driver acceptance of new technology: theory, measurement and optimisation
TRANSCRIPT
DRIVERACCEPTANCEOFNEWTECHNOLOGY
HumanFactorsinRoadandRailTransport
SeriesEditors
DrLisaDornDirectoroftheDrivingResearchGroup,DepartmentofHumanFactors,
CranfieldUniversity
DrGeraldMatthewsProfessorofPsychologyattheUniversityofCincinnati
DrIanGlendonAssociateProfessorofPsychologyatGriffithUniversity,Queensland,andPresidentoftheDivisionofTrafficandTransportationPsychologyofthe
InternationalAssociationofAppliedPsychology
Today’ssocietyconfrontsmajorlandtransportproblems.Humanandfinancialcostsofroadvehiclecrashesandrailincidentsareincreasing,withroadvehiclecrashespredictedtobecomethethirdlargestcauseofdeathandinjurygloballyby2020.Severalsocialtrendsposethreatstosafety,includingincreasingvehicleownershipandtrafficcongestion,advancingtechnologicalcomplexityatthehuman-vehicleinterface,populationageinginthedevelopedworld,andevergreaternumbersofyoungervehicledriversinthedevelopingworld.
Ashgate’sHumanFactorsinRoadandRailTransportseriesmakesatimelycontributiontotheseissuesbyfocusingonhumanandorganisationalaspectsofroadandrailsafety.Theseriesrespondstoincreasingdemandsforsafe,efficient,economicalandenvironmentally-friendlyland-basedtransport.Itdoesthisbyreportingonstate-of-the-artsciencethatmaybeappliedtoreducevehiclecollisionsandimprovevehicleusabilityaswellasenhancingdriverwellbeingandsatisfaction.Itachievesthisbydisseminatingnewtheoreticalandempiricalresearchgeneratedbyspecialistsinthebehaviouralandallieddisciplines,includingtrafficandtransportationpsychology,humanfactorsandergonomics.
Theseriesaddressessuchtopicsasdriverbehaviourandtraining,in-vehicletechnology,driverhealthanddriverassessment.Speciallycommissionedworksfrominternationallyrecognisedexpertsprovideauthoritativeaccountsofleadingapproachestoreal-worldproblemsinthisimportantfield.
approachestoreal-worldproblemsinthisimportantfield.
DriverAcceptanceofNewTechnology
Theory,MeasurementandOptimisation
Editedby
MICHAELA.REGANUniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
TIMHORBERRYUniversityofQueensland,Australia,andUniversityofCambridge,UK
ALANSTEVENSTransportResearchLaboratory(TRL),UK
ASHGATE
©MichaelA.Regan,TimHorberryandAlanStevensandthecontributors2014
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.
MichaelA.Regan,TimHorberryandAlanStevenshaveassertedtheirrightundertheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct,1988,tobeidentifiedastheeditorsofthiswork.
PublishedbyAshgatePublishingLimitedWeyCourtEastUnionRoadFarnhamSurrey,GU97PTEnglandAshgatePublishingCompany110CherryStreetSuite3–1Burlington,VT05401–3818USAwww.ashgate.com
BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationDataAcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibraryTheLibraryofCongresshascatalogedtheprintededitionasfollows:Regan,MichaelA.,author.Driveracceptanceofnewtechnology:theory,measurementandoptimisation/byMichaelA.Regan,TimHorberryandAlanStevens.pagescm—(Humanfactorsinroadandrailtransport)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN978-1-40943984-4(hardback:alk.paper)—ISBN978-1-40943985-1(ebook)—ISBN978-1-47240585-2(epub)1.Motorvehicledrivers—Psychology.2.Motorvehicledrivers—Attitudes.3.Automobiles—Technologicalinnovations.4.Highwayengineering—Technologicalinnovations.5.Motorvehicledriving—Technologicalinnovations—Psychologicalaspects.6.Highwaycommunications—Technologicalinnovations.7.Trafficsafety—Technologicalinnovations.I.Horberry,Tim,author.II.Stevens,A.(Researcherintransportation),author.III.Title.IV.Series:Humanfactorsinroadandrailtransport.
Series:Humanfactorsinroadandrailtransport.
TL152.3.R382014629.28’304—dc23
2013025915
ISBN9781409439844(hbk)ISBN9781409439851(ebk-PDF)ISBN9781472405852(ebk-ePUB)
Contents
ListofFiguresListofTablesAbouttheEditorsListofContributorsAcknowledgements
PARTI:INTRODUCTION
1DriverAcceptanceofNewTechnology:OverviewMichaelA.Regan,AlanStevensandTimHorberry
PARTII:THEORIESANDMODELSOFDRIVERACCEPTANCE
2TheDefinitionofAcceptanceandAcceptabilityEmeliAdell,AndrásVárhelyiandLenaNilsson
3ModellingAcceptanceofDriverAssistanceSystems:ApplicationoftheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnologyEmeliAdell,AndrásVárhelyiandLenaNilsson
4Socio-PsychologicalFactorsThatInfluenceAcceptabilityofIntelligentTransportSystems:AModelSvenVlassenrootandKarelBrookhuis
5ModellingDriverAcceptance:FromFeedbacktoMonitoringandMentoringSystemsMahtabGhazizadehandJohnD.Lee
PARTIII:MEASUREMENTOFDRIVERACCEPTANCE
6HowIsAcceptanceMeasured?OverviewofMeasurementIssues,MethodsandToolsEmeliAdell,LenaNilssonandAndrásVárhelyi
7MeasuringAcceptabilitythroughQuestionnairesandFocusGroupsEveMitsopoulos-RubensandMichaelA.Regan
8TheProfileofEmotionalDesigns:AToolfortheMeasurementofAffectiveandCognitiveResponsestoIn-VehicleInnovationsRobertEdmunds,LisaDornandLeeSkrypchuk
9AnEmpiricalMethodforQuantifyingDrivers’LevelofAcceptanceofAlertsIssuedbyAutomotiveActiveSafetySystemsJan-ErikKällhammer,KipSmithandErikHollnagel
PARTIV:DATAONDRIVERACCEPTANCE:CASESTUDIES
10DriverAcceptanceofIn-VehicleInformation,AssistanceandAutomatedSystems:AnOverviewGaryBurnettandCyrielDiels
11DriverAcceptanceofElectricVehicles:FindingsfromtheFrenchMINIEStudyElodieLabeye,CorinneBrusqueandMichaelA.Regan
12User-CentredDesignandEvaluationasaPrerequisitefortheSuccessofDisruptiveInnovations:AnElectricVehicleCaseStudyRomanVilimekandAndreasKeinath
13MotorcycleRiders’AcceptanceofAdvancedRiderAssistanceSystemsVéroniqueHuth
14DriverAcceptanceofTechnologiesDeployedWithintheRoadInfrastructureAlanStevensandNickReed
15OperatorAcceptanceofNewTechnologyforIndustrialMobileEquipmentTimHorberryandTristanCooke
16Carrots,SticksandSermons:StatePolicyToolsforInfluencingAdoptionandAcceptanceofNewVehicleSafetySystemsMatts-ÅkeBelin,EvertVedung,KhayesiMeleckidzedeckandClaesTingvall
PARTV:OPTIMISINGDRIVERACCEPTANCE
17DesigningIn-VehicleTechnologyforUsabilityAlanStevensandGaryBurnett
18TheEmotionalandAestheticDimensionsofDesign:AnExplorationofUserAcceptanceofConsumerProductsandNewVehicleTechnologiesWilliamS.GreenandPatrickW.Jordan
19OptimisingtheOrganisationalAspectsofDeployment:LearningfromtheIntroductionofNewTechnologyinDomainsOtherthanRoadTransportMartinC.Maguire
20AdaptivePolicymakingforIntelligentTransportSystemAcceptanceJan-WillemvanderPas,WarrenE.Walker,VincentMarchauandSvenVlassenroot
21DesigningAutomotiveTechnologyforCross-CulturalAcceptanceKristieL.YoungandChristinaM.Rudin-Brown
PARTVI:CONCLUSIONS
22DriverAcceptanceofNewTechnology:SynthesisandPerspectivesAlanStevens,TimHorberryandMichaelA.Regan
Index
ListofFigures
2.1Thethreeelementsoftheacceptanceconcept2.2Thefivecategoriesofacceptance,basedondefinitionsfoundinaliterature
reviewbyAdell(2009)3.1RegressioncoefficientsandexplanatorypowerfortheUTAUTmodelwhen
appliedtoacceptanceofthedriverassistancesystemSASPENCE4.1Theoreticalmodel4.2HypotheticalmodeloftheindicatorsthatdefineacceptabilityofISA5.1Factorssuggestingamentoringversusamonitoringrole5.2TechnologyAcceptanceModel.AdaptedwithpermissionfromDavisetal.
(1989).©1989,theInstituteforOperationsResearchandtheManagementSciences,7240ParkwayDrive,Suite300,Hanover,Maryland21076
5.3Aschematicrepresentationofthedrivingsystemwithdashedarrowsrepresentingfeedbackfromthedriversupportsystem
5.4Driversupportsystemacceptancemodel6.1Thethreepillarsoftheacceptanceconcept8.1KanoModelDimensions8.2InteriorandiDriveintargetvehicle9.1AtypicalalertissuedbyaNightVisionsystemwithpedestrianalert9.2Continuousscaletoratethelevelofacceptanceofanassumedalert12.1Thetransitionfromearlyadopterstolateadoptersinrelationtotechnology
development(reproducedfromDonaldA.Norman,TheInvisibleComputer:WhyGoodProductsCanFail,thePersonalComputerIsSoComplex,andInformationAppliancesAretheSolution,figure2.4,©1998MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,bypermissionofMITPress)
12.2Thecustomer-centreddevelopmentprocessasimplementedbytheBMWGroup’sconceptqualitydepartment
12.3AccumulatedMINIEandcombustionenginevehicledailydrivingdistances
12.4Chargingfrequencyperweekinmarketswith32ampswallbox12.5UsageofECOPROmodeaspercentageofdailydriving14.1DynamicroadmarkingsintheNetherlands(USDepartmentof
Transportation2004)14.2Anexampleofadynamictidalflowschemethathasbeenproposedinthe
Netherlands(reproducedfromFafieanieandSambell2008,withpermission)
14.3TRLCarSimulatorduring‘RedX’trial14.4Activeroadstuds14.5Anexampleofaconetaperusedfortemporarytrafficmanagementinthe
UK(closingtherightlaneofthecarriagewayintheleftofthepicture)14.6Examplesofaspeedindicatingdevice15.1Driveracceptanceratingsoftheinitialandrevisedproximitywarning
systems(adaptedfromCookeandHorberry2011c)16.1Theprocessofinfluencingthemarketforsafevehicles16.2Threebasictoolsofgovernanceforpromotingvehiclesafetytechnology16.3AprocessofinfluencingcarimportersandproducerstoinstallESCas
standardequipment17.1UsabilityComponents(conceptfromISO92411998)17.2OverviewoftheRESPONSEcodeofpracticefordesignofin-vehicle
informationandassistancesystems18.1Maslow’shierarchyofneeds(Maslow1954)18.2Hierarchyofuserneeds(Jordan1999)19.1FactorsmakinguptheorganisationalcontextforanITsystem19.2TechnologyacceptancemodeldescribedbyDavis(1989)20.1TheAPMprocessandtheelementsofanadaptivepolicy(adaptedfrom
Kwakkel2010)
ListofTables
3.1TheoriginalUTAUTitemsandthemodifieditemsusedinthepilottesttoassessacceptanceofadriverassistancesystem(Adelletal.2009)
6.1Measuresusedtoassessacceptance,basedontheliteraturereview;maincategorieswithsubcategories(adaptedfromAdell2009).Forsourcereferences,seeAdell(2009).Includessimulateddrivingaswellasactualonroaddriving
7.1Focusgroupcompositionandtechnologiesfordiscussion7.2ExtractoffocusgroupdiscussionguidefromReganetal.(2002)also
showinglinkbetweenquestionandacceptabilitydimension7.3QuestionnairesadministeredintheTACSafeCaron-roadstudytoassess
acceptability7.4ExtractofquestionnairesforISAfromReganetal.(2006)alsoshowing
linkbetweenquestionandacceptabilitydimension8.1Meanscoretechnologycollapsedacrossscales8.2Regressionresults‘intentiontopurchase’8.3Regressionresultspreandpost11.1PerformanceexpectancyitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month11.2EaseofuseexpectancyitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month11.3SubjectivenormsitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month11.4UseandpurchaseintentionitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0
month13.1AcceptanceofthreetypesofARAS:comparisonofparticipants’interestto
haveadvisoryandinterveningsystemversions14.1Percentageofrespondentswhofindcertaintypesofspeedenforcement
(very)acceptable19.1Summaryoforganisationalcontextfactorsandhowtheymayrelatetoin-
cartechnology20.1DealingwithvulnerabilitiesofthebasicPITApolicy20.2BasicpolicyfortheISAcase20.3Increasingtherobustnessofthebasicpolicy20.4Contingencyplanning,monitoringsystemandtriggerresponses
21.1Keyculturaldimensionandtheirdefinitions
AbouttheEditors
MichaelA.ReganiscurrentlyaProfessorintheTransportandRoadSafetyResearchgroupintheSchoolofAviationattheUniversityofNewSouthWales,inSydney,Australia.BeforethatheheldresearchappointmentswiththeFrenchInstituteofScienceandTechnologyforTransport,DevelopmentandNetworks(IFFSTAR)inLyon,France,andtheMonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentreinMelbourne,Australia.Mike’scurrentresearchinterestsfocusonhumaninteractionwith,andacceptanceof,intelligenttransportsystems,driverdistractionandinattention,useofinstrumentedvehiclesfornaturalisticobservationofdriverandpilotbehaviour,andaviationsafety.HesitsontheEditorialBoardsoffivepeer-reviewedjournals,includingHumanFactors,istheauthorofmorethan200publications,includingtwobooks,andsitsonnumerousexpertcommitteesontrafficsafety.Heisthe25thPresidentoftheHumanFactorsandErgonomicsSocietyofAustralia.
