drug-related crime

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Drug-Related Drug-Related CrimeCrime Trevor BennettTrevor Bennett

University of GlamorganUniversity of Glamorgan

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DefinitionDefinition What is ‘drug-related What is ‘drug-related

crime’?crime’?

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DefinitionDefinition The term was first introduced in a The term was first introduced in a

government policy document in 1994 and government policy document in 1994 and was defined as...was defined as...

“… “…not onlynot only the offence of supply and possession the offence of supply and possession of illegal drugs of illegal drugs but alsobut also other criminal activity other criminal activity directly or indirectly associated with drug misuse”directly or indirectly associated with drug misuse”

Home Office (1994) Home Office (1994) Tackling Drugs Together: A Tackling Drugs Together: A Consultation Document on a Strategy for England 1995-Consultation Document on a Strategy for England 1995-9898. London: HMSO. London: HMSO

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DefinitionDefinition The definition was elaborated in a follow-up The definition was elaborated in a follow-up

document published in 1995document published in 1995 Home Office (1995) Home Office (1995) Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for Tackling Drugs Together: A Strategy for

England 1995-1998England 1995-1998. London: HMSO.. London: HMSO.

In this it was stated that drug-related crime In this it was stated that drug-related crime included all offences committed under the included all offences committed under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 andand offences offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse. drug misuse.

These included crimes These included crimes directlydirectly connected to connected to drug use such as burglary and theft drug use such as burglary and theft andand crimes crimes indirectlyindirectly connected such as laundering of connected such as laundering of profits of drug sales and systemic crimes profits of drug sales and systemic crimes associated with drug trafficking.associated with drug trafficking.

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DefinitionDefinition These definitions identify 3 types of drug These definitions identify 3 types of drug

crime. crime.

‘‘Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered by Drug offences’ which refer to crimes covered by drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and drug legislation (e.g. drug supply and possession)possession)

‘‘Offences committed by persons acting as a Offences committed by persons acting as a consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary and consequence of drug misuse’ (e.g. burglary and theft)theft)

‘‘Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences Systemic’ crimes which refer to offences indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money indirectly caused by drug use (e.g. money laundering and drug trafficking) laundering and drug trafficking)

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DefinitionDefinition These 3 types can also be found in the These 3 types can also be found in the

definition proposed by the European definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003Addiction (EMCDDA) in 2003

‘Drug-related crime can be considered to include criminal offences in breach of drug legislation, crimes committed under the influence of illicit drugs, crimes committed by users to support their drug habit (mainly acquisitive crime and drug dealing) and systemic crimes committed as part of the functioning of illicit markets (fight for territories, bribing of officials, etc.).’ (EMCDDA, 2003: 33)

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DefinitionDefinition The official definitions are fairly clearThe official definitions are fairly clear But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is But the term ‘drug-related crime’ is

sometimes used in different wayssometimes used in different ways

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DefinitionDefinition The Home Office 2007 consultation paper

reported that drug-related crime was decreasing and used as evidence the number of acquisitive crimes

Home Office (2007) Home Office (2007) Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Drugs: Our Community, Your Say: A Consultation PaperConsultation Paper. London: Home Office.. London: Home Office.

“Drug-related crime is falling – recorded acquisitive crime has fallen by 20 per cent since the introduction of the Drug Interventions Programme”

This equates ‘drug-related crime’ with the second category of offences committed as a consequence of drug use

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DefinitionDefinition It might help if some agreed terms were

developed that covered the three types of offences individually and as a group

Drug crimeor

Drug-related crime

Drug offences(e.g. supply)

Drug-related crime(e.g. theft to pay for drugs)

orCrimes committed as a consequence

of drug use

Systemic crime(e.g. money laundering)

