ecosystem energy and nutrient flow. ecosystems 1. biotic community and the abiotic environment. 2....
TRANSCRIPT
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Ecosystem Energy and Nutrient Flow
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Ecosystems
• 1. Biotic community and the abiotic environment.
• 2. Functional system which transfers and circulates energy and matter.
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Function, not Species -- Stuff, not Things
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Ecosystem:
“a spatially explicit unit of the Earth that includes all of the organisms, along with all the components of the abiotic environment within its boundaries.”
Gene Likens
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ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
ENERGY
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Ecosystems Are Energy Transformers
• J.M. Teal (1962)
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Trophic Structure Reminder
•Express trophic structure as energy transfer
•Energy pyramids can never be inverted
•Is there room for anyone else
at the top of this food chain?
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21.1 Production• Energy flow in an ecosystem: primarily
plants – GPP: Gross Primary Production
• Energy fixed in photosynthesis
– NPP: Net Primary Production• Biomass accrued by plants: wt. living plant material• Energy loss: respiration, tissue turnover, herbivory
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Characteristics of Top Carnivores
not dense (few per unit area) because of ecological efficiency
large territory (widely ranging)
large body
long life
fast moving
charismatic
hunt-able
Extirpation
Indirect Effects – Trophic Cascade
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE= %
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE= %
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE= %
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE= %
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE= %
R+E=1000
R=50
I=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE= %
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Transfer Efficiencies
Plants
A (GPP)=2000
Herbivores A=50
Carnivores A=8
P=10
Solar Energy=
1,000,000
AE=50%
R+E=1000
R=50
I1=100
I=10
R=2
NPP=1000
P=1
E=40
E=7
AE=2%
AE=80%
Kcal m-2 y-1
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Take home: Ecosystems are Energy Transformers
• Approximate 10% energy transfer between each trophic level
• More efficient energy use as you increase trophic levels
• Is there room for anyone else at the top of the pyramid?
• Which level is most important to pyramid stability?
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Ray Lindeman 1942
First
Ecosystem model
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Eugene Odum 1953.
Silver Springs, Florida.
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Carbon cycle
http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/13.htm, 1980-1989
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Steady State (Equilibrium)
Trillions of moles (per year)
Turnover Time = 38,000,000/8400 = 4524 years
Turnover rate is about 0.022% per year
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ECOLOGICAL STOICHIOMETRY
Elemental Ratios
REDFIELD RATIO C:N:P 106:16:1
C:N – decaying wood, DOC.N:P -- cyanobacteria advantage.
C:P – phosphate limitation for Daphnia.
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ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY
ENERGY FLOW
CHEMICAL CYCLES
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Trophic Structure Principles
• Eltonian pyramids
• Number of individuals per species
• Is this pyramid stable?
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Trophic Structure Principles
• What if we transformed each species into biomass instead of absolute numbers?
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Trophic Structure Reminder
• Do biomass or counts include generation time/reproduction, how much energy is available for growth, or decomposers?
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Measuring the Energy Content of Plants
• Calorimetry– Heat generation
• Harvesting– Linear growth– Clip plots: whymeasure dry weight?
• CO2 uptake method – Li-Cor photosynthesis system
• O2 output– Lt. and dk. bottles
• Chlorophyll concentration
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ECOSYSTEM
SCALES
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Ecosystem: (trophic-dynamic)
the system composed of physical-chemical-biological processes active within a space-time unit of any magnitude… Ray Lindeman 1941
Cedar Ck. Bog, MN
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Lake Wingra – ECOSYSTEM BOUNDARIES
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ECOSYSTEM
Compartments include leaves, wood, soil, rhizosphere.
Small size scale.
Compartments contain living & non-living
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TROPHIC STRUCTURE
Defined by energy flow.
primary producer
primary consumer (herbivore)
secondary consumer (carnivore)
…,
top carnivore.
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BOUNDARIES
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Average Annual
Net Primary Productivity,
by Habitat
Ricklefs Fig. 6.8
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Fig. 6.2 Ricklefs -- E.P Odum’s universal model of ecological energy flow
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TROPHIC STRUCTURE
Defined by energy flow.
primary producer
primary consumer (herbivore)
secondary consumer (carnivore)
…,
top carnivore.
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Measuring Primary Productivity
Oxygen method
c14 method – a radioactive tracer technique
annual production
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CALORIMETRY
Measuring Energy Flow
calorie = 1 degree C increase at 15 degrees C, for 1 ml water
1000 calories = 1 Calorie
carbohydrate and protein about 5 Cal per gram
fat about 9 Cal per gram
teaspoon sugar = 4 grams or 20 Calories (kilocalories)
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TROPHIC CONCEPTS
Productivity
Biomass
Turnover Time = Pool/Input = Biomass/Productivity
Turnover Rate = Inverse of Turnover Time
At equilibrium, Input = Output
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ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY
Ratio of the productivity for two adjacent trophic levels.
EXAMPLE
primary productivity = 2 grams per m2 per day
herbivore productivity = 0.2 grams per m2 per day,
then the ecological efficiency is: ???
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Rule of Thumb
The ecological efficiency is ~ 10% per trophic level.
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TROPHIC CASCADES (CARPENTER)
DIRECT & INDIRECT EFFECTS
OF
TOP PREDATORS
ON
BIOMASS
PRODUCTIVITY
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Bottom-Up; Top-Down effects
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Microbial Loop
Extra links
reduce amount of energy reaching predators by about 90%.
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Nitrogen Excretion:
Ammonium, Urea, Uric Acid
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Atmospheric Carbon & Global Warming
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MASS BALANCE: Application of conservation of matter;
Input & Output:
Pool (Reservoir)
Equilibrium
Steady State
Source & Sink
Flux
Net
Turnover Rate & Time
Burial
Ricklefs Fig. 7.5 – Global Carbon Cycle
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ECOSYSTEM MANIPULATIONS & THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Bormann and Likens (1970) -- HUBBARD BROOK, NH
ecological consequences of clear-cutting a 38‑acre watershed in a New Hampshire Experimental Forest
Organic N oxidized to nitrate, producing nitric acid
pH of stream decreased
nitrogen fixation decreased
nutrients rapidly flushed out of the watershed
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[P04]: surrogate for primary productivity
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION
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Gross Primary Productivity
Respiration
Net Primary Productivity
NPP = GPP - R