TimHorberryisAssociateProfessorofHumanFactorsattheUniversityofQueensland,Australia.HeisalsoaSeniorResearchAssociateattheUniversityofCambridge,UK,andbeforethathewasattheUK’sTransportResearchLaboratory.Timhaspublishedhisworkwidely,includingfourbookspublishedeitherbyAshgateorCRCpress:‘TheHumanFactorsofTransportSigns’(2004)and‘HumanFactorsintheMaritimeDomain’(2008),‘UnderstandingHumanErrorInMineSafety’(2009)and‘HumanFactorsfortheDesign,OperationandMaintenanceofMiningEquipment’(2010).TimhasundertakenmanyappliedHumanFactorsresearchprojectsinAustralia,theUKandEuropefororganisationssuchastheEuropeanUnion,AustralianResearchCouncilandtheUKDepartmentforTransport.CurrentlyTimisleadingseveralprojectsinthemineralsindustrythatareexaminingacceptanceofnewtechnologyforminingvehicles–includingcollisiondetectionsystemsandshovelautomation.
AlanStevensisChiefResearchScientistandResearchDirector,Transportation,attheTransportResearchLaboratoryTRL,intheUK,wherehehasbeenworkingontheapplicationofnewtechnologytotransportfor25years.Heisaninternationallyrecognisedexpertin‘Human–MachineInteraction’(HMI)inthe
drivingenvironmentandwasco-authorofthe‘EuropeanStatementofPrinciplesonHMI’throughhisworkwithintheiMobilityinitiative,whereheco-chairstheHMIWorkingGroup.Hewasalsoanactivememberoftheresponsibleinternationalstandardscommittee,regularlyparticipatinginmeetingswithEuropean,US,CanadianandJapanesecolleagues.HewasrecentlyappointedtotheEU–USWorkingGrouponDriverDistractionfollowingtheEU–USHighLevelCooperationagreementandcontinuestobeinvolvedintheinternationalIHRA(InternationalHarmonizedResearchAgenda)groupandontheManagementCommitteeofIBEC(InternationalBenefitEvaluationandCosts)group.Alan’sconsultancyactivitiesfocusonprovidingadviceonpolicyandinteroperabilityissuestoGovernment,developingresearchprogramsandcarryingoutspecifictechnicalandHumanFactorsstudiesinIntelligentTransportationSystems.HeparticipatesinuniversityteachingatMSclevel,supervisesPhDstudentsandisEditorinChiefofaninternationalpeer-reviewjournalofIntelligentTransportSystems.
ListofContributors
Adell,Emeli,TrivectorTraffic,Sweden
Belin,Matts-Åke,SwedishTransportAdministration,VisionZeroAcademy,Borlänge,Sweden,andSchoolofHealth,CareandSocialWelfare,MälardalenUniversity,Västerås,SwedenBrookhuis,Karel,DelftUniversityofTechnology,theNetherlandsandUniversityofGroningen,theNetherlandsBrusque,Corinne,InstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),Bron,FranceBurnett,Gary,HumanFactorsResearchGroup,FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK
Cooke,Tristan,MineralsIndustrySafetyandHealthCentre,UniversityofQueensland,AustraliaDiels,Cyriel,CoventrySchoolofArtandDesign,DepartmentofIndustrialDesign,CoventryUniversity,Coventry,UK
Dorn,Lisa,CranfieldUniversity,UK
Edmunds,Robert,CranfieldUniversity,UK
Ghazizadeh,Mahtab,DepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineering,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison,USAGreen,WilliamS.,UniversityofCanberra,Australia
Hollnagel,Erik,UniversityofSouthernDenmark,Denmark
Horberry,Tim,MineralsIndustrySafetyandHealthCentre,UniversityofQueensland,Australia,andEngineeringDesignCentre,UniversityofCambridge,UK
Huth,Véronique,InstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),Bron,FranceJordan,PatrickW.,UniversityofSurrey,UK
Källhammer,Jan-Erik,AutolivDevelopmentAB,Sweden
Keinath,Andreas,BMWGroup,Germany
Labeye,Elodie,InstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),Bron,FranceLee,JohnD.,DepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineering,UniversityofWisconsin-Madison,USAMaguire,MartinC.,LoughboroughDesignSchool,LoughboroughUniversity,UK
Marchau,Vincent,RadboudUniversity,NijmegenSchoolofManagement,theNetherlandsMeleckidzedeck,Khayesi,WorldHealthOrganization(WHO),DepartmentofViolenceandInjuryPreventionandDisability,Geneva,SwitzerlandMitsopoulos-Rubens,Eve,MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,MonashUniversity,AustraliaNilsson,Lena,SwedishNationalRoadandTransportResearchInstitute(VTI),SwedenReed,Nick,TransportResearchLaboratory,UK
Regan,MichaelA.,TransportandRoadSafetyResearch,UniversityofNewSouthWales,AustraliaRudin-Brown,ChristinaM.,MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,AustraliaSkrypchuk,Lee,JaguarLandRover,UK
Smith,Kip,NavalPostgraduateSchool,USA
Stevens,Alan,TransportResearchLaboratory,UK
Tingvall,Claes,SwedishTransportAdministration,Borlänge,Sweden,andDepartmentofAppliedMechanics,ChalmersUniversity,Gothenburg,SwedenVanderPas,Jan-Willem,DelftUniversityofTechnology,FacultyofTechnology,PolicyandManagement,theNetherlandsVárhelyi,András,LundUniversity,Sweden
Vedung,Evert,InstituteforHousingandUrbanResearch,UppsalaUniversity,Uppsala,SwedenVilimek,Roman,BMWGroup,Germany
Vlassenroot,Sven,GhentUniversity,Belgium,andFlandersInstituteforMobility,BelgiumWalker,WarrenE.,DelftUniversityofTechnology,FacultyofTechnology,PolicyandManagement,andFacultyofAerospace,the
NetherlandsYoung,KristieL.,MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,Australia
Acknowledgements
Theeditorswishtothankthefollowingorganisationsandindividualsfortheimportantrolestheyplayedinenablingthisbooktobecompleted:•Theanonymousreviewers,recruitedbyAshgate,forrecommendingthatdevelopmentofthebookproceed;•GuyLoftandtheeditorialteamatAshgatefortheirprofessionalguidance,trustandpatience;•TheinvaluablehelpprovidedbyMeiRegan–forthemanyhoursshespentsub-editingthewholemanuscript,chasingcopyrightagreementsandpermissions,andgenerallysupportingusinkeepingtheentireprocessrunningsmoothly;•ThesupportoftheInstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),theUniversityofNewSouthWales,theUniversityofQueensland,theUniversityofCambridgeandtheTransportResearchLaboratory.DrHorberryalsoacknowledgesthesupportofanECMarieCurieFellowship‘SafetyinDesignErgonomics’(projectnumber268162);and•Alltheauthors,fortheirinsightfulcontributions,patienceandgoodwillinadheringtotherequirementsoftheeditorialprocess.
MichaelA.ReganTimHorberryAlanStevens
PARTIIntroduction
Chapter1DriverAcceptanceofNewTechnology:Overview
MichaelA.ReganUniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
AlanStevensTransportResearchLaboratory,UK1
TimHorberryUniversityofQueensland,Australia,andUniversityofCambridge,UK
Introduction
Anyonewhohasworkedintheareaofdriveracceptanceofnewvehicletechnologieswillknowthefrustrationsofdoingso:therearemanydefinitionsofdriveracceptance;themethodsandmetricsformeasuringacceptancevaryenormouslyacrossstudies;termslike‘driveracceptability’and‘driveracceptance’,althoughseeminglydifferent,areoftenusedinterchangeably;andevenifacceptanceismeasuredandquantified,thedatayieldedbythemethodsusedmaynotbeinaformthatispracticallyusefulforinformingsystemdesign.Theseissues,andtheneedforasinglevolumethatpullsthefieldtogether,weretheprimaryfactorsmotivatingdevelopmentofthisbook.Inthis,theintroductorychapter,wesetthesceneforwhatistocome.
TheChangingMotorVehicle
Sinceitsadvent,themotorvehiclehasundergonesomesignificanttransformations:engineshavebecomemoreefficientandreliable;vehiclebodiesandinteriorcockpitstructureshavebecomemorecrashworthy;andmechanicallinkageshavebeenreplacedincreasinglybyelectronicconnections.Untilquiterecentlythevehiclecockpitremainedlargelyunchanged;drivingwasthecentralfocusofactivity,andthedriverremainedcompletelyincontrolofthevehicle.However,allofthatischanging,rapidly.
Thelastdecadehaswitnessedanexplosionintheavailabilityofnewvehicle
technology;ageneraltermreferringtotheapplicationofmechanical,electronic,informationandcommunicationsystemsandnewmaterialsinthedrivingenvironment.Sometechnologyhasbeenbuiltintothevehiclebymanufacturers,somehasbeenaddedwithinaftermarketproductsandothertechnologieshavebeenbroughtintothevehiclebydrivers(e.g.,mobilephones).‘Infotainment’systemshaveemergedtokeepdriversinformedandentertained;communicationsystems,suchasphone,faxandemail,allowthedrivertostayconnectedwiththeoutsideworld;anddriverassistancesystems,suchascollisionwarningandadaptivecruisecontrol,supportthedrivertodrivesafely,efficientlyandcomfortably.Indoingso,technologiesautomate–partially,highlyorfully–aspectsofvehiclecontrol,orevenallaspectsofcontrol.Driverlessvehiclesarestartingtobedriveninsomepartsoftheworldasthisbookgoestopress.Theadventofnewpropulsionsystems(electricandhydrogenvehicles)havecontributedfurthertothisrevolutioninvehicletechnology,changingthefaceofdriving,andthehumanmachineinterfacesandinteractionsthroughwhichdrivingisaccomplished(e.g.,Labeyeetal.2013).
Parallelingthesedevelopmentshasbeenanexplosionintheapplicationoftechnologytomodernroadways:technologiesthatinformdrivers(e.g.,variablemessagesigns)andtechnologiesthatsupportthemtodrivesafelyandefficiently(e.g.,rampmeters,speedcameras,redlightcameras,etc.).Theadventofcooperativeintelligenttransportsystems(C-ITS),whichenablewirelessvehicle-to-vehicle(V2V),vehicle-to-infrastructure(V2I)andvehicle-to-nomadicdevice(V2N)communication(NTC2012),openupanalmostunlimitednewworldoftechnologyapplicationstoimprovethecomfort,efficiencyandsafetyofdrivers.
