor releases charge. It is

then said to be discharged.

A typical capacitor stores the charge on thin sheets of foil, with sheets ofinsulation between them. These are rolled together to form a protective canister.
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A capacitor's 'capacitance' !" is a measure of the amount of charge #" stored

on each plate for a given potential di$erence or voltage %" which appears

between the plates. In general, as the capacitance and voltage rating of the

capacitor increase, the physical si&e of the capacitor increases.

Conductors & insulators

Summary

!onductors are materials that allow electrical current to ow. Insulators are

materials that do not allow electrical current to ow.

(very substance, even air, will conduct an electrical current if enough voltage is

applied to it, but the word 'conductor' normally is used for materials that allow

current ow with little resistance.

)ost metals are good conductors. The most common conductor is copper. It's

used in virtually all the wiring that connects automotive components together.
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The heavier the current a conductor has to carry, the heavier the gauge or

thickness of the wire.

)aterials that don't conduct current easily are insulators. )ost plastics are good

insulators. The plastic covering on a wire is an e*ample of this. The ceramic

portion of a spark plug is also a good insulator.

Wires

Summary

(lectric wires are used to conduct electric current around the motor vehicle.

(lectric wires are used to conduct electric current around the motor vehicle. The

wire is commonly braided multi+stranded copper core wrapped with plastic

insulation. !opper is used as it o$ers low resistance and remains e*ible even

after years of use. ther wire con-gurations are shielded wires and ribbon.

Twisted or shielded wires have the same construction but are harnessed in pairs

and twisted to cancel the e$ect of electromagnetic interference.
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ibbon cable is found inside computers and other electronic components. It is

used for connecting between printed circuits.

Shielding

Summary

To prevent noise interference", some vehicles use shielded wiring harnesses.

The type of shielding used can be one of three forms/ twisted pair, )ylar tape

and drain lines

In certain locations within a vehicle and in environments where strong

electromagnetic interference is present, wiring harnesses are sub0ect to a

situation where unwanted electromagnetic induction occurs. This interference is

referred to as noise. To prevent noise, some vehicles use shielded wiring

harnesses. The type of shielding used can be one of three forms/ twisted pair,

)ylar tape and drain lines.
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Twisted Pair

Twisted pair uses two wires delivering signals to a common component. The

wires are uniformly twisted through the entire length of the harness. The twist

has the e$ect of cancelling any noise that occurs in the wires.

Mylar Tape

)ylar is an electrically conductive material that is wrapped around a wiring

harness inside the outer harness layer. Any noise that attempts to reach the

wires inside the shield will be absorbed by the )ylar where it will be conducted

to ground via a ground connection. If the harness is e*posed, the )ylar will have

to be rewrapped so that noise cannot penetrate into the harness.

Drain Lines

A 1rain line is a non+insulated wire that is wrapped within a wiring harness. The

drain wire is connected to ground at the harness source end and conducts any

noise to ground, negating the noise e$ect. If the drain wire is cut, it will be

inoperative so it is important the wire is not cut.

Length vs. resistance

Summary

As the length of the wire increases, so does the resistance within the wire.

Therefore the greater the length of the wire, the larger the cross+sectional area

needs to be.
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!opper is used to conduct electric current because of its low resistance value.

2owever, it does o$er some resistance, and as the length of the wire increases,

so too does the resistance within the wire. To overcome the e$ect of resistance,

the greater the length of the wire, the larger the cross+sectional area needs to

be. Increasing the cross+sectional area overcomes the resistance and maintains

the current carrying capacity of the circuit. efer to the chart below for

information about wire si&e and current carrying capacity.

Current capacity for dierent !W" wire si#es

!mperes

$e%uiredWire Length

3

)eter

3.4

)eters

5

)eters

6

)eters

7.4

)eters

8

)eters

9.4

)eters

to ' 3: 3: 3: 3: 3: 3: 3:

( to ) 3: 3: 3: 3: 3: 3: 38

* 3: 3: 3: 3: 3: 38 38

+ 3: 3: 3: 3: 38 38 38

+, 3: 3: 3: 3: 38 38 37

+' 3: 3: 3: 3: 37 37 35

+* 3: 3: 38 38 37 37 35


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, 3: 3: 38 38 37 35 3;

,- 3: 3: 38 38 35 35 3;

3: 38 38 37 3; 3; 3;

Wire si#es

Summary

There are two scales used to measure the si&es of wires/ )etric and AW.; 7

65.; 5

There are two di$erent methods of describing a conductor within these

standards. A wire may be described in metric si&e as 4.;, indicating it has a

cross+sectional area of 4.; mm?. It can also be e*pressed as 3;@;.4, indicating 3;

strands of wire each with a cross+sectional area of ;.4 mm?. The same can be

applied to the AW< rating.
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0uses & circuit 1rea2ers

Summary

uses and circuit breakers are used to protect electrical systems from allowing

too much current to ow.

uses and circuit+breakers are designed to break the circuit if current ow is

e*cessive. The most common kinds are fuses, fusible links, and circuit breakers.

They are all rated in amperes. Their ratings are usually marked on them.

uses are typically used in lighting and accessory circuits where current ow is

usually moderate. Typically, a fuse contains a metal strip which is designed to

overheat and melt when sub0ected to a speci-ed e*cessive level of current ow,

breaking the circuit and stopping the e*cessive current ow from potentially

damaging more valuable components.

