education and development: the african context econ 5310 [text, chapter 10] may 27, 2010 a. r. m....
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Education and Education and Development: the Development: the African ContextAfrican Context
ECON 5310[Text, Chapter 10]
May 27, 2010A. R. M. Ritter
What is Education?What is Education?
What is Education?What is Education? ““All forms of learning and improving human All forms of learning and improving human
knowledge and capabilities”knowledge and capabilities” Education =/= “Schooling”Education =/= “Schooling” Types of education:Types of education:
Informal:Informal: At home, from our parents and family……. At home, from our parents and family……. On our own, learning by doingOn our own, learning by doing At playAt play On the job; at work On the job; at work In conversationIn conversation In our communities In our communities
FormalFormal At “day-care”, school, college, university, classes…At “day-care”, school, college, university, classes… Employee training Employee training Formal apprenticeships Formal apprenticeships
The Functions of The Functions of EducationEducation
The Functions of The Functions of EducationEducation General socialization; Ethical Community & citizenship
responsibility Fundamental personal empowerment Improvement in personal and family
quality of life “Joy of learning”…an “end” in itself Understanding the world and
ourselves “Human capital”: of particular
relevance here
Human CapitalHuman Capital
The economist’s term for the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.
Produced through investment in people
Examples:
education,
family environment health,
nutrition, sanitation,
on-the-job training; water availability,
Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment
In general: In general:
education promotes education promotes development and development and development promotes development promotes educationeducation
How and why?How and why?
Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment
How does education promote How does education promote development?development?
Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopmentHow does education promote
development? Basic literacy and numeracy are
indispensible for coping and survival in the modern world
Generates skills of all sorts needed in the economy
Improved parental, esp. mothers’ education builds “human capital” of children; e.g. via nutrition, health, via nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or “externalities”child-care spill-overs or “externalities”
Improves quality of entrepreneurship on farms and in other economic activities
But education on its own will not “produce” development;
Public policy mess-ups, institutional stupidities and political dysfunction all can overwhelm good education and produce stagnation and contraction
Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment
How does development promote How does development promote education?education?
Education and Education and DevelopmentDevelopment
How does development promote How does development promote education?education?
Development (sustainable growth Development (sustainable growth plus equity) generates the resources plus equity) generates the resources that can improve and support that can improve and support educationeducation
Growth leads to increased tax revenues Growth leads to increased tax revenues for public education expenditures;for public education expenditures;
Higher family incomes permit increased Higher family incomes permit increased family financing of educationfamily financing of education
Education and African Education and African DevelopmentDevelopment
History:1. The Pre-Colonial Era: Mainly Informal Education
2. The “Colonial Era” Exclusion and NeglectBut a launching of formal education systems in most countries
Post-Independence Era Hich Priority and Rapid Expansion Problems:
High Costs of expansion for young populations Quality suffered with rapid expansion Gender, regional urban/rural imbalances Balance among levels of education Financial and equity issues
Trends in African Trends in African Education:Education:
Gross Enrollment RatiosGross Enrollment Ratios1970 2000 2007
Primary 51.0 81.7 94.0Secondary
6.3 25.7 30.0
Tertiary 0.8 3.6 5.0
Source: World Bank, World Development Indicators, 2009
Sub-Saharan Africa: Percent of Children Completing Primary
School Millennium Development Targets and
Actual Rates
School Attainment by Gender
Ratio of Female to Male, Per Cent
Region 1960
2000
South AsiaMiddle East and North Africa
Sub Saharan AfricaLatin America & Carib.East Asia
25%51%
59%83%50%
52%60%
71%96%84%
Gender Disparity in African Education and the MDG Goal
Gender disparity is measured by the ratio of girls to boys enrolled in primary and secondary schools. Most regions are on track to achieve this target by 2015.
Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social
Private Costs and Benefits:Private Costs and Benefits:
Social Costs and Benefits” Social Costs and Benefits”
Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social
Private Benefits:Private Benefits:• Personal empowermentPersonal empowerment• Lifetime earningsLifetime earnings• Greater potential for participationGreater potential for participation• Consumption benefits?Consumption benefits?