TheImportanceofDriver-CentredDesignandDeployment
Therapiddevelopmentofnewtechnologyhasresultedinmanynewsystemsfordriversbeingdeployedwithoutthemhavingbeendesignedsystematically,integratedintoworkenvironmentsandevaluatedfromadriver-centredperspective.Typicalissuesthatarisewithoutadriver-centricapproachtotechnologydesignincludeinformationoverloadfrommultipleinformationandwarningsystems,inadequatedrivertrainingandsupport,driversbeingoutsidethesystemcontrolloop,over-relianceontechnologybydrivers,de-skillingofdrivers,negativebehaviouraladaptationtothetechnologyand,ultimately,lowacceptanceorevenmisuseofthenewtechnologyafterintroduction(LeeandSeppelt2009).Humanfactorsare,thus,ofgreatimportanceduringthedesignandintroductionofnewtechnologies,butoftenarenotconsideredinsufficientdetail.
detail.
ASpotlightonDriverAcceptance
Thetechnologiesthatdriversusetoinform,entertain,communicate,comfortandprotectthemselvesarenodifferentfromothertechnologies:unlesstheyareacceptedbydrivers,theywillnotdeliverthebenefitsintendedbythosewhodesignedthem.Iftheyarenotaccepted,driverswillnotbuythem;andeveniftheydo,theymaydisablethemoutoffrustrationorusetheminamannerunintendedbydesigners.Thisisespeciallysalientforvehiclesafetytechnologies.ThereismuchevidencethatAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems(ADAS)havehugepotentialtosavelivesandreduceseriousinjury(USDOT2008).Yetiftheyarenotacceptedbydrivers,theirpotentialtosavelivesanddelivereconomicbenefitstosocietywillneverberealised.
HumanFactorsandergonomicsprofessionalshavebeeninterestedforalongtimeinidentifyingandunderstandingthedeterminantsofuseracceptanceoftechnology,inordertosupportengineersinensuringnewsystemsandproductsaredesignedanddeployedtominimiseresistanceandmaximiseuptake(Dillon2001).ThisinterestwasspawnedinpartbyarealisationwithintheITindustrythatsomeinvestmentsininformationtechnologywerenotproducingtheintendedbenefitsbecausethetechnologiesthemselveswerenotacceptedbyusers.TherehasbeenalongandlearnedpreoccupationbythoseintheITindustrywithuseracceptance;whatitmeans,howitismeasuredandhowitcanbeoptimised.Similarly,defenceandothercomplexoccupationaldomainssuchashealthcareandnuclearpowerhavelonghadaninterestinintegratingnewtechnologiesintoexistingworksystems.Morerecently,thisinteresthasspilledoverintotransportationHumanFactors(e.g.,Young,ReganandMitsopoulos2004).Arangeofmeasures,frominitialdesigntouser-centreddeployment,canbeimplementedtoimprovedriveracceptanceofnewtechnologies.
Atitsmostbasiclevel,acceptanceofnewtechnologycansimplybealignedwithuseofthattechnology:ifitisacceptabletopeople,theywilluseit.Sotheremightbeinterest,forexample,inhowmanydriversusetheircruisecontrol,underwhatcircumstances,andhowoften.However‘acceptanceequalsuse’issimplisticatbest,anddoesnothelpsystemdesignerstodevelopanddeploysuccessfulproducts.Amorefundamentaldecompositionofacceptanceisnecessarytosetthesceneforthisbookandtoillustratewhydifferentauthors(implicitlyorexplicitly)thinkaboutacceptanceindifferentways.
Defining‘Acceptability’and‘Acceptance’
Asascientificconstruct,acceptancehasbeenvariouslydefined.Intheinformationtechnologydomain,ithasbeendefinedas‘thedemonstrablewillingnesswithinausergrouptoemployinformationtechnologyforthetasksitisdesignedtosupport’(DillonandMorris1996:4).Thedeterminantsofuseracceptance,however,arecomplexandderivefromthetechnologyitself,fromthosewhouseitandfromthecontextinwhichitisimplemented.Thecharacteristicsoftechnologythatdetermineitslevelofacceptanceincludesuchcharacteristicsasrelativeadvantageoverotheravailabletools,compatibilitywithsocialpracticesandnorms,complexityineaseofuseandlearning,‘trial-ability’ofthetechnologybeforeuse,and‘observability’–ortheextenttowhichthebenefitsofthetechnologyareobvious(Dillon2001,Rogers1995).
Thereisdebateintheliteratureaboutthepsychologicalvariablesthatdistinguishuserswhoacceptorrejecttechnologies:cognitivestyle,personality,demographicvariables(e.g.,ageandeducation)anduser-situationalvariablesareamongthosethathavebeencitedasvariablesthatinfluenceuseracceptanceoftechnologies(Dillon2001,AlaviandJoachimsthaler1992).Acceptanceoftechnologyisalsoinfluencedbythesocial,legal,cultural,politicalandorganisationalcontextinwhichthetechnologyisimplemented,andbytheamountandtypeofexposuretheuserhashadtothetechnology.Someattemptshavebeenmadetolinkthesekindsofvariablesintoaunified,predictive,theoryofacceptance(e.g.,Davis,BagozziandWarshaw1989,Venkateshetal.2003).
Theterms‘acceptance’and‘acceptability’areused,ofteninterchangeably,intheliterature.Driverreactionstotechnologycanbestudiedatdifferenttimesinthetechnologylifecycle:beforeitexists;whenitexistsinprototypeformandwhenitiscommerciallymature.Inadvanceofactuallyexperiencinganewproduct,individualswillinvariablyhaveaviewaboutit,althoughmostresearcherswouldnotyetascribetheterm‘acceptance’tothisjudgement;atthispointmosttalkabout‘acceptability’asa‘prospectivejudgementofmeasurestobeintroducedinthefuture’(SchadeandSchlag2003:45–61).Productdesignersareveryinterestedincharacterisingacceptability(potentialacceptance)eventhoughitisapersonaljudgementaboutaproductyettobeexperienced.Noobjectivemeasuresareavailablebutopinionscanbesoughtanddesignerswillprobablyalsowanttoknowhowcertainareindividualsabouttheirlikelyfuturereactionsandwhetherthereareimportantvariablesthatareimportanttothem.
Aswellasafocusonindividualdrivers–ontheirbehaviourandtheiracceptanceoftechnology–itispossibletoresearchacceptanceoftechnologyatanorganisational,culturalorsocietallevel.Policymakersareveryinterestednot
anorganisational,culturalorsocietallevel.Policymakersareveryinterestednotonlyintheimpactthatdriveracceptanceofnewtechnologyhasontransportoutcomes(suchassafety),butinhowdesirableoutcomescanbesupportedbypromotingacceptanceofnewtechnologymoregenerally.Here,wecanidentifyconceptssuch‘earlyadopters’(Rogers1962)andlookathowtheuseofnewtechnologyspreadsthroughorganisationsandsociety.Issuesincludehowacceptanceofindividualsshouldbeamalgamatedinordertorepresentacceptanceatagrouporsocietylevelandwhether(assuggestedbyVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard1997)socialacceptanceisaconceptdistinctfromuseracceptancerequiringamoreholisticevaluationoftheconsequencesofadoptionofthenewtechnology.
PurposeandStructureofThisBook
Thepurposeofthisbookistobringtogetherintoasinglevolumeabodyofaccumulatedscientificandpracticalknowledgethatcanbeusedtooptimisedriveracceptanceanduptakeofnewtechnologiesincarsandothervehicles.Thebookhasfourmainparts:
•InPartII,thechaptersfocusontheoriesanddefinitionsofacceptanceandrelatedconcepts,andreviewanumberofdifferentmodelsofdriveracceptance.
•ThechaptersinPartIIIlookatthescientificandpracticalissuesaroundmeasurementofdriveracceptancewithadescriptionofsomeofthemaintools,techniquesandmetricsavailableandused.
•PartIVpresentscasestudiesinvolvingthemeasurementofdriveracceptanceofnewtechnology,providingempiricaldataandfindingsonuseracceptabilityandacceptanceofarangeofnewtechnologies,anddrawingalsoonexperiencefromwiderdomainsandperspectives.
•InPartV,thechaptersturntotheissueofhowdriveracceptanceofnewtechnologycanbeoptimised,boththroughdesignandbyconsideringthewidercontextofuse.
Finally,intheconcludingchapter,webringtogetheranddiscussthekeythemesthathaveemergedandidentifyfutureresearch,designanddeploymentneedsinthearea.
Thisbookaimstoprovideabalancedtreatmentofdriveracceptanceofnewtechnology,withcontributionsfromexpertsintheirfieldfromaroundtheworld.Allcontributionshavebeenpeer-reviewed.Contributorsrepresentarangeof
Allcontributionshavebeenpeer-reviewed.Contributorsrepresentarangeofstakeholdersincludingacademics,vehiclemanufacturers,roadandtransportsafetyauthorities,equipmentmanufacturersandinjurypreventionresearchers,providingmultipleperspectivesontheissue.Whilethemainfocusofthebookisondriveracceptance,severalchaptersbroadenthescopetoconsideralsotheoptimisationofuser/operatoracceptanceinotherareas(e.g.,consumerproducts,miningequipmentandmotorcycletechnologies).
Thereismuchthatcanbedonetoimprovedriveracceptanceofnewtechnologies–andinturn,toincreasethesafety,efficiencyandcomfortofdriving.Wehopethattheinformation,insightsandadvicecontainedinthisvolumewillhelptoguideandfacilitatethisprocess.
References
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Davis,F.,Bagozzi,R.andWarshaw,P.1989.UserAcceptanceofComputerTechnology:AComparisonofTwoTheoreticalModels.ManagementScience,35(8):982–1003.
Dillon,A.2001.UserAcceptanceofInformationTechnology.InEncyclopaediaofHumanFactorsandErgonomics.EditedbyW.Karwowski.London:TaylorandFrancis.
Dillon,A.andMorris,M.G.1996.UserAcceptanceofInformationTechnology:TheoriesandModels,AnnualReviewofInformationScienceandTechnology,31:3–32.
Labeye,E.,Adrian,J.,Hugot,M.,Regan,M.A.andBrusque,C.2013.DailyUseofanElectricVehicle:BehaviouralChangesandPotentialforITSSupport.IETIntelligentTransportSystems,17(2):210–14.
Lee,J.D.andSeppelt,B.D.2009.HumanFactorsinAutomationDesign.InSpringerHandbookofAutomation.EditedbyS.Y.Nof.NewYork:SpringerPublishingCompany.
NationalTransportCommission(NTC).2012.CooperativeITSRegulatoryPolicyIssues:DiscussionPaper.Melbourne,Australia:NTC.
Rogers,E.M.1962.DiffusionofInnovations.Glencoe:FreePress.———.1995.DiffusionofInnovations.NewYork:FreePress.Schade,J.andSchlag,B.2003.AcceptabilityofUrbanTransportPricing
Strategies,TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyand
Behaviour,6(1):45–61.USDepartmentofTransportation(DOT).2008.IntelligentTransportSystems
Benefits,Costs,Deployment,andLessonsLearned:2008Update.ReportNo.FHWA-JPO-08-032.Washington,DC:USDOT.
VanderLaan,J.D.,Heino,A.andDeWaard,D.1997.ASimpleProcedurefortheAssessmentofAcceptanceofAdvancedTransportTelemetics.TransportationResearchPartC,5(1):1–10.
Venkatesh,V.,Morris,M.G.,Davis,G.B.andDavis,F.D.2003.UserAcceptanceofInformationTechnology:TowardaUnifiedView.MISQuarterly,27(3):425–78.
Young,K.,Regan,M.A.andMitsopoulos,E.2004.AcceptabilitytoYoungDriversofIn-VehicleIntelligentTransportSystems.Road&TransportResearch,13(2):6–16.