A fusible link is typically placed near the battery, and, e*cept for the starter

motor, it carries the current needed to power an individual circuit, or a range of

circuits.
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!ircuit breakers are not destroyed by e*cess current. A bimetallic strip heats up

and bends, opening a set of contacts and breaking the circuit. In most types, as

the strip cools, it resumes its original shape. The contacts close, completing the

circuit once more.

$elays

Summary

elays act as switches that are turned on and o$ by a small current. They can

allow large current to be switched on and o$ in a circuit.

elays are switches that are turned on and o$ by a small electrical current.

Inside a relay is an electro+magnet. When a small current energi&es this electro+

magnet, it attracts an armature blade and closes contact points. !urrent that the

relay is designed to switch on or o$ can then ow across the points.
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As long as the small switching current ows to the relay, the much larger current

will ow through its contact points.

Bolid+state relays act like a mechanical relay, but do not have any moving parts.

elays can be used to control the high levels of current in a circuit with a low+

current signal, such as in a starter motor solenoid. elays can also be protective

switches, breaking circuits when faults are detected.

3allast resistor

Summary

The ballast resistor is used to reduce the voltage to the ignition coil during

normal running conditions.

A ballast resistor limits the amount of current owing in an electrical circuit.


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The most common automotive use for a ballast resistor is as to regulate the

voltage to the ignition system by being inserted in series in the primary circuit

between the ignition switch and the positive terminal of the ignition coil. It is

usually located in the open near the ignition coil so that it can dissipate its heat

into the air.

!ranking an engine causes a heavy load on a battery which can cause the

voltage to drop. Ignition systems needed to be designed so they can -re on this

reduced voltage, but when the engine is running normal operating voltage is

restored, which is then too high for the ignition system. The ballast resistor helps

the engine to -re more easily by being bypassed during cranking, and then

lowering the voltage when it is inserted into the circuit after the engine has

started to minimi&e wear on ignition components.

)ore modern solid state ignition systems do not need a ballast resistor, because

they have been designed to cope with a wider range of voltages.

$elays

Summary

elays act as switches that are turned on and o$ by a small current. They can

allow large current to be switched on and o$ in a circuit.


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elays are switches that are turned on and o$ by a small electrical current.

Inside a relay is an electro+magnet. When a small current energi&es this electro+

magnet, it attracts an armature blade and closes contact points. !urrent that the

relay is designed to switch on or o$ can then ow across the points.

As long as the small switching current ows to the relay, the much larger current

will ow through its contact points.

Bolid+state relays act like a mechanical relay, but do not have any moving parts.

elays can be used to control the high levels of current in a circuit with a low+current signal, such as in a starter motor solenoid. elays can also be protective

switches, breaking circuits when faults are detected.

Diodes

Summary


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In a circuit with an alternating current, a diode lets forward current through, but

it blocks the reverse current. This is called rectifying the current.

A diode can be thought of as the electronic version of a one+way valve. Cy

restricting the direction of movement of charge carriers, it allows an electric

current to ow in one direction, but essentially blocks it in the opposite direction.

A semiconductor diode has a single p+n 0unction. If it is connected to a current

source, with the p region connected to a negative pole, and the n+region to a

positive pole, the holes will be attracted towards the negative pole, and the

electrons to the positive pole. This enlarges the depletion layer, which makes the

insulated space larger, stopping current ow across the 0unction.

If the current source is reversed, lots of holes ow across the 0unction towards

the negative pole, and electrons travel in the opposite direction towards the

positive pole. The p+n 0unction oods with charge carriers, the depletion layer

disappears, and with it the insulator e$ect. In this direction, the diode lets

current ow.

Bo, using conventional current ow, a diode lets a low+voltage current ow

through it if current ows from its p+side to its n+side, but stops current owing

through it, from its n+side to its p+side.

A Dener diode is designed to block current ow through it, but if the voltage of

the current source is large enough, it can force current to ow through the diode.

This is called breakdown. As breakdown voltage is reached, the Dener diodeEs

resistance suddenly collapses. It lets a large current ow through it, without

damage.

Cecause Dener diodes respond to certain voltage changes like switches, they are

used in voltage regulators.

Fight+emitting diodes, or F(1Es, emit light when they are connected in a forwarddirection.


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$esistors

Summary

esistors are used to cause a drop in voltage in circuits. They are used to control

current ow.

esistors are electrical components that resist a current running through them.

Gutting a resistor in a circuit causes a drop in voltage across the resistor. Bo

resistors are commonly used to control the voltage that reaches various

components.

It is also important to remember that each electrical component also has a

resistance of its own.

)ost resistors that can carry large currents contain a coil of high+resistance wire

wound around a ceramic former to dissipate heat.


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esistance is measured in ohms, represented by a


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The chart below e!plains resistor colors. "t is good practice to memorise the various colors and their respective values.

Resistors are manufactured to a tolerance of #, $, % and #&. ( resistor with a tolerance of # will have an actual reading that is within # of its

marked value. Resistors with a tolerance of # or $ will have five identifying bands. ( resistor with a tolerance of #& will have an actual value

that is within #& of its marked value. Resistors with a tolerance of % or #& will have ) identifying bands. The tolerance band is spaced away

from the value bands.

"f a resistor has four color bands, the first two bands indicate the first two numbers of the resistor's value. The third band represents the

multiplier value and the fourth band indicates the tolerance. The image below shows a resistor with colors, Orange, *hite, +ellow and Silver. "t

has a value of - k with a #& tolerance. /Orange 0 , *hite 0 -, +ellow 0 #&&&&, Silver 0 #&1

( resistor with five color bands adds a third number value, so in this case the first three bands indicate the first three numbers of the resistor's

value. The fourth band indicates the multiplier value and the fifth band indicates the tolerance. The image below shows a resistor with colors,

Orange, Orange, *hite, 2lack and 2rown. "t has a value of - with a # tolerance. /Orange 0 , Orange 0 , *hite 0 -, 2lack 0 #, 2rown 0 #1


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Variable resistors

Summary

Some resistors found in the motor vehicle are variable. 3ariable resistors can have their value altered by movement of a slide or by

temperature change.

