ee141 © digital integrated circuits 2nd introduction 1 the first computer
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EE1411
© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Introduction
The First ComputerThe First Computer
The BabbageDifference Engine(1832)
25,000 partscost: £17,470
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© Digital Integrated Circuits2nd Introduction
ENIAC - The first electronic computer (1946)ENIAC - The first electronic computer (1946)
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The Transistor RevolutionThe Transistor Revolution
First transistorBell Labs, 1948
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The First Integrated Circuits The First Integrated Circuits
Bipolar logic1960’s
ECL 3-input GateMotorola 1966
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Intel 4004 Micro-ProcessorIntel 4004 Micro-Processor
19711000 transistors1 MHz operation
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Intel Pentium (IV) microprocessorIntel Pentium (IV) microprocessor
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Moore’s LawMoore’s Law
In 1965, Gordon Moore noted that the number of transistors on a chip doubled every 18 to 24 months. He made a prediction that semiconductor technology will double its effectiveness every 18 months
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Moore’s LawMoore’s Law
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F T
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MB
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MP
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EN
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PE
R I
NT
EG
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D F
UN
CT
ION
Electronics, April 19, 1965.
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Evolution in ComplexityEvolution in Complexity
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Transistor CountsTransistor Counts
1,000,000
100,000
10,000
1,000
10
100
11975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
8086
80286i386
i486Pentium®
Pentium® Pro
K1 Billion 1 Billion
TransistorsTransistors
Source: IntelSource: Intel
ProjectedProjected
Pentium® IIPentium® III
Courtesy, Intel
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Moore’s law in MicroprocessorsMoore’s law in Microprocessors
40048008
80808085 8086
286386
486Pentium® proc
P6
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year
Tra
nsi
sto
rs (
MT
)
2X growth in 1.96 years!
Transistors on Lead Microprocessors double every 2 yearsTransistors on Lead Microprocessors double every 2 years
Courtesy, Intel
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Die Size GrowthDie Size Growth
40048008
80808085
8086286
386486 Pentium ® proc
P6
1
10
100
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year
Die
siz
e (m
m)
~7% growth per year~2X growth in 10 years
Die size grows by 14% to satisfy Moore’s LawDie size grows by 14% to satisfy Moore’s Law
Courtesy, Intel
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FrequencyFrequency
P6Pentium ® proc
486386
28680868085
8080
80084004
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year
Fre
qu
ency
(M
hz)
Lead Microprocessors frequency doubles every 2 yearsLead Microprocessors frequency doubles every 2 years
Doubles every2 years
Courtesy, Intel
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Power DissipationPower Dissipation
P6Pentium ® proc
486
3862868086
80858080
80084004
0.1
1
10
100
1971 1974 1978 1985 1992 2000Year
Po
wer
(W
atts
)
Lead Microprocessors power continues to increaseLead Microprocessors power continues to increase
Courtesy, Intel
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Power will be a major problemPower will be a major problem
5KW 18KW
1.5KW 500W
40048008
80808085
8086286
386486
Pentium® proc
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10000
100000
1971 1974 1978 1985 1992 2000 2004 2008Year
Po
wer
(W
atts
)
Power delivery and dissipation will be prohibitivePower delivery and dissipation will be prohibitive
Courtesy, Intel
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Power densityPower density
400480088080
8085
8086
286386
486Pentium® proc
P6
1
10
100
1000
10000
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010Year
Po
wer
Den
sity
(W
/cm
2)
Hot Plate
NuclearReactor
RocketNozzle
Power density too high to keep junctions at low tempPower density too high to keep junctions at low temp
Courtesy, Intel
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Not Only MicroprocessorsNot Only Microprocessors
Digital Cellular Market(Phones Shipped)
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
Units 48M 86M 162M 260M 435M Analog Baseband
Digital Baseband
(DSP + MCU)
PowerManagement
Small Signal RF
PowerRF
(data from Texas Instruments)(data from Texas Instruments)
CellPhone
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Challenges in Digital DesignChallenges in Digital Design
“Microscopic Problems”• Ultra-high speed design• Interconnect• Noise, Crosstalk• Reliability, Manufacturability• Power Dissipation• Clock distribution.
Everything Looks a Little Different
“Macroscopic Issues”• Time-to-Market• Millions of Gates• High-Level Abstractions• Reuse & IP: Portability• Predictability• etc.
…and There’s a Lot of Them!
DSM 1/DSM
?
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Productivity TrendsProductivity Trends
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
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1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
100,000,000
Logic Tr./ChipTr./Staff Month.
xxx
xxx
x
21%/Yr. compoundProductivity growth rate
x
58%/Yr. compoundedComplexity growth rate
10,000
1,000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
Lo
gic
Tra
nsi
sto
r p
er C
hip
(M)
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000
Pro
du
ctiv
ity
(K)
Tra
ns.
/Sta
ff -
Mo
.
Source: Sematech
Complexity outpaces design productivity
Co
mp
lexi
ty
Courtesy, ITRS Roadmap
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Why Scaling?Why Scaling? Technology shrinks by 0.7/generation With every generation can integrate 2x more
functions per chip; chip cost does not increase significantly
Cost of a function decreases by 2x But …
How to design chips with more and more functions? Design engineering population does not double every
two years… Hence, a need for more efficient design methods
Exploit different levels of abstraction
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Design Abstraction LevelsDesign Abstraction Levels
n+n+S
GD
+
DEVICE
CIRCUIT
GATE
MODULE
SYSTEM
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Cost per TransistorCost per Transistor
0.00000010.0000001
0.0000010.000001
0.000010.00001
0.00010.0001
0.0010.001
0.010.01
0.10.111
19821982 19851985 19881988 19911991 19941994 19971997 20002000 20032003 20062006 20092009 20122012
cost: cost: ¢-per-¢-per-transistortransistor
Fabrication capital cost per transistor (Moore’s law)
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Some Examples (1994)Some Examples (1994)Chip Metal
layersLine width
Wafer cost
Def./ cm2
Area mm2
Dies/wafer
Yield Die cost
386DX 2 0.90 $900 1.0 43 360 71% $4
486 DX2 3 0.80 $1200 1.0 81 181 54% $12
Power PC 601
4 0.80 $1700 1.3 121 115 28% $53
HP PA 7100 3 0.80 $1300 1.0 196 66 27% $73
DEC Alpha 3 0.70 $1500 1.2 234 53 19% $149
Super Sparc 3 0.70 $1700 1.6 256 48 13% $272
Pentium 3 0.80 $1500 1.5 296 40 9% $417
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SummarySummary Digital integrated circuits have come a long
way and still have quite some potential left for the coming decades
Some interesting challenges ahead Getting a clear perspective on the challenges and
potential solutions is the purpose of this book Understanding the design metrics that govern
digital design is crucial Cost, reliability, speed, power and energy
dissipation