ecology and management of agriculture morels harvested ... and management... · morels harvested...

Ecology and Management of

Morels Harvested From the Forests

of Western North America

David Pilz, Rebecca McLain, Susan Alexander, Luis Villarreal-Ruiz,

Shannon Berch, Tricia L. Wurtz, Catherine G. Parks, Erika McFarlane,

Blaze Baker, Randy Molina, and Jane E. Smith

United States

Department of

Agriculture

Forest Service

Research Station

General Technical

Report

Authors

David Pilz

Rebecca McLain

Susan Alexander

Luis Villarreal-Ruiz

Shannon Berch

Tricia L. Wurtz

Catherine G. Parks is

Erika McFarlane

Blaze Baker

Randy Molina

Jane E. Smith

Cover Art

Abstract

Pilz, David; McLain, Rebecca; Alexander, Susan; Villarreal-Ruiz, Luis;

Berch, Shannon; Wurtz, Tricia L.; Parks, Catherine G.; McFarlane, Erika;

Baker, Blaze; Molina, Randy; Smith, Jane E. 2007.

Morchella

Summary

Morchella.

Contents 1 Introduction

5 About Morels

Morel Harvesters

75 Morel Commerce

88 Regional Summaries

108 Management and Research

121 Closing Remarks

124 Glossary

128 Acknowledgments

129 Metric Equivalents

129 Literature Cited

158

Ecology and Management of Morels Harvested From the Forests of Western North America

Introduction

Tricholoma magnivelare

Cantharellus Morchella

Morels are more

valuable than

chanterelles and

more abundant than

American matsutake;

hence in combination,

the total value of morel

Northwest is larger

than either of the

others.

GENERAL TECHNICAL REPORT PNW-GTR-710

2


3

1

“Morchella M

1


4

Table 1—Names used in this publication for distinctive western morels occurring in western

North America north of Mexico

Our Morelusagea Disturbanceb cladec d Comments

M. elata

M. conica

M. angusticepse M. conica

M. angusticepse M. conica

M. angusticepsf M. atrotomentosa g

M. esculenta

M. crassipes

M. crassipes

M. esculenta

Morchella

rufobrunnea

M. deliciosa

M. deliciosa

Morchella semilibera

Mitrophora semilibera

a

b

c

M. rufobrunnea, M. guatemalensis, M. rigidoides

d

Morchella rufobrunnea Morchella semilibera

e

f

g “M. atrotomentosa


5

About Morels

Whence Morels

Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary

2

2


6

Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels

a Country Referenceb

M. conica

M. semilibera

Morchella

M. angusticeps,

M. esculenta, M. conica

Morchella

Morchella

M. crassipes

Morchella

Morchella

M. esculenta, M. conica

Morchella

M. angusticeps

Morchella

M. elata

Morchella

Morchella c

M. semiliber

M. semilibera

M. elata

Morchella

M. conica

Morchella

M. semilibera

M. elata, M. conica

M. semilibera

M. deliciosa

Morchella

M. costata

M. angusticeps, M. esculenta,

M. conica

Morchella

Morchella

Morchella


Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels (continued)


Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

M. conica, M. esculenta

Morchella

M. elata

M. esculenta

M. semilibera

Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

M. conica, M. esculenta

Morchella

Morchella

M. esculenta

M. elata, intermedia, d

conica

Morchella

M. esculenta

M. esculenta

Morchella

Morchella

M. esculenta

M. semilibera

M. elata

Morchella

M. esculenta

Morchella

M. esculenta

M. semilibera

M. esculenta

M. elata

M. conica


8

3

4

Distribution

3

4

Table 2—Some non-English common names for morels (continued)


Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

M. conica, M. elata

M. esculenta

Morchella

a

b

c

d


9

5

Eucalyptus globus Pinus radiata

6

Nothofagus

Castanea sativa Morchella conica

7

Austro-

cedrus chilensis 8

5

6

7

Castanea sativa Tuber aestivum

Morchella conica

8


Habitats

Disturbance—

Range of habitats—Arora joked that

morels “usually grow

outdoors.”