Resistors found on circuit boards are normally fi!ed in value. Some resistors found in the motor vehicle are variable. 3ariable resistors can have

their value altered by movement of a slide or by temperature change. The three types of variable resistors are4 Rheostats, 5otentiometers and

Thermistors. 3ariable resistors can be linear6 meaning that their resistance value varies proportionally with movement or temperature change, or

non0linear where the resistance change is not proportional with movement.

Rheostats

( rheostat is a mechanical variable resistor with two connections. They consist of a resistance wire wrapped in a loose coil connected to the

supply at one end only. ( moveable wiper is connected to the other circuit connection and is made to move over the wire manually. *hen the

wiper is close to the beginning of the coil the total resistance value is very small. (s the wiper is positioned closer to the end, the resistance

value increases. Rheostats are commonly used in dash light dimmer circuits and some fuel gauge sender units. They alter the current flow in a

circuit.
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Potentiometers

5otentiometers are mechanical variable resistors with three connections, two fi!ed and one moveable. They act as voltage dividers and as such

alter the voltage in a circuit.

( resistance wire is wrapped between two fi!ed connections. One fi!ed connection is attached to the electrical supply, the other to ground. The

third moveable connection is moved across the coil by a wiper in a similar fashion to a rheostat. The variable voltage output is taken from this

point. Throttle position sensors are potentiometers.

Thermistors

Thermistors are conductors whose resistance value is affected by temperature. There are two types4 7T8 and 5T8. 7egative Temperature 8o0

efficient thermistors alter their resistance value inversely to temperature. (s the temperature increases their resistance value decreases. 5ositive

Temperature 8o0efficient thermistors alter their resistance value proportionally to temperature. (s temperature rises so does the resistance

value. 7T8 thermistors are the most common and are used in inverted circuits for E89 inputs. They are the sensing elements of devices such

as coolant and air temperature sensors.
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Thermistors

Summary

Thermistors are semi0conductor resistors. Their resistance changes according to their temperature and they are used to control many

electrical items in the automobile.

Thermistors are semiconductor resistors. Their electrical resistance varies according to temperature. This makes them suitable for temperature

measurement, and for electronic control operations.

There are two main types of thermistor : 7T8 /7egative Temperature 8oefficient1 resistors, and 5T8 /5ositive Temperature 8oefficient1

resistors.

7T8 resistors have lower resistance at high temperatures, which means they conduct current more readily when they are hot than when they

are cold. 7T8 resistors are commonly used in temperature sensors in engine management systems.

5T8 resistors have higher resistance at high temperature, which means they conduct current less readily when they are hot than when they are

cold. This makes them useful as current limiting protective devices in circuits, instead of fuses. (s the current increases, the heat generated by

the resistor increases, which reduces the amount of current passed.
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Transistors

Summary

Transistors are used as switches, and to amplify currents. The $ types of transistor are 'npn' and 'pnp'.

Transistors are semiconductor devices used as switches, and to amplify currents. They are a key component in almost any electronic device.

There are two kinds, npn and pnp. The npn transistor has a p0type semiconductor between two n0type semiconductors. ( pnp transistor has an

n0type, between two p0types.

Each of the three regions has a terminal. The center region is always called the base. The outer regions are the collector, and the emitter. "n the

symbol, the emitter is the terminal with the arrow. always pointing to the negative material.

"n a circuit, npn transistors can act as a switch. "f the control switch is open, the depletion layer at one pn0;unction is blocking current from

flowing through the transistor and driving the load.

*ith a closed control switch, a small current flows through the emitter0base pn0;unction. The base has only a limited number of charge carriers,

so e!tra ones flow across the emitter0collector pn0;unction, letting current operate the load. The transistor then operates as a low0resistance

conductor. ( small current through the base lets larger current flow across the emitter0collector ;unction. The transistor is then said to be turnedon.
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7sing a non8powered test light

Summary

Hon+powered test lamps are very useful to determine a live part of a circuit. The

ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to use a non+powered test light.

Part +. Preparation and safety

619ective

se a non+powered test light.

Personal safety

Whenever you perform a task in the workshop you must use personal protective

clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms toyour local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include/

Work clothing + such as coveralls and steel+capped footwear

(ye protection + such as safety glasses and face masks

(ar protection + such as earmu$s and earplugs

2and protection + such as rubber gloves and barrier cream

espiratory equipment + such as face masks and valved respirators

If you are not certain what is appropriate or required, ask your supervisor.


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Safety chec2

)ake sure the hood stay rod is secure.

Always make sure that you wear the appropriate personal protection

equipment before starting the 0ob. It is very easy to hurt yourself evenwhen the most e*haustive protection measures are taken.

Always make sure that your work area@environment is as safe as you can

make it. 1o not use damaged, broken or worn out workshop equipment.

Always follow any manufacturer's personal safety instructions to prevent

damage to the vehicle you are servicing.

)ake sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personal

safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure

of what these are, ask your supervisor.

Points to note

Hon+powered test lamps are very useful to determine a live part of a

circuit. 2owever, make sure that the circuit you are testing does not carry

more voltage than the light in the test lamp can handle, otherwise

damage could result.