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DefinitionDefinition A second problem is whether the second

type of ‘drug-related crime’ refers to a causal connection

The early The early Tackling Drug MisuseTackling Drug Misuse documents suggested a causal connection documents suggested a causal connection in the phrases...in the phrases... ““offences committed by persons acting offences committed by persons acting as a as a

consequenceconsequence of drug misuse” of drug misuse” ““These included crimes These included crimes directlydirectly connected to connected to

drug use such as burglary and theftdrug use such as burglary and theft

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DefinitionDefinition This was also suggested in the 2003 This was also suggested in the 2003

definition proposed by the European definition proposed by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA)Addiction (EMCDDA)

‘Drug-related crime can be considered to include criminal offences in breach of drug legislation, crimes committed under the influence of illicit drugs, crimes committed by users to support their drug habit (mainly acquisitive crime and drug dealing) and systemic crimes committed as part of the functioning of illicit markets (fight for territories, bribing of officials, etc.).’ (EMCDDA, 2003: 33)

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DefinitionDefinition It seems clear from these definitions that the It seems clear from these definitions that the

second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a second type of ‘drug-related crime’ requires a causal connection between drug use and crimecausal connection between drug use and crime

This would prove quite challenging when it This would prove quite challenging when it comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’comes to measuring ‘drug-related crime’

Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to Not all ‘acquisitive crime’ will be connected to drug usedrug use

Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be Not all crimes committed by ‘drug users’ will be connected to their drug useconnected to their drug use

In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it In order to measure ‘drug-related crime’ it would be necessary to know the motivation for itwould be necessary to know the motivation for it

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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime

It might be useful to consider the It might be useful to consider the research implications connected to research implications connected to this discussionthis discussion

One implication is that more needs One implication is that more needs to be known about the causal to be known about the causal connection between drug use and connection between drug use and crimecrime

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This is the conclusion that has been reached This is the conclusion that has been reached among policy makers in the United Statesamong policy makers in the United States

In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice In 2001 the US National Institute of Justice established a forum for researchers to propose established a forum for researchers to propose a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st a drugs and crime research agenda for the 21st centurycentury

BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), BROWNSTEIN, H. and CROSLAND, C. (2003), Toward a Toward a Drugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st CenturyDrugs and Crime Research Agenda for the 21st Century. . National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. National Institute of Justice, U.S. Department of Justice. Washington, DC.Washington, DC.

One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the One of the aims of the forum was to discuss the usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual usefulness of Goldstein’s tripartite conceptual framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’framework for explaining ‘drug-related crime’

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Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided Goldstein’s conceptual framework divided explanations of the connection into three explanations of the connection into three groups...groups... ‘‘Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a Economic-compulsive’ crime was committed as a

means of generating money to support drug use. means of generating money to support drug use. ‘‘Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the Psychopharmacological’ crime occurred when the

use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in use of drugs resulted in change or impairment in cognitive functioning. cognitive functioning.

‘‘Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that Systemic’ crime was associated with crime that occurred as part of the system of drug distribution occurred as part of the system of drug distribution and use. and use.

Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Goldstein, P. (1985), ‘The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework’, Conceptual Framework’, Journal of Drug Issues, Journal of Drug Issues, 15: 493-506.15: 493-506.

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There have been some criticisms of this There have been some criticisms of this frameworkframework One is that the tripartite categories are not One is that the tripartite categories are not

mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes mutually exclusive (e.g. systemic crimes might also be economically motivated)might also be economically motivated)

Another is that the systemic model is not Another is that the systemic model is not applicable to the majority of young drug applicable to the majority of young drug users who are not involved in the high-level users who are not involved in the high-level drug distribution system (i.e. systemic drug distribution system (i.e. systemic crimes).crimes).

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One of the conclusions of the NIJ One of the conclusions of the NIJ forum was that Goldstein’s forum was that Goldstein’s framework needed to be updated.framework needed to be updated. In particular more needed to be known In particular more needed to be known

about...about... the causal connection between drug use and the causal connection between drug use and

crimecrime how it varied across drug types and offence how it varied across drug types and offence

typestypes how it varied across demographic factorshow it varied across demographic factors

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A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I began A couple of years ago Katy Holloway and I began some some unfundedunfunded interview-based research on the interview-based research on the causal connection between drug use and crime.causal connection between drug use and crime.