1©TransportResearchLaboratory,2013
PARTIITheoriesandModelsofDriverAcceptance
Chapter2TheDefinitionofAcceptanceandAcceptability
EmeliAdellTrivectorTraffic,Sweden
AndrásVárhelyiLundUniversity,Sweden
LenaNilssonSwedishNationalRoadandTransportResearchInstitute(VTI),Sweden
Abstract
Despitetherecognisedimportanceoftheconceptofacceptance,howandwhynewtechnologiesareactuallyacceptedbydriversisnotwellunderstood.Whilemanystudiesclaimtohavemeasuredacceptance,fewhaveexplicitlydefinedwhatitis.Thischapterpointsouttheimportanceofdefiningacceptanceandcategorisesdefinitionsthathavebeenusedaccordingtotheir‘essence’.Distinctionsbetweendifferenttypesofacceptanceaswellasbetweenacceptanceandacceptabilityarealsodescribed.Aproposalforacommondefinitionofacceptanceisthenpresentedanddiscussed.
Introduction
Acceptancehasoftenbeenpointedoutasakeyfactorforsuccessfulintroductionandintendeduseofnewtechnologyinthevehiclecontextandelsewhere.Theliteraturealsocontainssomestatementsonthepurposeofinvestigatingacceptance.Najmetal.(2006:5-1)claimthat‘driveracceptanceisthepreconditionthatwillpermitnewautomotivetechnologiestoachievetheirforecastedbenefitlevels’andthatthereisaneedtodeterminewhetherdriverswillacceptandusethenewtechnologiesasintended.Further,Najmetal.(2006:5-1)statethat‘driveracceptancemeasurementalsoprovidesameanstoestimatedrivers’interestinpurchasingandusingnewtechnologiesasabasisforestimatingthesafetybenefitassociatedwithitsuse’.VanderLaan,Heinoand
DeWaard(1997)seeacceptanceasthelinktousage,therebymaterialisingthepotentialsafetyeffects,whereasVanDriel(2007)seesacceptanceasapredictorofthewillingnesstobuyasystem.Ascanbeseen,therearedifferentwaysofviewingacceptanceandacceptability.Commontoallofthemisthatacceptanceandacceptabilityarerecognisedtobeimportantandarebasedontheindividual’sjudgementof,forexample,thedriverassistancesystem.
Despitetherecognisedimportanceoftheconceptofacceptance,howandwhynewtechnologies,likedriverassistancesystems,areacceptedbydriversisnotwellunderstood.Whilemanystudiesclaimtohavemeasuredacceptanceofthesesystems,fewhaveexplicitlydefinedwhatitis.AsReganetal.(2002:9)putit,‘Whileeveryoneseemstoknowwhatacceptabilityis,andallagreethatacceptabilityisimportant,thereisnoconsistencyacrossstudiesastowhat“acceptability”isandhowtomeasureit’.
Thedefinitionofacceptanceisoneofthethreeelementsoftheacceptanceconcept(Figure2.1).Itisthefundamentalfoundationuponwhichbothassessmentstructureandacceptancemodelsrest.Withoutadefinitionitisnotpossibletoexaminethevalidityandreliabilityofanyassessmentmethodsand/ormodels.Although,thereisnocommonandestablisheddefinitionofacceptance,variousdefinitionscanbefoundintheliteratureaswellasdescriptionsofdifferenttypesofacceptance.
Figure2.1Thethreeelementsoftheacceptanceconcept
FiveDifferentWaysofDefiningAcceptance
Arecentliteraturereview(Adell2009)showsthatacceptancedefinitions
identifiedintheliteraturecanbeclassifiedintofivecategories.Thefirstcategorysimplyusesthewordaccepttodefineacceptance:forexample,‘acceptanceisthedegreetowhichalaw,measureordeviceisaccepted’(Risser,AlmqvistandEricsson1999:36).Thesecondcategoryisconcernedwiththesatisfactionoftheneedsandrequirementsofusers(andotherstakeholders)andmaybeinterpretedastheusefulnessofthesystem.Forexample,Nielsen(1993:24)describesacceptanceas‘basicallythequestionofwhetherthesystemisgoodenoughtosatisfyalltheneedsandrequirementsoftheusersandotherpotentialstakeholders’.Thethirdcategoryseesacceptanceasthesumofallattitudes,implyingthatother,forexamplemoreemotionallyformed,attitudesareaddedtothemore‘rational’evaluationoftheusefulnessofthesystem(asinCategory2).ForexampleRisserandLehner(1998:8)write‘Acceptancereferstowhattheobjectsorcontentsforwhichacceptanceismeasuredareassociatedto;whatdothoseobjectsorcontentsimplyfortheaskedperson’.Thefourthcategoryfocusesonthewilltousethesystem.Forexample,ChismarandWiley-Patton(2003)statethatacceptanceistheintentiontoadoptanapplication.Thiscanbebasedoneithertheoreticalknowledgeoftheapplicationorrealexperience.Thisdefinitionofacceptanceaimsforabehaviouralchangeandmaybeseenasbeingbasedontheearliercategories;inthatthewilltouseasystemisbasedonadriver’sassessmentoftheusefulnessofthesystem(asinCategory2)aswellasonallotherattitudestothesystemanditseffects(asinCategory3).Thisfourthcategorystressesthewilltoactasaconsequenceofapositiveattitudetowardsthesysteminquestion.Thefifthcategoryofacceptanceemphasisestheactualuseofthesystem;forexample,DillonandMorris(1996:5)defineacceptanceas‘thedemonstrablewillingnesswithinausergrouptoemployinformationtechnologyforthetaskitisdesignedtosupport’.Thisispresumablyinfluencedbythewilltouseit(asinCategory4).
Viewingtheacceptancecategoriesinthisway,theymaytosomeextentbeseenasaprogressionfromassessingtheusefulnessofasystemtowardstheactualuseofthatsystem,withthelattercategoriesincludingtheearlierones(seeFigure2.2).Thisprogressionperspective,however,cannotincludeCategory1,whichusesthewordaccepttodefineacceptance,butdoesnotprovideanyinformationaboutwhatisimpliedbyacceptanceoraccept.
Figure2.2Thefivecategoriesofacceptance,basedondefinitionsfoundinaliteraturereviewbyAdell(2009)
DifferentTypesofAcceptance
Therearealsodifferenttypesofacceptancedescribedintheliterature.Authorshavemadedistinctionsbetweenattitudinalandbehaviouralacceptance(Kollmann2000,Franken2007),betweensocialandpracticalacceptance(Nielsen1993)andbetweendifferentlevelsofproblemawarenessoftheindividual(Katteler2005).
Attitudinalacceptanceis,accordingtoFranken(2007),basedonemotionandexperienceandprovidesabasisforacceptingasystem.Behaviouralacceptanceisdisplayedintheformofobservablebehaviour(Franken2007).Relatingtothedefinitioncategoriesdescribedabove,attitudinalacceptanceiscomparabletothe‘sumofattitudes’(Category3)andbehaviouralacceptancetothe‘actualuse’(Category5).Similartothis,Kollmann(2000)describesacceptanceasconsistingofthreelevels:thegeneralconnectionofinnerassessmentandexpectation(theattitudelevel,Category3),theacquisitionorpurchaseoftheproduct(theactionlevel)anditsvoluntaryusewithafrequencygreaterthanthatofothertrafficparticipants(theutilisationlevel,Category5).
Slightlylater,Katteler(2005)defineddifferenttypesofacceptanceofdriverassistancesystemsdependingonthedriver’sawarenessoftheproblemtheassistancesystemisaimedattackling.Thewell-founded,firmacceptanceindicates,apartfromapositiveattitudetowardsthesystemthattheindividualisawareoftheproblemthesystemisdesignedtotackle.Opportunisticacceptanceindicateslowproblemawarenessandis,accordingtoKatteler(2005),likelytobelessstableandmoresensitivetochangesinthesystemdesign,thetermsofusingthesystem,theopinionsofothersaboutthesystemandsoon.
Thereisalsodiscussionabout‘conditional’and‘contextual’acceptanceintheliterature.Conditionalacceptanceindicatesthatacceptanceisdependentoncertainpreconditions(SaadandDionisio2007);forexample,‘IwillusethesystemifIamfreetoturnitoffwhenIwantto’or‘Iwillusethesystemifeverybodyelsedoes’.Similarly,contextualacceptanceindicatesthatacceptancedependsonthesituationalcontext(Saad2004);forexample,‘Iwillusethesystemonroadswithspeedcameras’or‘Iwon’tusethesysteminrushhour’.
Goldenbeld(2003)makesadistinctionbetweenacceptanceandsupport,whereacceptanceisdefinedasthewillingnesstobesubjectedtosomething(e.g.,paytaxes)whilesupportisthelikingfordoingso.Vlassenrootetal.
(2006:1)furtherclaimthat(public)supportisapreconditionforacceptancesinceit‘definesthedegreeofacceptanceorintentionspeoplehavetoadaptornottoadapttothedesiredbehaviour’.AccordingtoVlassenrootandDeMol(2007),thesumoftheindividuals’acceptanceindicateswhetherthereispublicsupport.BythereasoningofVlassenrootetal.(2006),thewillingnesstodosomethinghastobeprecededbylikingtodoit.
Acceptabilityvis-à-visAcceptance
Somescientistsstresstheimportanceofmakingadistinctionbetweenacceptabilityandacceptance.SchadeandSchlag(2003:47)defineacceptabilityasthe‘prospectivejudgementofmeasurestobeintroducedinthefuture’.Acceptabilityismeasuredwhenthesubjecthasnoexperienceofthesystem,andisthereforeanattitudeconstruct.Acceptance,ontheotherhand,consistsofattitudesandbehaviouralreactionsaftertheintroductionofatechnology.AccordingtoJamson(2010)acceptabilityishowmuchasystemisliked,whileacceptanceishowmuchitwouldbeused.Inadditionshedefinesuptakeofasystemashowlikelyitisthatsomeonewouldbuyit.
Pianelli,SaadandAbric(2007)differentiatebetweentwotypesofacceptability:prioriandposterioriacceptability.Prioriacceptabilityisacceptabilitywithoutexperienceofthesystemwhileposterioriacceptabilityistheacceptabilityafterhavingtriedthesystem.Theposterioriacceptabilityincludesexperienceofthesystem,butdoesnotnecessarilyincludebehaviouralreactions,makingitdifferentfromtheacceptancedefinitiondescribedbySchadeandSchlag(2003).
Anotherrelatedconcept,socialacceptability,isdescribedbyanexampleprovidedbyNielsen(1993:24):
Considerasystemtoinvestigatewhetherpeopleapplyingforunemploymentbenefitsarecurrentlygainfullyemployedandthushavesubmittedfraudulentapplications.Thesystemmightdothisbyaskingapplicantsanumberofquestionsandsearchingtheiranswersforinconsistenciesorprofilesthatareoftenindicativeofcheaters.Somepeoplemayconsidersuchafraud-preventingsystemhighlysociallydesirable,butothersmayfinditoffensivetosubjectapplicantstothiskindofquizzingandsociallyundesirabletodelaybenefitsforpeoplefittingcertainprofiles.
Comparably,adrivermightfinditsociallyunacceptableforagovernmenttoimposeadriverassistancesystemonauser,evenifitresultsinareductioninroadtrauma.Practicalacceptabilityincludesdimensionslikecost,
compatibility,reliability,usefulnessandsoon(Nielsen1993).Insummary,thereare,today,manydifferentwaysofviewingacceptance
andacceptability.Commontoallofthemisthatacceptanceandacceptabilityarebasedontheindividual’sjudgementof,forexample,adriverassistancesystem.Thefactonlymatterswhenbelievedbytheindividual.Further,onehastorememberthatanyassistancesystemonlygivestheexpectedeffectsifthesystemisusedbythedriver.Fromatrafficsafetyperspectivethismeansthatitisimportantthatthesystemisused–emphasisingtheacceptancedefinitionsincategories4and5(willingnesstouseandusage),behaviouralacceptanceandutilisationlevel.Inthisperspectiveitislessimportantifthedriverssupporttheuseofthesystem.Forotherperspectives–forexample,estimationsofwillingnesstopay–otheraspectsmightbemorerelevant.Itis,however,accordingtoourview,questionablewhetherwillingnesstopayiscomparabletoacceptance.
DefiningAcceptance
Thesituationwithmanydifferentwaysofviewinganddefiningacceptanceisproblematic.Ifacceptanceisnotdefined,itisnotpossibletovalidatedifferentmeasuringtoolsandbuildmodelstounderstandhowacceptanceisformed.Thedefinitionofacceptanceisthefoundationuponwhichbothassessmentstructureandacceptancemodelsrest.Thereforeitisvitaltocometoanagreementonwhatacceptanceis.