Part ,: Step81y8step instruction

3. 5erify the test light is operational

!onnect the end of the light with the clip on it to the battery negative

terminal. Touch the probe end of the test light to the battery positive

terminal and the light should come on.

5. Connect to 2nown good ground

!onnect the clip to any known good ground close to the area to be tested.

A typical known good ground is any unpainted metal surface on the

vehicle that is directly attached to the battery ground return system.

6. Chec2 a circuitFocate the device to be tested and place the probe so that the test light

circuit is in parallel to it. If there is voltage present the light will come on.
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7sing a lead light

Summary

Also known as drop lights or utility lights, the light a lead light produces can

make locating components and faults easier and more accurate. The ob0ective of

this procedure is to show you how to demonstrate the correct method of

operating a lead light.


619ective

1emonstrate the correct method of operating a lead light.

Personal safety


clothing and equipment that is appropriate for the task and which conforms to

your local safety regulations and policies. Among other items, this may include/




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Safety chec2

1o not stand on wet oors or in puddles when using electrical equipment.

Cefore connecting the light to the power supply check the power cord for

splits or cha-ng. If there are any e*posed wires, the cord will need to be

replaced. efer this to your supervisor.

Always disconnect the power supply before plugging or unplugging an

electrical connection.

Cefore replacing blown or faulty bulbs make sure you disconnect the lead

light from its power supply.




Points to note

Fead lights, also known as drop lights or utility lights, are very useful tools.

The light they produce can make locating components and faults easier

and more accurate.

Fead lights are available with either uorescent tubes or incandescentbulbs.

The type that uses uorescent tubes produces white light and little heat.

The tube is protected in a shockproof casing that contains a light shield.

There will usually be attaching hooks located at either end of the case to

allow the light to be suspended from a convenient location.

5;J of the power uorescent tubes consume is converted to white light.

The uorescent light normally receives power from a transformer.

Incandescent lead lights are cheaper than the uorescent type but they

are not as shock resistant or as safe. A wire cage protects the bulb and if it

breaks the e*posed -lament connections can pass electric current to

anything that touches them. About 4J of the power they consume is

converted to yellow@white light. The rest is wasted as heat, so they can

become a ha&ard after long periods of use.

The power for the bulb usually comes from the domestic supply, however

there are some models that operate at 35+ or 57+volts.


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3. Connect the lamp

Glug the lead lamp into a socket near your work area. )ake sure the lamp

cord is placed where nobody can trip over it.

5. Secure the lamp

Becure the lamp near your working area. )ake sure itEs positioned so your

hands donEt block the light while youEre working. The lamp should also be

kept away from your face and head. The lights are designed to be handled

safely even after long periods of work.

6. $eplacing 1ul1s

If the bulb burns out refer to the light manufacturerEs instruction book for

replacement details. The bulbs come in various mounting con-gurations.

7. 7nplug and put awayWhen -nished using the lamp, unplug it and put it away in a safe place.

7sing a D56M to measure continuity

Summary

The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to use a 1%) to measure

continuity. When checking continuity with a 1%), the power supplied to the

circuit during operation )BT be switched .


619ective

se a 1%) to measure continuity.
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Personal safety




Work clothing K such as coveralls and steel+capped footwear

(ye protection K such as safety glasses and face masks

(ar protection K such as earmu$s and earplugs




Safety chec2


Always make sure that you wear the appropriate personal protectionequipment before starting the 0ob. It is very easy to hurt yourself even

when the most e*haustive protection measures are taken.






safety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsureof what these are, ask your supervisor.


28/53

Points to note

1%) stands for 1igital %olt hm )eter.

1%)s come in many forms. Always follow the speci-c manufacturer's

instructions in the use of the meter, or serious damage either to the meterand@or to the electrical circuit could result.

When checking continuity with a 1%), the power supplied to the circuit

during operation )BT be switched .


3. Set up the meter for a continuity chec2

)ake sure there is no power connected to any circuit that you test for

continuity, then prepare the 1igital %olt hm )eter or 1%) for testing

voltage by inserting the black probe lead into the LcommonM input port,

and the red probe lead into the L%olt@hmsM input port.

5. Chec2 the meter functionTurn the rotary dial of the 1%) to the mode that includes the term

L!ontinuityM. The 1igital 1isplay should now give you an Nut of FimitsE

reading indicating that there is not a continuous circuit connection

between the two probes. Touch the probe ends together. The display

should now give a &ero reading, which indicates no resistance. This means

that there is a continuous circuit through the probes. Bome meters also

indicate continuity with an audible tone.

6. Chec2 a fuse

ne typical use of the test is to determine whether a fuse needs to be

replaced. If the fuse has been overloaded and NblownE, then it will no


29/53

longer complete a circuit when a 1%) is used to test it. To check this,

place the black probe on one end of the fuse and the red probe on the

other. If the fuse is functioning correctly then the reading will be &ero,

indicating a complete, or closed, circuit. If the fuse is open, then there will

be no reading and no tone, indicating an incomplete, or open, circuit.

7. Test other components

A continuity test is used to check for a broken circuit caused by a break in

a cable or lead, or caused by a component becoming disconnected. The

same test can also con-rm whether there is continuity between

components, which are not supposed to be connected. When this occurs, it

is known as a Nshort circuitE. This test can also be used to check circuits

that are suspected to have a high resistance

7sing a D56M to measure voltage

Summary

The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to use a 1%) to measure

voltage. Always follow the speci-c manufacturer's instructions in the use of the

meter, or serious damage either to the meter and@or to the electrical circuit could

result.