9

Trees—

9


M. elata

Timing

Geopyxis carbonaria


Taxonomy

Kindred organisms—

Morchella

Morchella

Morels fruit when

winter snow has

melted, the soil is

beginning to warm,

and the air is still

humid.


Morchella Verpa Gyromitra

Morchella

Verpa

Gyromitra

Morel species—Calling morel taxonomy

“problematic” is an

understatement.


10

10


Morchella Verpa

Morchella


M. rufobrunnea .

M crassipes

Species Descriptions

Most morels in

North America lack

meet the standards

of the International

Code of Botanical

Nomenclature.


The Known Morels in Mexico, a Description of a New Blush-

ing Species, and New Data on

Head:

Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

Spore size:

11 12

11

12


M. elata-M. angus-

ticeps-M. conica


Pink morel

Head:

Ribs:

Pits

Stalk:

Spore size:

Green morel

Head:

Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

Spore size:

Morchella elata M conica M angusticeps


13

Gray morels

Head:

Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

13


22

Spore size:

Morchella atrotomentosa

M esculenta atrotomentosa as a “nov var ad sic int

M esculenta

Mountain blond morel

Head:

Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

Spore size:


23

M esculenta

M esculenta

M esculenta

M esculenta


24

Yellow morel

Head:

Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

Spore size:

Morchella

rufobrunnea


25

Red-brown blushing morel—Morchella rufobrunnea

Head: Ribs:

Pits:

Stalk:

Spore size:

Clethra

M

deliciosa M. rufobrunnea M. rufo-

brunnea

M esculenta M rufobrunnea

M guatemalensis M herediana


26

Half-free morel Morchella semilibera

Head:

Ribs:

Pits: Stalk:

Spore size:

M semilibera

M semilibera

Verpa bohemica

Verpa


Morchella semilibera


28

Potentially harmful look-alikes—

Verpa Gyromitra

Verpa bohemica

Morchella Verpa Gyromitra

Helvella Disciotis

Discina


29

Morchella, Gyromitra, Verpa. Gyromitra Verpa


Biology

Overview—

14

14

To understand

how morels seem

unique among

edible forest fungi

in their adaptations,

it is necessary to

understand their

life cycle, modes

of nutrition, and

reproductive strategies.


32

Tuber

Morchella


33

Morels might be

capable of the highly

unusual feat of haploid

meiosis.


34


35

Mycelia—

Costantinella cristata


36

15

15

“individual” and its

spatial extent in the

soil is problematic.


Costantinella cristata

Morchella


38

Mycorrhizae—

16

17 M. rotunda M esculenta M elata

16

17


39

M esculenta

18

M

elata

M esculenta M elata

Morchella

Muffs—

18


Alnus glutinosa Rubus tomentosus

Robinia pseudoacacia

Sclerotia—

Sclerotina sclerotiorum


Fruiting—

Factors that facilitate fruiting—

Morchella

Such fruiting may

represent a last-ditch

effort to reproduce

when the morel’s food

source disappears.


42

Geopyxis carbonaria

G. carbonaria

M elata


43

19

19

decomposable organic

matter could come from

forest soil organisms


44

M elata

Factors that trigger fruiting—


45

Morchella rotunda

20

21

Factors that support fruiting—

Fruiting body—

Morchella

20

21 a

a

a


46

22

M delicious M esculenta

22

When conditions

are optimal, these

primordia can grow,

in 1 day, into morel

fruiting bodies that are

size.


M

conica M esculenta


48

Aradus debilis Aradus

Spores—


49

Population genetics—


Inbreeding and haploid meiosis


Podospora anserina

Reproductive strategies—

Whether any species of

morel actually conducts

haploid meiosis in

nature is not known,

but it might be a useful

strategy for colonizing

new habitats.


52

morels in western

forests remain

somewhat of an

ecological mystery.