Belowfollowsadiscussionregardingimportantaspectsthatshouldbeincludedinthedefinitionofacceptanceinordertomakeitausableandeffectiveconstructwhendesigningandevaluatingdriverassistancesystems.
TheDriver’sUnderstandingoftheSystem
Workingondriveracceptanceofnewtechnologiesmakesitessentialtounderstandtheimportanceofadriver-centredview,asitisthedriverwhomakesthedecisiontouseornotuseasystem,atleastfornon-mandatorysystems.Sinceacceptanceisindividual,itcanonlybebasedonanindividual’spersonalattitudes,expectations,experiencesandsubjectiveevaluationofthesystem,andtheeffectsofusingit(SchadeandBaum2007).Theeffectsofacertainsystem(e.g.,reductioninaccidentrisk)canonlyinfluenceacceptanceiftheyareknown,understood,believedandvaluedbythedriver.Amisunderstandingofthesystemwillinfluenceacceptanceasmuchasacorrectconception.Thisalsoimpliesthattrustinthesystem,onanindividuallevel,isimportantfor
impliesthattrustinthesystem,onanindividuallevel,isimportantforacceptance.Trustisanimportantdeterminantintheoperator’schoicetouseautomation(seee.g.,Muir1994),and–inthesamewayastheconceptofacceptance–needsmoreresearchforestablishingacoherentframeworkformodellingandmeasuring.Here,weconcludethattrust,likeacceptance,isbasedontheindividual’sperceptionofthesystem.Thisis,ofcourse,amongotherthings,influencedbyhowthedriverexperiencesthesystem.
TheGainfortheDriver
Itisalsoimportanttorememberthattoachieveacceptanceanduseofnewtechnologies/systems,thepersonalimportancetotheusershastobevaluedmorehighlythanthedegreeofinnovation(AussererandRisser2005).However,policiesandpoliticalgoalsareoftenconfusedwiththedriver’spersonalgoals.Societalgoalsandindividualgoalsdonotnecessarilycoincide.Forexample,thepolicygoalbehindISA(IntelligentSpeedAdaptation;asystemwhichwarnsthedriverswhentheyexceedthespeedlimit,andmayevenpreventthemfromdoingso)couldbetoincreasetrafficsafetyortoincreasespeedlimitcompliance.Thesegoalsmightnotberelevanttosomedrivers,forexample,duetotheirfeelingthatsafetymeasuresareredundantbecauseoftheirownpersonaldrivingskills(BrookhuisandBrown1992)orbecausespeedingisnotseenasa‘realcrime’(Corbett2001).Nevertheless,theymightfindthatthesystemhelpsthemtoavoidspeedingticketsortheywanttousethesystemsimplybecausetheyhaveageneralinterestininnovativesystems.
ThemultidimensionaldefinitionofacceptanceproposedbyKatteler(2005)andtheapproachchosenbyVlassenrootetal.(2006)areinterestingbutfocusonthesocietalgainsofdriversusingthesystem.Katteler(2005)studiedISAanddefinesspeedingasthe‘problemawareness’dimension.However,thismightnotbethe‘problem’forwhichdriverswishtousetheISAsystem.Similarsystemsaremarketedasproblem-solversforspeedingtickets.Similarly,intheapproachofVlassenrootetal.(2006),thedrivershavetoagreethathighspeedsareaproblemandthatISAisagoodwayofreducingthem.
ItistheUseoftheSystemthatGivesResults
Theactualuseoftechnologyisvitalinstrivingtoimprovetrafficsafetybydeployingdriverassistancesystems.Itistheuseofthesystemthatwillmaterialiseitspotentialandhopefullyproducebenefitsforthedriverandthesociety.Neitherattitudinalacceptance(Franken2007)norsupport(Goldenbeld2003)requiresanyimpactontheactualuseofasystem.Hence,themainaim
2003)requiresanyimpactontheactualuseofasystem.Hence,themainaimandfocuswhenworkingwithacceptanceshould,inourview,beonbehaviouralacceptance(Franken2007),theutilisationlevelasdescribedbyKollmann(2000)andacceptancedefinitionCategory5–‘actualuse’(describedabove),whichallemphasisetheuseofthesystem.Fromthisperspective,thesecondandthirdcategoriesofacceptancedefinitions(‘usefulness’and‘allattitudes’),attitudinalacceptance(Franken2007)andtheattitudeleveldescribedbyKollmann(2000)influencethewilltouseandtheactualusageofthesystem,andshouldnottobeseenasacceptanceperse.
UsableintheWholeDevelopment/ImplementationProcess
Itisdesirabletoaccuratelypredictuseracceptanceasearlyaspossibleinthedesignprocesstobeabletoevaluatedifferentalternativesandidentifyobstaclestoovercome.Furthermore,fortechnologiesthatareavailabletodrivers,theuseofthemhastobeseenaspartofaprocess,includingthewilltouseasasteptowardsusage.
Sometimesthetermacceptabilityisusedwhenadriverhasnopracticalexperienceofthesystem,forexample,inthedevelopmentphase.Differentiatingbetweenacceptanceandacceptabilityishowevernotalwayseasyduetotheproblematicsituationofdefiningexperience.Cantestingthesysteminadrivingsimulatorbeconsideredasexperience?Ormustthesystembeusedinreallife?Andforhowlong?Canweconsiderusingamock-upasexperienceofasystem?Andsoon.Duetothis,itisadvisednottorelyonthetermacceptabilitytodescribetheexperiencethedriverhaswiththesystem;butinstead,toexplicitlydescribethesituation.
Tosummarise,itisimportanttodefineacceptanceassomethingthatisbasedonthedriver’sunderstandingofthesystemandfocushis/hergainofusingthesystemratherthansocietal/politicalgains.Theacceptanceshouldbeconnectedtotheuseofthesystemsinceitistheusethatcreatestheexpectedeffects.Preferablytheacceptancedefinitionshouldalsobeappropriateindifferentstagesoftheidea–development–implementationprocessofadriverassistancesystem.
ProposalforaCommonDefinitionofDriverAcceptance
Buildingontheseaspects,Adell(2009:31)proposesadefinitionofdriveracceptancefocusingonasystem’spotentialtorealiseitsintendedbenefits(e.g.,trafficsafetypotential);thatis,thedrivers’incorporationofthetechnologyinto
trafficsafetypotential);thatis,thedrivers’incorporationofthetechnologyintotheirdriving:
Acceptanceisthedegreetowhichanindividualincorporatesthesysteminhis/herdriving,or,ifthesystemisnotavailable,intendstouseit.
Thisdefinitionhastheadvantagesoffocusingontheindividualperspective,bothregardingthesubjectiveevaluationofthesystemandthegainsofusingthesystem.Thesystemmustbothaddressanaspectthatisimportanttothedriver(e.g.,notbeingfinedforspeedingornotfallingasleepwhiledriving)anditssolutiontotheproblem/waytoattainthegainmustbeknown,understoodandbelievedbythedriver.
Further,thisdefinitionstressestheimportanceofusingthesystem.Inthiswayacceptanceistightlyconnectedtodemonstrationofthejudgementofthesystem.Agenerallikingofasystemistherebynotacceptanceofthesystem;toacceptthesystem,theindividualhastoincorporatethesysteminhis/herdriving.Thisprovidesthepotentialofrealisingtheexpectedeffectsofthesystem.
Thisdefinitionalsoprovidesanopeningforassessingasystemindevelopmentbyaddressingtheintentiontousethesystemifthesystemwasavailable.Thiscanbeseenaspotentialacceptance,butshouldnotbeconfusedwithacceptability.Inthisdefinitionthetermacceptabilityisavoidedduebothtothediversityofmeaningputintotheterm(seethesection‘Acceptabilityvis-à-visAcceptance’inthischapter)andduetotheproblematicsituationofdefiningexperience.
Theproposeddefinitionalsostatesclearlythatacceptanceisofacontinuousnatureandnotlimitedtoacceptance/nonacceptance(nominalscale).Ofcourse,thedegreeofacceptancecouldalsobezerowhenthedriverdoesnotusethesystemand/orhasnointentiontodoso.
Bythisdefinitionitfollowsthatthedriverdoesnotnecessarilyhavetoliketousethesystemtodemonstrateacceptance.Toshowhighacceptance,itisenoughthatthedriverdecidestousethesystem,which,underthegivencircumstances,he/sheseesasthebestoption.Inthisway,toleratingtheuseofthesystemcanbeseenaspartofacceptance:forexample,bythedriverwhowouldnotnormallychoosetouseanISAsystembutdecidestodosoduetoanumberofspeedingfines,orbythedriverwhoagreestousethesystemsinceitisrequiredbylaw.Thedriveracceptsthesystemasthebestoptioninagivensituation.
Conclusion
Inthischapterwehaveillustratedhowacceptanceisdefinedandusedindifferentstudiesandwehaveputforwardanewdefinition.
Ifacceptancehasnotbeendefined,thenwecannotbesurethatthetoolweusetomeasureitwillgivevalidresults.Withoutknowinghowacceptanceisdefined,itisimpossibletounderstandhowdriverexperiencesinfluenceit.Thewidevarietyofacceptancedefinitionsandcorrespondingmeasurementmethods,andtherebythediversityofresults,presentabreedinggroundformisinterpretationsandmisuseoftheresults.Whatismore,thisvarietymakescomparisonsbetweentechnologies,systemsandsettingsalmostimpossibletoachieve.
Acknowledgements
Thischapterdrawsonthedissertation‘Driverexperienceandacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems–acaseofspeedadaptation’(Adell2009).
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Chapter3ModellingAcceptanceofDriverAssistanceSystems:ApplicationoftheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceand
UseofTechnologyEmeliAdell
TrivectorTraffic,Sweden
AndrásVárhelyiLundUniversity,Sweden
LenaNilssonSwedishNationalRoadandTransportResearchInstitute(VTI),Sweden
Abstract
Thischapterprovidesabriefoverviewofacceptancemodelsusedwithintheareaofinformationtechnology.Oneparticularmodel,theUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology(UTAUT),isthendiscussed,andastudyisreportedinwhichthemodelwasusedtoassessdriveracceptanceofaparticulardriverassistancesystem.Thekeyfindingsofthatstudyarereported,andsuggestionsaremadeforrefiningUTAUTtomakeitmoresuitableforassessingacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems.
Introduction
Tounderstandhowacceptanceofdriverassistancesystemsisformed,whatfactorsinfluenceitandwhatstimulatesacceptance,thereisaneedforanacceptancemodel.Driverassistancesystemsaretechnology-basedsystemstohelpthedriverinthedrivingprocess.Theyintegratesensors,informationprocessing,communicationandcontroltechnologiestoconstantlymonitorthevehiclesurroundingsaswellasdrivingbehaviourtodetectcriticalsituations.Thesesystemscontinuouslysupportthedriverbyinforming,warningand/orinterveningtoavoidanydangeroussituations.Inthischapter,acceptancemodels
derivedinotherdomainswithininformationtechnologyarereviewed,andtheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology(UTAUT)(Venkateshetal.2003)isusedtoassessdriveracceptanceofadriverassistancesystem.Basedonthisassessment,suggestionsaremadeforrefiningUTAUTtomakeitmoresuitableforassessingacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems.
FrameworksforAssessingAcceptanceofDriverAssistanceSystems
Thereareonlyafewframeworksforunderstandingacceptancediscussedintheliteratureondriverassistancesystems.TheNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration’s(NHTSA)strategicplan,1997–2002,statesthatdriveracceptanceshouldbeunderstoodintermsofeaseofuse,easeoflearning,adaptationandperceptionofthesysteminquestion(Najmetal.2006).Measurementoftheseaspectsofdriverassistancesystemsshouldshowwhetherthesystemsatisfiestheneedsandrequirementsofdrivers(correspondingtothesecondacceptancedefinitioncategorydiscussedinthepreviouschapter).TheNHTSAframeworkwasrevisedin2001,toincludeeaseofuse,easeoflearning,perceivedvalue,drivingperformanceandadvocacyofthesystemorwillingnesstoendorseit(Stearns,NajmandBoyle2002,Najmetal.2006).Reganetal.(2002)statethatacceptability,asitrelatestodriverassistancesystems,isafunctionofusefulness,easeofuse,effectiveness,affordabilityandsocialacceptability.ForReganetal.(2002),theseconstructsdefineacceptance.
WhenstudyingIntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA),MolinandBrookhuis(2007)showed,bymeansofaStructuralEquationModel(SEM),thatacceptabilityofthesystemwasrelatedtothe‘beliefthatspeedcausesaccidents’,whetherthesystemcan‘contributetopersonalorsocietalgoals’and‘ifoneprefersaneverlimitingmandatoryISA’.MolinandBrookhuis(2007)didnotdefineacceptance;nevertheless,inaquestionnaire,usingclosedquestions,theymeasureditbyquestionswiththefollowingcontent:‘intentiontobuyISAifitisforfree’,‘wantstopossessISA’and‘supportforpolicytoimposeISAonallcars’.Theseindicatorsdonotclearlyfitintoanyofthefiveacceptancedefinitioncategoriesdescribedinthepreviouschapter.However,thefirsttwoindicatorsseemtobeconsistentwiththeacceptancedefinitionsinCategory4(willingnesstouse)andthethirdindicatormightbeconnectedtocategories2or3(satisfyingneedsandrequirementsorsumofattitudes)(seethediscussionregardingtheconnectionbetweenmeasurementsanddefinitionsinlaterchaptersofthisbook).
NeitherNajmetal.(2006)norReganetal.(2002)haveshownifandhowtheattributesofacceptancetheyputforwardinfluencetheactualacceptanceofasystembydrivers,whichlimitstheuseoftheseframeworksforunderstandinghowacceptanceisformedandhowtoinfluenceit.TheSEMmodelregardingacceptanceofISAdescribedbyMolinandBrookhuis(2007)pointstotheimportanceoftheperceivedusefulnessofthesystem,butthemodelistoospecialisedtodescribewhatstimulatesacceptanceinawiderperspective.Inconclusion,thereisaneedforamodeltosatisfactorilydescribewhatinfluencesacceptancevis-à-visdriverassistancesystems.
AcceptanceModelsWithintheAreaofInformationTechnology
Followingtherapiddevelopmentofnewtechnologiesandsoftwareincomputerscience,interestintheacceptanceanduseofthesetechnologieshasincreasedsignificantly.Anumberofdifferentmodelsareusedintheinformationtechnologyareatounderstand,forexample,thereasonsfor(not)usingdifferentcomputerprograms,howtoimprovecomputerprogramstoincreaseusageofthemandreasonsfor(not)Internetshopping.Theinformationtechnologyareaincludestodayoneofthemostcomprehensiveresearchbodiesonacceptanceanduseofnewtechnologyandthemodelsusedhaveprovidedassistanceinunderstandingwhatfactorseitherenableorhindertechnologyacceptanceanduse.Thesemodelsarediscussedlaterinthechapter.
DifferencesBetweenInformationTechnologyandDriverAssistanceSystems
Applicationsofinformationtechnologyanddriverassistancesystemssharemanyimportantfeatures:theuserinteractswithatechnologythatisoftentoocomplextofullyunderstand;newapplicationsareincorporatedintoanexistinginteractionbetweentheuserandthetechnology;andbothinformationtechnologyanddriverassistancesystemsseektofacilitateanongoingtask.
Despitethesimilarities,thereareimportantdifferencesbetweenthesettingsinwhichinformationtechnologyapplicationsanddriverassistancesystemsareused,particularlyattheoperationallevel.Oneimportantdifferencebetweencomputeruseandcardrivingisthetimeaspect.Whenusingacomputer,theusernormallyhasthepossibilityofpausingandpondering,andevenaskingforhelpwithaprocessordecision.Continuousdecision-makingorexecutionisusuallynotrequired.Itisdifferentwhendrivingacar.Thecardrivernormallyhasashorttimespaninwhichadecision(andaction)hastobemadeandnormally
doesnothavethepossibilityofacquiringassistancewithalongprocessordecision.Cardrivingalsodemandscontinuousdecision-makingandexecutionoftasks.Whenusingacomputertheusernormallydoesnothavetointeractwithotherhumans,whileacardrivermustinteractwithotherroadusers,makingthesocialdimensionofthetwosettingsverydifferent.Whenacomputerusermakesamistakeitisoftenrepairable;theconsequenceisusuallyirritatingandsometimestime-consuming,butseldomdangerous.Whenacardrivermakesamistakeitcouldendinseverephysicaldamageorfatalitybothforthedriverhim/herself(user)andothers.Theworkingenvironmentwhenusingadesktopcomputerisimaginary,whiletheuseofacartakesplaceintherealworld.
Thesedifferencesareimportanttorecogniseandaddress.Nevertheless,theworkonacceptanceofdriverassistancesystemsshouldbeabletomakeuseoftheknowledgefromtheareaofinformationtechnology,albeitwithsomemodificationsandcaveats.
FrequentlyUsedAcceptanceModelswithintheAreaofInformationTechnology
Intheareaofinformationtechnologyanumberofdifferentmodelshavebeenused.Someofthemodelsweredevelopedintheareaofinformationtechnologywhileothermodelsincorporatewell-knowntheoriesdevelopedinabroadercontext.Themodelshavebeendevelopedoverquitealongtimespan.Oneofthemorerecentlydevelopedmodels,theUTAUT(Venkateshetal.2003),integrateseightofthemostusedmodelsofindividualacceptanceintheareaofinformationtechnology(inboldinthelistbelow):
•ThePleasure,ArousalandDominanceparadigm(MehrabianandRussell1974)
•TheoryofReasonedAction(AjzenandFishbein1980)•ExpectationDisconfirmationTheory(Oliver1980)•SocialExchangeTheory(Kelley1979,Emersson1987)•TechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)(Davis1989)•TheoryofPlannedBehaviour(TPB)(Ajzen1991)•TheModelofPCUtilisation(Thompson,HigginsandHowell1991)•SocialInfluenceModel(Fulk,SchmitzandSteinfield1990,Fulk1993)•MotivationalModel(Davis,BagozziandWarshaw1992)•AcombinedmodelofTAMandTPB(TaylorandTodd1995)•SocialCognitiveTheory(CompeauandHiggins1995)
•InnovationDiffusionTheory(Rogers1995)•TaskTechnologyFit(GoodhueandThompson1995)•SystemImplementation(Clegg2000)•TechnologyReadiness(Parasuraman2000)•ISContinuance(Bhattacherjee2001)•Three-TierUseModel(Liawetal.2006)•MotivationvariableofLGO(Saadé2007)•SocialIdentityTheory(e.g.,Yang,ParkandPark2007)
TheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology–UTAUT
TheUTAUTisbasedonanextensiveliteraturereviewandempiricalcomparisonofthemodelsincluded(forreferences,seeVenkateshetal.2003).Thekeyelementinallthesemodelsisthebehaviour;thatis,theuseofanewtechnology.
TheUTAUTmodelwasvalidatedforuseinunderstandingacceptanceanduseofcomputersoftwarebycomputerusersintheUSA.Itoutperformedtheeightindividualmodels,accountingfor70percentofthevariance(adjustedR2)inuse.ItwasconcludedthattheUTAUTisausefultoolforassessingthelikelihoodofsuccessfornewtechnologyintroductionandprovidesknowledgeofwhatstimulatesacceptance,whichcanbeusedtoproactivelydesigninterventions(includingtraining,marketing,etc.)targetedatpopulationsofusersthatmaybelessinclinedtoadoptandusenewsystems(Venkateshetal.2003).
InUTAUT,Venkateshetal.(2003)postulatetwodirectdeterminantsofuse:‘behaviouralintention’and‘facilitatingconditions’.‘Behaviouralintention’isinturninfluencedby‘performanceexpectancy’,‘effortexpectancy’and‘socialinfluence’.Gender,age,experienceandvoluntarinessofuseactasmoderators.
Theitemsusedinassessingtheconstructswereselectedfromtheeightinvestigatedmodels.Throughempiricalevaluation,usingaseven-pointscalefrom‘stronglydisagree’(1)to‘stronglyagree’(7),thefourmostsignificantitemsforeachconstructwerechosenasindicatorsforthespecificconstructsintheUTAUTmodel(seeTable3.1).Behaviouralintentionwasassessedthroughthreeitemsandusewasmeasuredasthedurationofuseviasystemlogs(Venkateshetal.2003).
Itwasfoundthat‘performanceexpectancy’isadeterminantof‘behaviouralintention’inmostsituations.Thestrengthoftherelationshipis,however,
moderatedbyageandgender,beingmoresignificantformenandyoungerworkers.Theeffectof‘effortexpectancy’onbehaviouralintentionisalsomoderatedbygenderandage,butcontraryto‘performanceexpectancy’,ismoresignificantforwomenandolderworkers.Theeffectof‘effortexpectancy’decreaseswithexperience.Theeffectof‘socialinfluence’onbehaviouralintentionisconditionedbyage,gender,experienceandvoluntarinesssuchthattheauthorsfoundittobenon-significantwhenthedatawereanalysedwithouttheinclusionofmoderators.Theeffectof‘facilitatingconditions’isonlysignificantwhenexaminedincombinationwiththemoderatingeffectsofageandexperience;thatis,theyonlymatterforolderworkerswithmoreexperience(Venkateshetal.2003).
TheUseoftheUTAUTModelinOtherAreas
TheUTAUTmodelhasalsobeenutilisedinareasotherthaninformationtechnology,suchasforadoptionofmobileservicesamongconsumers(Carlssonetal.2006)andinthehealthsector.Applicationexamplesfromthehealthsectorincludeexaminationoftheviabilityofmotes(tiny,wirelesssensordevices)ashealthmonitoringtools,healthprofessionals’reluctancetoacceptandutiliseinformationandcommunicationtechnologies,physicians’acceptanceofapharmacokinetics-basedclinicaldecisionsupportsystemandphysicianadoptionofelectronicmedicalrecordstechnology(e.g.,Lubrinetal.2006,Changetal.2007,HenningtonandJanz2007,SchaperandPervan2007).
ThestudieslargelysupporttheappropriatenessoftheUTAUTmodelintheseareas.However,socialinfluencewasnotfoundtobeasstrongapredictorassuggestedbythemodelwheninvestigatinginformation/communicationtechnologiesanddecisionsupportinthehealthsector(Changetal.2007,SchaperandPervan2007).Extensions/modificationsofthemodelwererecommendedbothintheadoptionofmobileservicesandwithinthehealthsector(Carlssonetal.2006,Lubrinetal.2006).
UsingtheUTAUTModelintheContextofDriverAssistanceSystems
AfirstproposaltousetheUTAUTmodelforunderstandingacceptanceofdriverassistancesystemswasmadebyAdell(2007),andapilottestofthemodelintheareaofdriverassistancesystemswasundertakenin2008(Adell2009).
Datawerecollectedduringafieldtrialevaluatingaprototypedriverassistancesystem.Thepurposeofthepilotwastoexplorethepotentialofusing
assistancesystem.ThepurposeofthepilotwastoexplorethepotentialofusingUTAUTinthecontextofdriverassistancesystems.Thus,theoriginalmodelwasappliedasfarastheexperimentaldesignallowedit.Additionalquestionstothealreadydesignedfieldtrialquestionnairesalloweddatacollectionforexaminationoftheinterrelationshipsof‘performanceexpectancy’,‘effortexpectancy’and‘socialinfluence’,with‘behaviouralintention’,includinggenderandage,asmoderators.AsummaryofthefieldtrialisgivenbelowandreportedinfullbyAdell,VárhelyiandDallaFontana(2009).
TheSASPENCEsystemisadriverassistancesystemthatassiststhedrivertokeepasafespeed(accordingtoroadandtrafficconditions)andasafedistancetothevehicleahead.The‘SafeSpeedandSafeDistance’functioninforms/warnsthedriverwhen(a)thecaristooclosetothevehicleinfront,(b)acollisionislikelyduetoapositiverelativespeed,(c)thespeedistoohighconsideringtheroadlayoutand(d)thecarisexceedingthespeedlimit.Thedriverreceivesinformationandfeedbackfromthesystembymeansofanexternalspeedometerdisplaylocatedontheinstrumentpanel,hapticfeedbackintheacceleratorpedal,orintheseatbelt,andanauditorymessage.ForfurtherinformationaboutthesystemseeAdelletal.(2009).