619ective

se a 1%) to measure voltage.

Personal safety





30/53







Safety chec2



equipment before starting the 0ob. It is very easy to hurt yourself evenwhen the most e*haustive protection measures are taken.








Points to note

1%) stands for 1igital %olt hm )eter.

1%)s come in many forms. Always follow the speci-c manufacturer's

instructions in the use of the meter, or serious damage either to the meter

and@or to the electrical circuit could result.


31/53


3. Set up the meter for a voltage chec2

Grepare the 1igital %olt hm )eter or 1%) for testing voltage by

inserting the black probe lead into the LcommonM input port, and the red

probe lead into the L%olt@hmsM input port.

5. Chec2 the meter function

Turn the rotary dial until you have selected the mode for L%olts 1!M. Thereading on the meter should now be at Dero. Bome meters will

automatically sense the correct voltage range when a voltage is detected.

n other meters you will have to set the voltage range before using the

meter.

6. Chec2 the voltage of a 1attery

Glace the Clack probe onto the Hegative terminal of the battery, which will

be marked with a )inus sign, and place the ed probe onto the Gositive

terminal of the battery, which is marked with a Glus sign.

7. ;nterpret the results

Hote the voltage reading from this 35+volt battery. If the battery is fully

charged the meter will give a reading that is 35.8 volts or more. If it is HT

fully charged the reading will be less than 35.8 volts.
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Stripping wire insulation

Summary

The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to correctly strip an electrical

wire and connect a solderless connector. Always use the correct tool for stripping

the insulation from a wire, it is much safer and more e$ective.


619ective

!orrectly strip an electrical wire and connect a solderless connector.

Personal safety






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Safety chec2

Hever use a sharp blade or knife to remove insulation. Oou can cut yourself

seriously if the blade slips.

Wire stripping pliers have sharp edges and require a tight grip. 1o not trap

your skin between the 0aws= otherwise you risk a severe cut.

When removing the insulation from wire, push away from you rather than

towards you.

)ake sure that you understand and observe all legislative and personalsafety procedures when carrying out the following tasks. If you are unsure


Points to note

An insulating layer of plastic covers electrical wire used in automotive

wiring harnesses.

When electrical wire is 0oined to other wires or connected to a terminal,

the insulation needs to be removed.

Wire stripping tools come in various con-gurations. They all perform the

same task. The type of tool you use or purchase will depend on the

amount of electrical wire repairs you perform.


3. Choose the correct stripping tool

The purpose of a wire stripping tool is to allow you to remove the

insulation from around the copper core of a cable without damaging thecable or yourself. Hever use a knife or other type of sharp instrument to

cut away insulation from a cable, as it is very easy for these to slip and

you can in0ure yourself. sing side cutters or pliers can also be dangerous=

and these are also less e$ective as they often cut away some of the

strands of wire as well. This is known as ringing the wire, which e$ectively

reduces the current carrying capacity of the wire.

5. Select the correct gauge hole

sing the correct tool is much safer and more e$ective. Wire strippers can

remove the insulation from di$erent gauges of cable, so select the hole in

the stripper that is closest to the diameter of the core in the cable to be

stripped.


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6. Cut the insulation

Glace the cable in the hole and close the 0aws -rmly around it to cut the

insulation. If you have selected the right gauge, then this will cut through

the insulation but not through the copper core. nly remove as much

insulation as is necessary to do the 0ob. Too little bare wire may not

achieve a good connection, and too much may e*pose the wire to a

potential short circuit with other circuits or to ground. emoving more than

half an inch or 3.5 centimeters of insulation at a time can also stretch and

damage the core.

7. $emove the insulation

Bome strippers automatically cut and remove the insulation. thers 0ust

make the cut and hold the cable tightly, and you need to pull -rmly on the

wire to remove the insulation and strip out the copper core. To keep the

strands together, give them a light twist.

;nstalling a solderless terminal

Summary

There are di$erent types and si&es of wire terminals, but the procedure for

installing all of them is the same. The ob0ective of this procedure is to show youhow to correctly strip an electrical wire and connect a solderless terminal.


619ective

!orrectly strip an electrical wire and connect a solderless terminal.


35/53

Personal safety










Safety chec2

Wire stripping pliers have sharp edges and require a tight grip. 1o not trap

your skin between the 0aws= otherwise you risk a severe cut.

When removing the insulation from wire, push away from you rather than

towards you.




Points to note

Bolderless terminals require a clean, tight connection. Bo make sure the

wire and the connection are clean before -tting any terminals.


36/53

se connections that match the si&e of the wire.

1o not use side cutters, pliers or a knife to strip the wire. sing these tools

will damage some of the wire strands and may break the wire inside the

insulation.

To keep the wires together after stripping them, give them a slight twist.

1o not twist the wire too much= otherwise you risk a poor wire+to+terminal

connection.

se the correct crimping tool for the connection. sing the wrong type of

tool will cause the connection to have a poor grip on the wire.


3. Select the terminal

There are di$erent types and si&es of wire terminals, but the procedure for

installing all of them is the same. This is a bullet type of crimp terminal.

)ake sure you have the correct si&e of terminal for the wire to be

terminated, and that the terminal has the correct volt@amp rating for the

0ob it is to perform.

5. Strip the wire

emove an appropriate amount of the protective insulation from the wire.

Always use a proper stripping tool that is in good condition.