53

Cultivation

Context—

Agaricus Lentinula edodes Pleurotus


54

History—

M esculenta”

Morchella rufobrunnea

Morchella


55

Agrocybe aegerita Pholiota nameko

Constraints and opportunities—Morels have a

complex life cycle

that complicates the

process of scaling up

cultivation methods to

procedures.


56

23

23

Morchella

Morchella


Prospects—

M

hortensis

Morchella


58

The Handbook of Fungal Technology

Morchella

Collecting to Cooking

Harvesting—

Wild-collected morels

likely will have a value

premium in markets for

many years to come.


59

There is no reason to

believe that cutting

morels does more harm

than pulling.


Processing—


Marketing—

Culinary use—


62

24

Toxins and Contaminants

Toxins in look-alike mushrooms—

Gyromitra Verpa

Gyromitra Verpa

24

The cardinal rule is to

always cook morels

thoroughly and start

with modest quantities

until you become

effects.


63

Gyromitra gigas

Verpa bohemica Gyromitra

Verpa bohemica

Morel toxins—


64

M esculenta

M conica

Another concern

is whether morels

can absorb toxic

retardant slurries.


65

Public health regulations—

Gyromitra Verpa in

Gyromitra esculenta Verpa bohemica.

Gyromitra esculenta, Verpa bohemica, Helvella


66

Gyromitra

esculenta Verpa bohemica

Verpa bohemica

Morel Harvesters

Personal Use

We know of no

documented instances

of consumers being

seriously poisoned by

wild mushrooms that

were commercially

collected in western

North America.


68

Commercial

pounds

Ethnic diversity—


69

Residence—

Income strategies—

Mobility—


Patch-lines—

Harvest site portfolios—


tree death are scattered

and unpredictable.


Cooperation—Information is a

particularly important

form of social currency,

and buying stations

constitute one of the

most important sites of

information exchange.


Motivations—

Wages—


Opinions about forest management—


Morel Commerce

International

Globally, 300,000

pounds of dried morels

are traded annually.


25

25


Economics

Value—


The usefulness of

drying and holding

morels for sale later

in the year depends

on the cost of drying

and holding the

mushrooms and the

international supply

of dried morels in any

given year.


26

26

Table 3—Estimated quantities of morels harvesteda and value of commercial mushroom permits

sold on national forests in Oregon and Washington during 2004 and 2005

January-June 2004 January-June 2005

Pounds Dollars Pounds Dollars

b

a

b


Markets—

Businesses—


Local Impacts

Social impacts—


82

Environmental impacts—

Morchella


83

Policy and Regulation

Land ownership and harvest access—

Development of regulations—


84


85

Current regulations—


86

)

Challenges—


Reasonable prices,

regulations that

are sensible, and

convenient times,

places, and means

for obtaining permits

all enhance harvester

acceptance.


88

Regional Summaries

Mountains of Mexico

Morchella an-

gusticeps M. conica, M. costata, M. elata M. crassipes,

M. esculenta


89

Morchella

Morchella

M. elata M. esculenta

M. guatemalensis

M. rufobrunnea

Clethra

M.

deliciosa M. rufobrunnea


M. esculenta

Abies religiosa

Pinus patula

Abies hickelii

Morel harvesting in

Mexico is a seasonal

and traditional

activity of indigenous

and mestizo (mixed

indigenous and

European ancestry)

communities.


Morchella

M. angusticeps, M. conica, M. costata, M. elata,

M. esculenta, M. rufrobrunea M. umbrina

unidades de manejo ambiental


92


93

Interior West and Rocky Mountains


94

Polytrichum

Ceanothus prostratus


95

Letters that request

collecting opportunities

mailboxes of USFS

botanists and forest

supervisors on national

forests with recent


96

Coast and Cascade Ranges in Oregon and Washington


To date, managers

remain largely

unconcerned

about whether

morel harvesting is

sustainable.