Twotestrouteswereused:oneinItaly,andoneinSpain.Bothrouteswereapproximately50kmlongandcontainedurban,ruralandmotorwaydriving.Thetestdriversdrovethetestroutetwice,oncewiththesystemonandoncewiththesystemoff,thusservingastheirowncontrols.Theorderofdrivingwasalteredtominimisebiasduetolearningeffects.Ateachsite,20randomlyselectedinhabitants,balancedaccordingtoageandgender,participatedinthetrial.PriortousingtheSASPENCEsystem,theparticipantsweregivenabriefexplanationofthesystem.ThequestionsregardingtheUTAUTassessmentweregiventothedriversaspartofthequestionnaireaftertheseconddrive.
Theitemsforassessing‘behaviouralintention’,‘performanceexpectancy’,‘effortexpectancy’and‘socialinfluence’wereadoptedfromVenkateshetal.(2003).Someoftheitemshadtobeadaptedtofitthecontextofdriverassistancesystems(seeTable3.1).Eachitemwasratedusingaseven-pointscale,rangingfrom‘stronglydisagree’(1)to‘stronglyagree’(7)(identicaltoVenkateshetal.2003).
Table3.1TheoriginalUTAUTitemsandthemodifieditemsusedinthepilottesttoassessacceptanceofadriverassistancesystem(Adelletal.2009)
Factoranalysisconfirmed,onthewhole,thesimilarityoftheitemswithinthefourconstructs(‘behaviouralintentiontousethesystem’[BI],‘performanceexpectancy’[PE],‘effortexpectancy’[EE]and‘socialinfluence’[SI]).However,itemsPE3andPE4didnotshowhighloadingsonperformanceexpectancy.PE3showedmoreresemblancetosocialinfluencewhileitemPE4didnotshowanyclearresemblancetoanyofthefourconstructs.Thesetwoitemswereexcludedandtheremainingitemswererepresentedbyfoursummatedscalevariables(averagesofitemscores).
Therelationshipsbetweentheindependentconstructs(PE,EE,SI)andbehaviouralintentiontousetheSASPENCEsystem(BI)wereexaminedbyapplyinglinearregressionanalysis.First,theunadjustedeffects–thatis,thecrudeeffects(meaningthattherewasonlyoneindependentvariableinthe
crudeeffects(meaningthattherewasonlyoneindependentvariableinthemodel)–andthentheadjustedeffectsofvariables(bysimultaneouslyenteringotherindependentvariablesintothemodel)wereanalysed.
Theresultshighlightedtheimportanceof‘performanceexpectancy’and‘socialinfluence’for‘behaviouralintention’butdidnotverifythesignificanceof‘effortexpectancy’.Thismaybeaconsequenceoflimitationsinthepilottest.However,thecontextofcomputeruse,forwhichtheUTAUTmodelwasdeveloped,differsfromthecontextofusingdriverassistancesystems(driving).Cardrivingdemandsinteractionswithotherroadusersandisthereforebyitsnatureataskwithastrongsocialdimension.Theimportanceof‘socialinfluence’asapredictorof‘behaviouralintention’inthecontextofadriverassistancesystemcouldbeaconsequenceofthis.Further,theeffortassociatedwiththeuseof,forexample,acomputerprogram,andtheuseofadriverassistancesystemmaybedifferent.Employingacomputerprogramnormallydemandsactionsbytheuser,whileadriverassistancesystemnormallyrunswithoutrequiringinputfromthedriver,informing/warningthedriveronlywhenthereisaneedtodoso.TheresultsoftestingtheUTAUTmodelonadriverassistancesystemaresummarisedinFigure3.1.
Theinclusionofthemoderators‘gender’and‘age’didnotaffecttheresults,regardlessofwhether‘effortexpectancy’wasincludedintheanalysis.
TherelativelylowexplanatorypoweroftheUTAUTmodelinthepilottest(20percent)ledtofurtherinvestigationofthesignificanceoftheindividualitemscomprisingtheconstructsusedinthemodel.Thissuggestedthatsomeindividualitemsusedinassessingtheconstructswerebetterpredictorsof‘behaviouralintention’thantheconstructsthemselves.Theitems‘usefulness’(PE1),‘drivingperformance’(PE3),‘accidentrisk’(PE4)and‘importantpeople’(SI2)hadsignificantcrudeeffectson‘behaviouralintention’.Thesignificantcrudeeffectsoftheitems‘drivingperformance’and‘accidentrisk’indicatedthatthey,althoughnotclearlybelongingtotheconstruct‘performanceexpectancy’,touchedonimportantaspectsforexplainingthe‘behaviouralintention’ofusingthesystem.Still,thereseemedtobeaconsiderableoverlapbetweentheseitemsandtheitems‘usefulness’and‘importantpeople’.Whenincluding‘drivingperformance’and‘accidentrisk’inthemodelandusingbackwardselimination,onlytheitems‘usefulness’and‘importantpeople’wereleftinthemodel.Themodelusingonly‘usefulness’and‘importantpeople’explained33percentofthebehaviouralintention,whichismorethantheoriginallytestedmodel.
Figure3.1RegressioncoefficientsandexplanatorypowerfortheUTAUTmodelwhenappliedtoacceptanceofthedriverassistancesystemSASPENCE
ProposedModificationstotheModelThreemodificationstotheUTAUTmodelaresuggestedtoimproveitsuseinthecontextofassessingacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems:(1)addinganewconstructtoincludetheemotionalreactionsofthedriver,suchasdrivingenjoyment,irritation,stress,feelingofbeingcontrolledandimageofthesystem,(2)weightingtheconstructsbytheirperceivedimportanceand(3)includingreliabilityissuesinthemodel(Adell2009).Further,theneedtoidentifyitemsthatcanassessthe‘essence’oftheconstructsinadriverassistancesystemperspectiveishighlighted.
Conclusion
Followingthedefinitionofacceptanceproposedinthepreviouschapter,theintentiontouseandtheactualusageofadriverassistancesystemiscentral.Itistheuseofasystemthatenablesthepotentialbenefitsofthesystemtomaterialise.Therefore,increasedknowledgeoffactorsthatinfluencetheacceptance(andhence,use)ofdriverassistancesystemsandtheirinterrelationshipiscrucialifdriverassistancesystemsaretoplayamajorroleinachievingabettertrafficsystem.Betterunderstandingofwhatinfluencesacceptancewouldgiveusvaluableinsightsintothecausesfor(not)usingthedriverassistancesystemandhowtoimprovethesystemtoincreaseuseofit.
Themostextensiveresearchbodiesdealingwiththeacceptanceanduseofnewtechnologytodayarefoundintheinformationtechnologyarea,whereanumberofdifferentacceptancemodelsareusedanddeveloped.TheUTAUTmodelwasdeemedinterestingtoapplytothecontextofdriverassistance
systemssinceitsummariseseightofthemostsignificantmodelsappliedintheinformationtechnologyarea,andhasalreadybeenusedinothercontextsoutsideinformationtechnology.
TheUTAUTmodel,usingageandgenderasmoderators,wasexaminedinapilottestwithin-vehicletechnologies.TheresultssupporttosomeextenttheuseofUTAUTasaframeworktoassessacceptanceofadriverassistancesystem,buttheexplanatorypoweroftheoriginalmodel(fromtheITdomain)wasonly20percent.Both‘performanceexpectancy’and‘socialinfluence’indicatedarelationshipwiththedrivers’intentiontousethesystem.‘Performanceexpectancy’wasfoundtobethestrongestpredictorofthebehaviouralintentiontousethesystem.Adell(2009)suggestssomemodificationstotheUTAUTmodeltomakeitmoresuitablefordriverassistancesystems.However,thesamemodelofacceptancecanhavedifferentexplanatorypowerinassessingtheacceptanceofspecifictechnologies.
Thesemodificationsarepromisingand,iffurthervalidated,couldhelptobetterunderstanddriveracceptanceofnewtechnologies.
Acknowledgements
Thischapterdrawsoncontentfromthedissertation‘Driverexperienceandacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems–acaseofspeedadaptation’(Adell2009).
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Chapter4Socio-PsychologicalFactorsThatInfluence
AcceptabilityofIntelligentTransportSystems:AModel
SvenVlassenrootGhentUniversity,Belgium
FlandersInstituteforMobility,Belgium
KarelBrookhuisDelftUniversityofTechnology,theNetherlandsUniversityofGroningen,the
Netherlands
Abstract
Asuccessfactorinthefutureimplementationofnewin-vehicletechnologiesisinunderstandinghowuserswillexperienceandrespondtothesedevices.Althoughitisrecognisedthatacceptanceandacceptabilityareimportant,consistencyinthedefinitionofacceptability,andhowitcanbemeasured,isabsent.Inthischapterwefocusonthesocio-psychologicalfactorsthatwillinfluenceacceptabilityofintelligenttransportsystems(ITS)bydriverswhohavenotexperienceduseofthesystem.First,differenttheoriesandmethodsaredescribedtodefineourconceptofacceptability.ThisconceptualframeworkisdescribedandtestedinthecaseofIntelligentSpeedAssistance(ISA)bytheuseofalarge-scalesurvey.ThisresultsinamodelthatmaybeusedforpolicymakingactionsregardingtheimplementationofISA.
Introduction
Toincreasethechancesoftheirpoliciesbeingsuccessful,policymakerswilltrytoobtainwidespreadpublicsupport.‘Acceptance’,‘acceptability’,‘socialacceptance’,‘publicsupport’andsoonarealltermsfrequentlyusedtodescribeasimilarphenomenon:howwill(potential)usersactandreactifacertainmeasureordeviceisimplemented?Theinterestindefiningsupportcanbeseeninthelightofagrowingawarenessthatpolicymakinghastobeconsideredasa
inthelightofagrowingawarenessthatpolicymakinghastobeconsideredasatwo-wayphenomenonbetweentheauthoritiesandthepublic,inwhichinteraction,transactionandcommunicationarethekeyelements(NelissenandBartels1998).
Thereisnogooddefinitionofwhattheterm‘publicsupport’means;inmostcasesithasbeenrelatedtoacceptability,commitment,legitimacyandparticipation(Goldenbeld2002).Animportantdistinctionthathasbeenmadeisbetweenpolitical,publicandsocial‘support’.Toacertainextent,theterms‘acceptance’and‘support’arestronglyrelated.Goldenbeld(2002),however,describesanuancebetweensupportandacceptance.Acceptancemaybeavailable,butwouldnotnecessarilyleadtothesupportofameasure.Generally,acceptanceshouldbeseenasapreconditionforsupport.
Todeterminethesupportforaparticularpolicy,orhowthesupportisdeveloping,measuringinstrumentsarenecessary.Viasupportmeasurementtheexpectedeffectivenessofthemeasuresandopinionsaboutthemeasureandpossiblealternativescanbemadevisible.Inmostresearch,theterm‘support’isnotusedbecauseofitsvagueness.Theterms‘acceptance’and‘acceptability’aremostlyusedinthecontextofdefining,gettingorcreatingsupportforapolicymeasure(HedgeandTeachout2000,MolinandBrookhuis2007).
Someauthors(e.g.,MolinandBrookhuis2007)statethatthereseemtobeasmanyquestionnairesasmethodstomeasureacceptanceandacceptability.Inadditiontotheproblemsinfindingtherightapproachformeasuringacceptanceoracceptability,theterms‘acceptance’and‘acceptability’aredefinedindifferentwaysbydifferentresearches.InthefieldofITS,AussererandRisser(2005)defineacceptanceasaphenomenonthatreflectstheextenttowhichpotentialusersarewillingtouseacertainsystem.Hence,acceptanceiscloselylinkedtousage,andtheacceptancewillthendependonhowuserneedsareintegratedintothedevelopmentofthesystem.Nielsen(citedinYoungetal.2003)describedacceptabilityasthequestionofwhetherthesystemisgoodenoughtosatisfyalltheneedsandrequirementsoftheusersandotherpotentialstakeholders.Moregenerally,inRogers’sdiffusionofinnovations(2003),acceptabilityresearchisdefinedastheinvestigationoftheperceivedattributesofanidealinnovationinordertoguidetheresearchanddevelopment(R&D),tocreatesuchaninnovation.SchadeandSchlag(2003)makeacleardistinctionbetweenacceptanceandacceptability.Theydescribeacceptanceastherespondents’attitudes,includingtheirbehaviouralresponsesaftertheintroductionofameasure,andacceptabilityastheprospectivejudgementofsomethingthatshouldbeintroducedinthefuture.Inthelastcase,therespondentswillnothaveexperiencedanyofthemeasuresordevicesin
practice,whichmakesacceptabilityanattitudeconstruct.Acceptanceisthenmorerelatedtouseracceptanceofadevice.VanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997)distinguisheduseracceptanceandsocialacceptance.Useracceptanceisdirectedmoretowardsevaluationoftheergonomicsofthesystem,whilesocialacceptanceisamoreindirectevaluationoftheconsequencesofthesystem.