6. Place the terminal on the wire

Oou will get a better connection if you do not twist the strands together

tightly before placing them through the terminal, as this gives the terminal

more surface area to come in contact with the wires when crimped.

2owever, it can be diPcult to insert the wires into the terminal if they are

all 0ust loose strands, so twist them together 0ust enough to help you insert

them cleanly. Glace the bullet or terminal onto the wire. It is important that

the stripped part of the wire does not e*tend beyond the insulated part of

the terminal.

7. 7se an alternative terminalBome types of crimp terminals do not have an insulation component -*ed

to them. These come in two parts and the insulator is supplied as a

separate component. In these cases, always make sure that the NcoreE of

the wire to be crimped e*tends through the Ncore wingsE in the terminal.

4. Select the crimping anvil

se a proper crimping tool for pin or core crimping. 1 HT use pliers as

they have a tendency to cut through the connection, which can give

trouble during service. Belect the proper anvil for the connector or

terminal selected. These are usually color+coded so it is easy to match theterminal with the right si&e anvil.


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8. Crimp the terminal

!rimp the NcoreE section -rst. se -rm pressure so that a good electrical

contact will be made, but not e*cessive force as this can bend the pin or

terminal. Then crimp the insulation wings or section. This crimp is on the

wire insulation to hold the cable in place, not for electrical contact, so you

do not need to crimp this section quite as hard.


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Personal safety










Safety chec2

The soldering iron tip needs to be very hot in order to melt solder. 1o not

burn yourself with the soldering tip.

1o not inhale the fumes that are released during the soldering process=they can irritate your respiratory system.

If the soldering iron is electrically heated, do not use it while standing in

water or engine coolant.

Hever apply solder to a live electrical circuit.




Points to note


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Bolder used in automotive electrical applications is an alloy typically made

up of 8;J tin and 7;J lead. Bolder needs to change from a solid state into

liquid easily and return to its solid state quickly.

Bolder is available as solid or u* cored. Bolid solder requires an e*ternal

u* to be applied in the soldering process. lu* cored solder has a bead ofu* through the center of the solder. lu* cored solder is also referred to

as rosin cored solder

lu* is needed to prevent the metals being 0oined from o*idi&ing when

they are heated. lu* is normally acidic and needs to be removed after the

soldering process so that the 0oin does not corrode.

Bolder is applied with a hot soldering iron. The soldering iron is heated

electrically or by an e*ternal source such as a butane or o*yacetylene

torch.

The soldering iron tip absorbs heat that is then applied to the materials to

be 0oined. nce they are hot enough, solder is able to melt between the

components.

or a connection to be successful, the soldering iron needs to be QtinnedQ.

The tinning process assists in transferring heat to the wire. The soldering

iron tip is heated, and a small amount of solder is applied to the tip.

(*cess solder is removed with a cloth rag.

The soldering iron tip is applied to the wire so heat is transferred to the

wire. 1o not apply too much heat or the insulation may melt.


3. Safely position soldering iron

When using a soldering iron you must be careful not to burn yourself or

any part of the vehicle you are working on. The tip of the soldering iron

has to be hot enough to melt metal solder, so make sure it is in a safe

position and not touching anything.

5. Prepare the wires to 1e 9oined

While the soldering iron is heating, remove an appropriate amount of the

protective insulation from the wires. Always use a proper stripping tool

that is in good condition. If you intend to seal the 0oin with a heat shrink

sleeve, cut a section of this tubular material long enough to overlap the

cable insulation on both sides of the 0oin and slide it over the end of one of

the wires before 0oining them.

6.


40/53

touching each other, then although there may be a strong physical

connection there may not be a good electrical connection. This is known

as a Ndry 0oint'. It is also very important that the surfaces be very clean

before soldering or there will be a poor connection.

7. !pply solder to splicese the soldering iron to gently heat up the wires and melt some solder.

Glace the soldering iron onto the 0oined wires to ensure that 0ust enough

solder runs smoothly into the wires. Ce careful not to use too much solder

and if you apply too much heat, you will melt the wire insulation. When

you have -nished soldering, clean any e*cess u* from the 0oint with a rag

and a little solvent.

4. Sleeve the 9oin

nce the electrical connection has been made, and it has cooled down

enough for you to be able to handle it, slide the insulator sleeve cover

over the 0oin. There are di$erent types of sleeving. The most popular type

is shrink wrapped onto the 0oin with a heat source. Another type contains a

glue which when heated melts into and seals the 0oint. If there is no heat

shrink sleeving available, then it is possible to seal and protect the splice

with electrical insulating tape.

8. Chec2 the connection length

To solder a wire to a terminal connector, you will get a better connection if

you do not twist the wire strands together tightly before placing them

through the terminal as this gives the terminal more surface area to come

in contact with the wire when soldered. 2owever, it can be diPcult toinsert the wires in the terminal if they are 0ust loose strands, so twist them

0ust enough to help you insert them cleanly. Glace the bullet or terminal

onto the wire to check that the stripped part of the wire does not e*tend

beyond the insulated shoulder of the terminal. Then remove the wire from

the terminal.

9. !pply solder


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##. #$. #. #).

15. Lead-acid batteries#.

#-. Summary

$&. ?ead0acid batteries are the most commonly used rechargeable batteries today. They also represent the oldest design with one of the worst

energy0to0weight ratios, they are cheap and can supply the high surge currents needed in starter motors.

$#.

$$. The wet cell lead acid battery is the main storage device in automotive use. (n automotive battery can supply very high discharge currents while

maintaining a high voltage 0 useful for cold starting. "t gives a high power output for its compact sie, and it is recharge0able.