Private Costs Private Costs • Earnings foregone (opportunity cost) Earnings foregone (opportunity cost) • Direct costs (fees, supplies, board & lodging)Direct costs (fees, supplies, board & lodging)
Analyzing Education: Costs and Benefits, Private and Social
Social BenefitsSocial Benefits Improved productivity benefits allImproved productivity benefits all Improved nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or Improved nutrition, health, child-care spill-overs or
“externalities” , especially from women’s education“externalities” , especially from women’s education Improved potential for tech change and productive Improved potential for tech change and productive
entrepreneurship entrepreneurship • More effective political participation?More effective political participation?
• Social CostsSocial Costs Resources dedicated to educationResources dedicated to education Opportunity costs to societyOpportunity costs to society
Psacharopoulos and Patrinos, 2005
Educational Issues for Africa
1.1. Achieving 100% primary school enrollmentsAchieving 100% primary school enrollments
2.2. Equal access to education for girls and womenEqual access to education for girls and women
3.3. Expanding secondary educationExpanding secondary education
4.4. Expanding “tertiary” education (colleges, Expanding “tertiary” education (colleges, universities, training institutes)universities, training institutes)
5.5. Relevance of curricula; especially in rural Relevance of curricula; especially in rural areasareas
6.6. Financial and equity issuesFinancial and equity issues
7.7. ““Balance among primary, secondary and Balance among primary, secondary and tertiary educationtertiary education
Educational Issues for Africa
1. Achieving 100% primary school enrollments
2. Expanding secondary education
Major achievements so far in these areas:
note gross enrollment ratios
Unevenness of advances among countries
1970 2000 2007
Primary 51.0 81.7 94.0
Secondary 6.3 25.7 30.0
Tertiary 0.8 3.6 5.0
Participation in Education for Some African Countries, 2007
Country Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Adult LiteracyM F
South Africa
103 96 15 89 87
Ghana 96 49 6 72 58
Kenya 106 50 Na Na
Zimbabwe
101 40 Na 95 88
Botswana
107 76 5 83 83
Nigeria 97 32 10 80 64
Malawi 126 28 0 79 65
Ethiopia 91 30 3 Na
D. R. Congo
85 33 4 Na
All Africa 94 32 5 71 54
Source: UNDP. Human Development Report, 2007/2008
Educational Issues for Africa, continued
2. 2. Equal access to education for girls and women
Why the imbalances? Cultural traditions in some countries; “At home” tradition for women; Early withdrawal
for work at home Income potentials for males outside the home? Lack of resources Policy approach of governments Early pregnancies; early marriage
Most countries are catching up regarding women’s education,
quickly enough? A Millennial Development Goal
Educational Issues for Africa, continued
4. Expanding Tertiary 4. Expanding Tertiary EducationEducation
High costHigh cost Quality issueQuality issue Equity issueEquity issue Brain drain issueBrain drain issue Curriculum relevance?Curriculum relevance?
Educational Issues for Africa, continued
5. Relevance of curricula; especially in rural areas
Are “school-leavers” also “village-leavers”? (Rural brain drain?)
“Education for Development”
6. Financial and equity issues6. Financial and equity issues
7. “Balance” among primary, secondary 7. “Balance” among primary, secondary and tertiary educationand tertiary education
Educational Issues for Africa, continued
Public Expenditure per Student per Year as a Percent of GDP pc
Country Primary
Secondary Tertiary
Botswana 16.1 41.2 440.6
Burundi 20.0 77.5 363.1
Ghana 18.4 29.1 213.4
Mauritius 10.3 17.4 40.4
Niger 28.7 46.1 371.4
Rwanda 10.2 365.1 372.8
South Africa 15.6 16.7 44.3
Canada na na Na
USA 22.2 24.6 26Source:: World Bank, World Development report, 2009, Table 2.11
6 and 7. The Issue of Balance and Fairness among Levels of Education
Educational Issues for Educational Issues for AfricaAfrica
8. Improving Quality while the systems expand rapidlyA Major task. How can this be done??
8. Improving Quality while the systems expand rapidly
How can this be done??
Increase resource allocations (from Taxation via economic growth)
Easily said, hard to do; Relevamce of economic growth to undergird tax
increases and education Better teacher training;
better salaries to incentivate good work Improve ability of children to learn
(nutrition at school sometimes) Concentrate attention on primary schools ? Reconsider financing for higher education ?