The aim of the research was to describe and The aim of the research was to describe and explain the various mechanisms that linked drug explain the various mechanisms that linked drug use and crime.use and crime.

This results of this have just been published.This results of this have just been published.

Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection Bennett, T. H. and Holloway, K. (2009) ‘The causal connection between drug use and crime’. between drug use and crime’. British Journal of CriminologyBritish Journal of Criminology. . doi: 10.1093/bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009). doi: 10.1093/bjc/azp014. (Advanced access April 2009).

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Research on drug-related Research on drug-related crimecrime The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in The research was conducted in three prisons (2 in

Wales and 1 in England) Wales and 1 in England) In two prisons, respondents were selected from within In two prisons, respondents were selected from within

the CARAT scheme.the CARAT scheme. In the third prison, respondents were selected from a In the third prison, respondents were selected from a

particular wing.particular wing. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. In total, we interviewed 41 prisoners. The respondents were all males with an age range of The respondents were all males with an age range of

22 to 56. 22 to 56. Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and Their main offences were: drug offences, assault and

robberyrobbery The main method of data collection was a semi-The main method of data collection was a semi-

structured interview.structured interview. Offenders were asked to describe some of their Offenders were asked to describe some of their

connections in detail. connections in detail. In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-crime In total, 133 detailed narratives of specific drug-crime

connections were identified and analysed.connections were identified and analysed.

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The first thing we did was to ask offenders whether The first thing we did was to ask offenders whether any of ten drug types and ten crime types have ever any of ten drug types and ten crime types have ever been connected.been connected.

The most common connections reported were The most common connections reported were heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and heroin and drug dealing, burglary dwelling and handlinghandling

n=545

drug-crime connection n

heroin and drug dealing 16heroin and burglary non-dwelling 15heroin and handling 15tranquillisers and assault 14amphetamines and drug dealing 13ecstasy and drug dealing 13heroin and assault 12heroin and shoplifting 12tranquillisers and burglary non-dwelling 12tranquillisers and vehicle crime 12

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We then asked them to describe (up to We then asked them to describe (up to three) specific occasions when their three) specific occasions when their drug use and crime were connecteddrug use and crime were connected

In total we transcribed 133 narratives In total we transcribed 133 narratives of specific drug-crime connectionsof specific drug-crime connections

These were grouped initially into These were grouped initially into Goldstein’s three categoriesGoldstein’s three categories

These were then adjusted or expanded These were then adjusted or expanded until all narratives would be until all narratives would be categorised categorised

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The main change to Goldstein’s The main change to Goldstein’s framework was to replace the framework was to replace the ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘systemic crime’ category with a ‘lifestyles’ category‘lifestyles’ category

This was because it was not only This was because it was not only drug lifestyle factors that influenced drug lifestyle factors that influenced the connectionthe connection It was also influenced by crime lifestyle It was also influenced by crime lifestyle

factors as well as cultural factorsfactors as well as cultural factors

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Casual direction

Explanation Elaboration

D C Economic Obtain money for drugs Theft of cash or goods for drugs Obtain drugs directly Dealt in drugs to provide a source

of drugs Save legal money for

drugs Stealing subsistence items to keep legal income for drug

Pharmacological Aggression Drugs generated anger which led

to crime Courage Drugs provided the courage to

offend Judgement impairment Drug use led to a decision to

offend Lifestyle Criminal contacts Drug use involved making

criminal contacts Offended to get treatment Chaotic drug lifestyle made access

to traditional treatment difficult Retaliation Drug-related disputes led to crime C D Economic Obtain drugs directly Crimes against drug dealers

resulted in theft of drugs Surplus proceeds of crime

spent on drugs ‘Chemical recreation’ following a successful crime

Pharmacological Courage Drugs consumed to facilitate the

commission of the offence Lifestyle Dealing provides surplus

drugs Dealing drugs led occasionally to consumption of drugs

ResulResultsts

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Economic mechanismsEconomic mechanisms ‘‘Obtaining drugs directly’Obtaining drugs directly’