$. The most common standard #$0volt car batteries consist of si! cells, each of a nominal $ volts. Each cell contains two electrodes, one of lead

/5b1 and the other of lead pero!ide /5bO$1, in an electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid /@$SO)1. (s the battery discharges, both the electrodes turn

into lead sulfate and the acid turns into water. Recharging the battery reverses this process.

$). "n a conventional open wet0cell battery, overcharging will generate hydrogen and o!ygen gas, a highly e!plosive mi!. The sulfuric acid in

batteries can also be very harmful, so batteries should always be handled with care, and only when wearing protective clothing.

$%. $. $-. &.

31. Batteries & cells$.

.

).
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%. Summary


43/53

%. "n a discharged lead0acid cell, the active material of both plates is lead sulfate, and the electrolyte is mostly water, a very weak sulfuric acid

solution.

%-. *hen being charged, the cell is connected to a A8 electrical source with electrical pressure higher than that of the cell, since it must act like an

electron pump forcing electrons from the positive plates to the negative plates.


44/53

Summary

Catteries come in many si&es and power ratings, so always check the rating of

the battery you are servicing. The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how

to inspect and test a battery.


619ective

Inspect and test a battery.

Personal safety










Safety chec2


45/53

)ake sure that the hood is secure with a hood stay rod.


equipment before starting the 0ob. emember that batteries contain acid

and it is very easy to hurt yourself even when the most e*haustive

protection measures are taken.




damage to the vehicle you are working on.




Points to note

Catteries come in many si&es and power ratings, so always check the

rating of the battery you are servicing. The rating provides a testing

benchmark for battery performance.

The hydrometer used to measure the speci-c gravity of the electrolyte

must be handled carefully and safely.

Btore the hydrometer in a safe receptacle before and after use. Bmall

amounts of electrolyte in the hydrometer can leak out and damage the

vehicle paintwork.

1o not remove electrolyte from one cell to another when testing= this will

cause incorrect readings.


46/53


3. "eneral condition chec2s

Bwitch on the ignition. The charge light on the dash should light up, and

go out when you start the engine. This indicates that the alternator is

charging the battery. Turn the engine o$. Bwitch on the headlights of thevehicle, then start the engine and see if the lights brighten signi-cantly. If

they do, then this indicates that the alternator is charging the battery

more than it is being drained by the lights. If you do not have someone

else to start the engine for you, 0udge the brightness by shining the lights

onto a reective surface such as a wall. !heck that the battery casing and

the terminals are in good condition. This can generally be achieved 0ust

with a visual inspection, however, since the battery may be located in a

position where you cannot see all of it, you may have to remove it to

complete the inspection, after performing any other on+car tests.

5. Chec2 and ad9ust =uid level

A sealed or low+maintenance battery has no removable cell covers, so you

cannot ad0ust or test the uid levels inside 2owever, some of these do

have visual indicators that provide information on the status of the charge

and condition of the battery cells. (ach manufacturer provides details of

these visual indicators so refer to these when undertaking an inspection. If

the battery is not a sealed unit, it will have removable caps or bars on top.

emove them, and look inside to check the level of the battery uid, which

is called the electrolyte. If the level is below the tops of the plates and

their separators inside add distilled water or water with a low mineral

content until it 0ust covers them. Ce careful not to over+-ll the cells as they

could LboilM over when charging.

6. Conduct speci>c gravity test

Test the speci-c gravity of each of the cells by using a hydrometer

designed for battery testing. 1raw some of the electrolyte into the tester

and look at the oat inside it. A scale indicates the relative charge state of

the battery by measuring how high the oat sits in relation to the uid

level. A very low overall reading of 334; or below indicates a low state of

charge. A high overall reading of about 36;; indicates a high state of

charge. The reading from each cell should be the same. If one or two cellsare very di$erent from the rest that indicates there is something wrong

with the battery.

7. Conduct voltage test with D56M

Belect the %olts 1! position on your 1%) and attach the probes to the

battery terminals red to positive and black to negative". With all vehicle

accessories switched o$ and the battery at 9; degrees ahrenheit or 53

degrees !elsius, the voltage reading should be 35.8 volts if the battery is

fully charged. This will be slightly lower at cooler temperatures.

4. Conduct load test)easure the continuous load capability of the battery with a load tester.


47/53

efer to the manual of the particular tester for its operating instructions. A

load tester induces a high rate of discharge in the battery, like the load

created by a cranking starter motor. A battery is rated in ampere hours,

which means that it can supply a certain number of amperes for a

speci-ed length of time under continuous load. Another measurement

used is International Btandard !old !ranking Amps. !heck the

speci-cations for the battery you are testing. If it can meet these

speci-cations under a load test then it is in good condition. There are

di$erent makes and types of load testers. Always use the equipment

manufacturers recommended testing procedure.

Cleaning & replacing a 1attery

Summary

The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to clean and replace an

automotive battery. The -rst step is to disconnect the battery, always removing

the clamp from the negative terminal -rst.


619ective

!lean and replace an automotive battery.

Personal safety







48/53





Safety chec2

)ake sure that the hood is secure with a hood stay rod before going under

it.


equipment before starting the 0ob. emember, batteries contain acid and

it is very easy to hurt yourself even when the most e*haustive protection

measures are taken.








Points to note

Always remove the negative terminal -rst when disconnecting the battery

and -t the negative terminal last when reconnecting the battery.

Automotive batteries can look lighter than they really are.


49/53

If replacing a smaller battery with a larger one, replace the restraining

device and tray used to secure the new battery.