98

Boletus pinophilus


99

Table 4—Number and value of mushrooma-harvesting

permits sold by the tri-forest permit collaboration of

the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National

Forests

Year Permits sold Value

Number Dollars

a


27

27

Private timberland

owners typically

concentrate on salvage

and have safety and

liability concerns

regarding mushroom

harvesters during

these operations.


28

Western Canada

28


29

29


30 31

32

33

34

30

31

32

33 a a

34


35

36

37

35

36

37


An overlay of un-

extinguished aboriginal

rights and titles also

govern rights of access

and use of much of

British Columbia’s

public lands.


Interior Alaska

Morchella


Management and Research

Sustainability


Productivity

Often the only way to

reasonably monitor

sustainable production

is on the scale of

landscapes and over

periods of decades or

centuries.


Table 5—Unbiased stand-level estimates of mean morel productivity (counts

forest stands in northeastern Oregon that were selected to represent three stand

conditionsa

1995d 1996 Stand

Site locationb conditionc Count Weight Count Weight

Morels/acre Pounds/acre Morels/acre Pounds/acre

a

b

c

d


British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories

Year Mean

a count weight Reference

Number/ac lbs/ac

b

c

c

c

d e

f

a

b

c

d

e

f


Forest Management

Tree death—

A key research

question is whether

mycelial colonies or

sclerotia of morels

persist in the soil

through stand-

replacement events.


Timber harvesting—

Soil disturbance—

Fires—

Intentional disruption

or compaction of soil

has too many potential

negative impacts on

tree growth to consider

its use for enhancing

morel crops.


Other issues—Morels from western

North America could

command a premium

price if they can be

marketed as collected

from pristine areas.


Enhancing morel harvest opportunities—


38

Harvest Management

Equitable access—

38


Land tenure and harvest pressure—

Liability insurance—

and regulations are

apt to be more widely

accepted if managers

involve all interested

parties in making

regulatory decisions.


Useful Research


Taxonomy— Morchella

Morchella

Morchella

The jumbled taxonomy

of North American

Morchella species

and their lack of valid

species names is

perhaps the biggest

current impediment to

morel research.


Ecology—

Morchella

Reproduction and population genetics—


Morchella

Morel commodity chains

Closing Remarks

The capacity of

state, federal, and

provincial governments

in western North

America to support

the wild mushroom

industry is hampered

by a profound lack of

published information

about morel commodity

chains.


Glossary

allele—

anastomosis—

ascomycetes—

ascus, asci (plural)—

Morchella

ascospores—

asexual

basidium, basidia (plural)

Morchella,

chromosome—

clade—

conidiophore—

conidium, conidia (plural)—

cytoplasm


dikaryotic—

diploid—

ectomycorrhiza—

fruiting body (American usage) or fruit body (elsewhere)—

Morchella

fungivore—

genome—

haploid—

Hartig net—

heterokaryotic—

hymenium—

hypha, hyphae (plural)—

hypogeous—


karyon—

macroscopic—

meiosis—

multikaryotic—

multinucleate—

mycelium, mycelia (plural)—

mycology—

mycophagy—

mycophilic—

mycophobic—

mycorrhiza, mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas (plural)—

nucleus, nuclei (plural)—

polymorphic—

primordium, primordia (plural)—

rhizomorphs—


riparian

saprobe, saprobic—

sclerotium, sclerotia (plural)—

sensu lato—

septum, septa (plural)—

sporocarp—

Morchella

stipe—


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Morchella

Pietikäinen, J. 1999.

Pietikäinen, J.; Hiukka, R.; Fritze, H. 2000.

Pilz, D.; Ballard, H.L.; Jones, E.T. 2006b.

Pilz, D.; Molina, R. 1998.


Pilz, D.; Molina, R. 2002.

Pilz, D.; Molina, R.; Mayo, J. 2006c.

Morchella esculenta

Pugh, G.J.F.; Boddy, L. 1988.

Pyne, S.J.; Andrews, P.L.; Laven, R.D. 1996.