“…“…I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either I decided if I was going to still take heroin I’d either always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided to always have it or I wouldn’t take it no more. So I decided to start dealing it.” (085)start dealing it.” (085)

‘‘Saving legal money for drugs’Saving legal money for drugs’

““Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I Most of my shoplifting is around, I would say, clothes. I could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might spend could be out shopping and I’ll take something. I might spend two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred pound. ... the two, three hundred pound and steal a hundred pound. ... the money I save not buying, that goes back into my drugs.” money I save not buying, that goes back into my drugs.” (018)(018)

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EconomicEconomic mechanisms mechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned

Drug dealing (85%)Drug dealing (85%) Shoplifting (74%)Shoplifting (74%) Robbery (71%)Robbery (71%)

Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned Handling (33%)Handling (33%) Assault (0%)Assault (0%)

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Pharmacological mechanismsPharmacological mechanisms ‘‘Aggression’Aggression’

““...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. It’s ...with ecstasy I’m just violent if someone winds me up. It’s a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a bad a very different head on. Different drug. Ecstasy is a bad choice for violence.” (026)choice for violence.” (026)

‘‘Courage to offend’Courage to offend’

““Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used to Pretty much when I used to take loads of valium, it used to make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts make me feel invincible and I would just go and starts robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get robbing just for the fact that I thought I could and I’d get away with it ... I thought I was invisible and no one would away with it ... I thought I was invisible and no one would see me.” (004)see me.” (004)

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Pharmacological Pharmacological mechanismsmechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned

Assault (91%)Assault (91%) Burglary dwelling (46%)Burglary dwelling (46%)

Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned Drug dealing (12%)Drug dealing (12%) Handling (0%)Handling (0%)

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Lifestyle mechanismsLifestyle mechanisms ‘‘Criminal contacts’Criminal contacts’

“…“…you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around that you get to know the people, coz it’s all related around that sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime and all sort of thing init know what I mean, drugs and crime and all that…” (035)that…” (035)

‘‘Offended for treatment’Offended for treatment’

““[I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, I [I was] drinking and doing drugs, I had become homeless, I had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out. ... I had had lost everything. And I couldn’t see no way out. ... I had heard through you know other people, that if you go through heard through you know other people, that if you go through prison they have to give you a place when you get out. So, I prison they have to give you a place when you get out. So, I done it on purpose really.” (028)done it on purpose really.” (028)

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Lifestyle Lifestyle mechanismsmechanisms Most frequently mentionedMost frequently mentioned

Handling (67%)Handling (67%)Least frequently mentionedLeast frequently mentioned

Burglary (0%)Burglary (0%) Robbery (0%)Robbery (0%) Shoplifting (0%)Shoplifting (0%)

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ConclusionConclusion Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly well Goldstein’s categories stood up fairly well

across a range of offence and drug typesacross a range of offence and drug types But...But...

The systemic category was too narrowThe systemic category was too narrow The lack of causal direction was limitingThe lack of causal direction was limiting The absence of more detailed category The absence of more detailed category

breakdownsbreakdowns The absence of crime breakdownsThe absence of crime breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns The absence of demographic breakdowns

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ConclusionConclusion In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’ In order to understand ‘drug-related crime’

there is a need for more research on...there is a need for more research on... the nature of the causal relationshipthe nature of the causal relationship the mechanisms linking drug use and crimethe mechanisms linking drug use and crime

It is likely that ...It is likely that ... there are many more causal mechanisms linking there are many more causal mechanisms linking

drug use and crimedrug use and crime there is variation in the mechanisms across there is variation in the mechanisms across

location and timelocation and time there is variation by drug and crime typesthere is variation by drug and crime types there is variation by demographic factors.there is variation by demographic factors.

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ConclusionConclusion End!End!

drug-related crime

Documents

drug offences

drug supply

drug habit

type of drug

types of drug crime

term drugrelated crime

consequence of drug

drug misusehome office