Ce sure that you do not connect the battery up with reverse polarity

because this could send an unwanted voltage spike into the electronic

circuit and possibly damage the (lectronic !ontrol nit (!".

1isconnecting the battery will usually clear all the codes that are used to

maintain the memory for the vehicle's on+board computer. This may erase

all the radio presets and security codes.

In some cases, the vehicle will even go into a type of QsleepQ mode. This

can prevent the vehicle from starting after the battery has been

reconnected.

Bome manufacturers recommend connecting a >+volt dry cell battery to

the cigarette lighter with an au*iliary plug before the battery isdisconnected. This should supply enough power to maintain the memory

while the battery is changed over.


3. Disconnect 1attery

Always remove the cable clamp from the negative terminal -rst. The

negative terminal is marked with a minus sign. Then remove the positive

terminal, the one with the plus sign. Oou will later replace them in reverseorder, positive cable -rst and then the negative cable. While they are

unconnected, bend the cables back, or if necessary tie them out of the

way, so that they cannot fall back and touch the terminals.

5. $emove 1attery restraints

emove the battery restraints or other hardware holding the battery down.

1epending on the type of vehicle, you will need to unbolt or unscrew or

unclip the restraint and move it away from the battery. Reeping it upright,

remove the battery from its tray and place it on a clean level surface. Oou

are now ready to inspect it.

6. 5isual inspection

!arefully wipe the battery with a clean cloth. It is best to wear rubber

gloves while doing this in case any corrosive electrolyte has leaked from

the battery. Then safely dispose of the cloth. If you see ma0or cracks in the

battery case or obvious terminal damage, the battery should be replaced

regardless of its electrical performance. If the battery is not serviceable,

donEt 0ust dump it into the trash where it will be a ha&ard to the

environment. Catteries are recyclable, and can be rebuilt and returned into

service.


50/53

7. Clean terminals

If there are powdery deposits on the terminals, clean them o$. It may be

enough to brush the deposits o$ the terminal posts and cable clamps with

a non+metallic brush and a mi*ture of baking soda and water. Bprinkle the

baking soda onto the terminal, dip the brush in clean water, and scrub the

deposits away. If this is not e$ective, use a battery terminal cleaner and

brush to provide a good, solid mechanical and electrical connection.

4. Clean clamps

(*amine the battery cables to see whether they are badly frayed or

corroded. If the damage looks e*tensive, the cables and clamps should be

replaced. !lean the insides of the cable clamps with the clamp cleaner

that is usually supplied with a terminal brush. If you donEt have the correct

brushes, use a soapless steel wool pad instead. 1ry the terminals and

clamps with a clean, disposable, lint+free rag. To prevent corrosive deposits

from forming, coat the terminals with some anti+corrosion terminal grease.

8. Clean the 1attery tray

!lean the battery tray with a mi*ture of baking soda and water, or some

other approved cleaning solutions using a small non+metallic brush. Wipe

the tray clean and dry, then replace the cleaned and serviceable battery.

eplace the restraints and make sure they are holding the battery securely

in position. If a new battery is to be installed be sure to compare the

outside dimensions as well as the type of terminals and their locations

prior to installation. These )BT meet the original manufacturerEs

speci-cations.

9. $econnect the 1attery terminals

econnect the battery terminals, Gositive -rst, and then Hegative. Test

that you have a good electrical connection by starting the vehicle.

Charging a 1attery


51/53

Summary

The ob0ective of this procedure is to show you how to correctly charge a battery

using battery charging equipment. Cefore charging a battery always carry out a

visual inspection of the battery to ensure there are no cracks or holes in the

casing.


619ective

!orrectly charge a battery using battery charging equipment.

Personal safety










Safety chec2


52/53

)ake all connections between the battery charger and the battery to be

charged before connecting to the power supply or turning LHM any

switches.

Hever try to charge a 'fro&en' battery.

)ake sure that the voltage used to charge the system never e*ceeds the

system design while charging. or instance if you connect two 35 volt

batteries in 'series' for charging you should use the 57 volt setting on the

charger, however if you connect the same two batteries in 'parallel' you

should only use the 35 volt setting on the charger.

Hever allow a spark or ame to get near the battery.

Always use the markings on the battery to determine the positive and

negative terminals. Hever simply use the colour of the cables to determine

the positive or negative terminals.




Points to note

Blow charging a battery is less stressful on a battery than fast charging is.

Always remove the negative battery terminal while changing a battery to

reduce risk to the vehicle, especially with todayEs electronically intensivecars. se a 'memory minder' to retain electronic settings.

After charging the battery and reinstalling it, always clean the battery

terminals and posts.


3. ;nspect the 1attery

!arry out a visual inspection of the battery to ensure there are no cracks

or holes in the casing.

5. Connect the charger

!heck the charger is unplugged from the wall and turned o$. !onnect the

red lead from the charger to the positive battery terminal. !onnect the

black lead from the charger to the negative battery terminal. Turn the

charger on. !heck the charger amperage output to ensure the battery is

charging correctly. A slow charger usually charges at a rate of less than 4

amperes. A fast charger charges at a much higher ampere rate depending

on the original battery state of charge and should only be carried out

under constant supervision.


53/53

6. Disconnect the charger

nce the battery is charged turn the charger o$. 1isconnect the black lead

from the negative battery terminal, and the red lead from the positive

battery terminal.

7. Test the 1atteryAllow the battery to stand for at least 4 minutes before testing the battery.

sing a load tester or hydrometer, test the charged state of the battery.

electrical & electronics component

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