Ramsbottom, J. 1953.

Rédei, G.P. 2003.

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Robbins, W.J.; Hervey, A. 1959. Morchella


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:

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Schlosser, W.E.; Blatner, K.A. 1995.

Schlosser, W.E.; Blatner, K.A. 1997.

Schmidt, E.L. 1979. Morchella

Schmidt, E.L. 1983.

Morchella esculenta

2004.

Proyecto de Conservacion y Manejo Sustentable de Recursos Forestales

Morchella elata Morchella esculenta

Morchella elata


Morchella esculenta

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Morchella esculenta

Morchella esculenta

Morchella esculenta

Morchella esculenta


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Stamets, P. 2005.

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i

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1996.

2003

f

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Apicius

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Morchella

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Morchella crassipes

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Geopyxis carbonaria

Picea abies

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Morchella


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Stictis Conotrema

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Morchella esculenta

Yukon Energy, Mines, and Resources. 2004.

f

Zamora, M.; Torres, J.M.; Zamora, L. 2001.

Podospora anserina


a

True morelsb

Morchella Costantinella cristata

Morchella

Morchella angusticeps

Morchella esculenta atrotomentosa

Morchella atrotomentosa

Morchella conica

Morchella costata

Morchella crassipes

M.

esculenta

Morchella deliciosa

Morchella elata

Morchella esculenta

Morchella guatemalensis

Morchella herediana

Morchella hortensis

Morchella intermedia

M. conica

Morchella rigidoides

Morchella rotunda Morchella

esculenta

Morchella rufobrunnea

Morchella semilibera Mitrophora

semilibera

Morchella umbrina

M. esculenta

Morel look-alikes and related genera:

Discina

Disciotis venosa


Gyromitra gigas

Gyromitra esculenta

Gyromitra

Gyromitra Helvella

Verpa bohemica

Verpa

Other fungi:

Agrocybe aegerita

Agaricus brunnescens

Boletus

Boletus edulis

Boletus pinophilus

Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae

Cantharellus

Cantharellus,

Craterellus, Gomphus, Polyozellus.

Geopyxis carbonaria

Lentinula edodes

Ophiostoma ulmi

Pholiota nameko

Pleurotus

Podospora anserina

Sclerotina sclerotiorum

Tricholoma magnivelare

Tricholoma matsutake

Tricholoma Tricholoma magnivelare

Tricholoma caligatum

Tricholoma

matsutake

Tuber

Tuber

Xerophyllum tenax

Pteridium aquilinum


Polytrichum

Fragaria

Trillium

Shrubs:

Vaccinium

Syringa vulgaris

Holodiscus discolor

Ceanothus prostratus

Gaultheria shallon

Rubus tomentosus

Trees:

Alnus

Malus pumila

Fraxinus

Populus

Fagus

Prunus serotina

Picea mariana

Betula

Eucalyptus globus

Prunus laurocerasus

Castanea sativa

Austrocedrus chilensis

Populus

Pseudotsuga menziesii

Ulmus

Picea engelmannii

Alnus glutinosa

Abies hickelii

Carya

Pinus banksiana

Juniperus

Robinia pseudoacacia

Pinus contorta contorta

Acer

Pinus radiata

Picea abies

Quercus

Abies religiosa

Betula papyrifera

Pinus

Pinus ponderosa

Populus


Pinus jeffreyi Pinus ponderosa

Pinus coulteri

Nothofagus

Abies lasiocarpa

Larix lyallii

Liquidambar

Platanus

Abies

Liriodendron tulipifera

Pinus patula

Tsuga heterophylla

Larix occidentalis

Clethra

Abies concolor

Picea glauca

Pinus albicaulis

Salix

Insects:

Orgyia pseudotsugata

Aradus debilis

Lymantria dispar

Dendroctonus ponderosae

Choristoneura occidentalis

Animals:

Cervus canadensis

Ursus arctos horribilis

Canis lupus

a

b

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