InthischapterwewillfocusonhowtheacceptabilityofITScanbemeasured.Differenttheories,methodsandstudiesareanalysedtodefineacceptability(Vlassenrootetal.2010)andtoidentifythefactorsthatcouldinfluencethedegreeofacceptability.Aconceptualframeworkisdescribedandtestedbytheuseofalarge-scalesurvey.Thisleadstoamodelthatcanbeusedforpolicymakingactions.
TheConceptualModel
ModelsandTheories
ThelackofatheoryanddefinitionregardingacceptancehasresultedinalargenumberofdifferentattemptstomeasureITSacceptance,oftenwithquitedifferentresults(Adell2008).
Asnotedelsewhereinthisbook,oneofthemostfrequentlyusedframeworkstodefineacceptanceistheTheoryofPlannedBehaviour(TPB).BasedontheTheoryofReasonedAction(FischbeinandAjzen1975),theTPBassumesthatbehaviouralintentions,andthereforebehaviour,maybepredictedbythreecomponents:attitudestowardsthebehaviour,whichareindividuals’evaluationofperformingaparticularbehaviour;subjectivenorms,whichdescribetheperceptionofotherpeoples’beliefs;andperceivedbehaviouralcontrol,whichreferstopeoples’perceptionoftheirowncapability.
AnothersuccessfulmodelistheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)(Davis,BagozziandWarshaw1989).TAMwasdesignedtopredictinformationtechnologyacceptanceandusageonthejob.TAMassumesthatperceivedusefulnessandperceivedeaseofusedetermineanindividual’sintentiontouseasystemwiththeintentiontouseservingasamediatorofactualsystemuse.TAMhasbeenused–inthefieldofITS–inthepredictionofelectronictollcollection(Chen,FanandFarn2007).
VanderLaanetal.(1996)publishedasimplemethodtodefineacceptance.Acceptanceismeasuredbydirectattitudestowardsasystemandprovidesasystemevaluationintwodimensions.Thetechniqueconsistsofninerating-scaleitems.Theseitemsaremappedontwoscales,onedenotingtheusefulnessofthe
system,andtheothersatisfaction.Venkateshetal.(2003)notedthatthereareseveraltheoriesandmodelsof
useracceptanceofinformationtechnology,whichpresentsresearcherswithdifficultiesinchoosingthepropermodel.Venkateshetal.(2003)founddifferentunderlyingbasicconceptsinacceptancemodelsbymeansofadetaileddescriptionandanalysisofdifferentmodelssuchasTPB,themotivationalmodel,TAM,innovationdiffusiontheoryandcombinedmodels.Basedonthesetheories,theyconstructedaunifiedmodelthattheynamedtheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology(UTAUT).IntheUTAUT,fourconstructsplayasignificantroleasdirectdeterminantsofuseracceptance:(1)performanceexpectancy–thedegreetowhichanindividualbelievesthatusingthesystemwouldhelphimorhertoattaingainsinjobperformance;(2)effortexpectancy–thedegreeofconveniencewiththeuseofthesystem;(3)socialinfluence–theimportanceofotherpeople’sbeliefswhenanindividualusesthesystem;and(4)facilitatingconditions–howanindividualbelievesthatanorganisationalandtechnicalinfrastructureexiststosupportuseofthesystem.Thesupposedkeymoderatorswithinthisframeworkaregender,age,voluntarinessofuseandexperience.Althoughinseveralmodels,‘attitudetowardsuse’,‘intrinsicmotivations’,or‘attitudetowardsbehaviour’arethemostsignificantdeterminantsofintention,thesearenotmentionedintheUTAUT.Venkateshetal.(2003)presumedthatattitudestowardsusingthetechnologywouldnothaveasignificantinfluence.
Stern(2000)developedtheValue-Belief-Norm(VBN)theorytoexaminewhichfactorsarerelatedtoacceptabilityofenergypolicies.SternandcolleaguesproposedtheVBNtheoryofenvironmentalismtoexplainenvironmentalbehaviour,includingtheacceptabilityofpublicpolicies.Theyproposedthatenvironmentalbehaviourresultsfrompersonalnorms;thatis,afeelingofmoralobligationtoactpro-environmentally.Thesepersonalnormsareactivatedbybeliefsthatenvironmentalconditionsthreatentheindividualvalues(awarenessofconsequences)andbeliefsthattheindividualcanadopttoreducethisthreat(ascriptionofresponsibility).VBNtheoryproposesthatthesebeliefsaredependentongeneralbeliefsabouthuman-environmentrelationsandonrelativelystablevalueorientations(seealsoSteg,DreijerinkandAbrahamse2005).VBNtheorywassuccessfulinexplainingvariousenvironmentalbehaviours,amongwhichwereconsumerbehaviour,environmentalcitizenship,willingnesstosacrificeandwillingnesstoreducecaruse.
SchlagandTeubel(1997)definedthefollowingessentialissuesdeterminingacceptabilityoftrafficmeasures:problemperception,importantaims,mobility-relatedsocialnorms,knowledgeaboutoptions,perceivedeffectivenessand
relatedsocialnorms,knowledgeaboutoptions,perceivedeffectivenessandefficiencyoftheproposedmeasures,equity(personaloutcomeexpectation),attributionofresponsibilityandsocio-economicfactors.
Wewanttodescribethemostcommonandrelevantsocio-psychologicalfactorsthatinfluenceacceptanceandacceptabilityofITS.Thetheoriesandmethodsdescribedabovehavesomelimitations,especiallywhentheresearchisfocusedonpeoplewhohavenotexperiencedthedevice.Anin-depthanalysiswasconductedondifferentuseracceptancemodels,acceptabilitytheoriesandstudiesthatwereusedintheITSfield.Thisanalysisresultedin14factorsorindicatorsthatcouldpossiblyinfluenceacceptabilitythemost.These14factorscouldbecategorisedintothreemaingroups:
•Indicatorsrelatedtothecharacteristicsofthedevice(e.g.,usefulness,effectiveness);
•Indicatorsrelatedtothecontextwhereinthedeviceisused(e.g.,socialnorms,problemperception).Theseindicatorscaninfluencethespecificfactorsandacceptability;and
•Thethirdgrouparemoregeneralissueslikepersonalinformation(age,gender,education)anddrivinginformation(mileage,experience,accidentinvolvement).Thesebackgroundfactorswillinfluencethecontextualanddevice-specificindicators.
ANewTheoreticalModel
Adistinctionismadeabovebetweengeneralindicators(relatedtothecontextawarenessofthesystem)andsystem-specificindicators(directlyrelatedtothecharacteristicsofthedevice).Thedefinitionofeveryindicatorisdescribedbelow.
Figure4.1Theoreticalmodel
GeneralIndicatorsGender,age,levelofeducationand(income)employmentaretheindividualindicatorsandareconsideredtohaveanimportantinfluenceonhowpeoplethinkaboutadevice(ParkerandStradling2001).Ontheindicatorattitudestodrivingbehaviour,travelbehaviouranddrivingstylearebroughtintorelationwiththefunctionalityofthedevice(Stradlingetal.2003).SchadeandSchlag(2003)describepersonalandsocialaimsastheconflictbetweensocialorpersonalaims.Theyassumethatahighervaluationofcommonsocialaimswillbepositivelyrelatedtoacceptability.Perceivedsocialnormsandperceivedsocialpressurecanbemeasuredbyquantifyingthe(assumed)opinionsofothers(peers)multipliedbytheimportanceofothers’opinionsfortheindividual(Azjen2002).Problemperceptionhasbeendefinedastheextenttowhichacertainsocialproblem(e.g.,speeding,drinkinganddriving,tailgating,etc.)isperceivedasaproblem.Thereiscommonagreementthathighproblemawarenesswillleadtoincreasedwillingnesstoacceptsolutionsfortheperceivedproblems(Goldenbeld2002,Steg,VlekandRooijers1995).Responsibilityawarenessexplainshowmuchanindividualrecognisesresponsibilityfortheperceivedproblem:isitthegovernment(others/extrinsic)orisittheindividualitself(own/intrinsic)(SchadeandBaum2007)?Thelevelofacceptabilityforthedevicecandependonhowwellinformed(informationandknowledgeabouttheproblem)therespondentsareabouttheproblemandaboutthe(new)devicethat
isintroducedtosolvetheproblem(SchadeandBaum2007,Stegetal.1995).
DeviceSpecificIndicatorsTheperceivedefficiencyindicatesthepossiblebenefitsusersexpectofaconcretemeasure(ordevice)ascomparedtoothermeasures.Effectivenessreferstothesystem’sfunctioningaccordingtoitsdesignspecifications,orinthemanneritwasintendedtofunction(Youngetal.2003).Perceivedusabilitycanbedefinedastheabilitytousethesystemsuccessfullyandwithminimaleffort(SpeedAlert2005).Perceivedusefulnessandsatisfactionareindicatorsfromtheabove-mentionedacceptancescaleofVanderLaanetal.(1997).Equityreferstothedistributionofcostsandbenefitsamongaffectedparties.However,fromapsychologicalpointofview,perceivedjustice,integrity,privacyandsoonareconsideredbasicrequirementsforacceptability(SchadeandBaum2007).InmanyITStrials,acceptancewasalsodefinedbywillingnesstopayandaffordabilityofthesystem(BidingandLind2002,Broeckxetal.2006,HjalmdahlandVárhelyi2004).Givingincentives,likelowerroadtaxesandlowerinsurancefees,canstimulateacceptability(Lahrmannetal.2007,SchuitemaandSteg2008).
Inourconceptualstudyonacceptability,basedonaliteraturereviewandfactoranalysesofasmallamountoftestdata(Vlassenrootetal.2008),itwasnotedthattheseindicatorshadthehighestpotentialtopredictacceptability.However,notmanyacceptabilitystudieswereconducted,andthusnoteveryindicatorhasbeenadequatelystudiedinpreviousacceptabilityresearch(DeMoletal.2001,Garvill,MarellandWestin2003).Inthenextsection,wedescribehowthetheoreticalacceptabilityconcepthasbeentestedforthecaseofIntelligentSpeedAssistance(ISA).
TheConceptualModel
ISAisanintelligentin-vehicletransportsystem,whichwarnsthedriveraboutspeeding,discouragesthedriverfromspeedingorpreventsthedriverfromexceedingthespeedlimit(Reganetal.2002).MostISA-devicesarecategorisedintothreetypesdependingonhowintervening(orpermissive)theyare.Aninformativeoradvisorysystemwillonlygivethedriverfeedbackwithavisualoraudiosignal.AsupportiveorwarningISAsystemwillintervenewhenthespeedlimitisoverruled;forexample,thepressureontheacceleratorpedalwillincreasewhenthedriverattemptstodrivefasterthanthespeedlimit.Amandatoryorinterveningsystemwilltotallypreventthedriverfromexceedingthespeedlimit:thedrivercannotoverrulethesesystems.
Basedontheoryandonanin-depthstudyofthefactorsthatinfluencetheacceptabilityofISA(Vlassenrootetal.2010),thefollowingconceptualmodelwasconstructed(seeFigure4.2).
Figure4.2HypotheticalmodeloftheindicatorsthatdefineacceptabilityofISA
InFigure4.2,threemainblocksaredescribedthatwouldinfluenceacceptability.Thebackgroundfactorsandthegeneralcontextualindicatorswoulddeterminethespecificdevicefactorswhilethegeneralindicatorsareonlyinfluencedbythebackgroundfactors.Itcanbestatedthatthese14factorsmayeitherdirectlyorindirectlyaffecttheacceptabilityofISAandsotheywouldinfluenceeachotheraswell.Intheparagraphsthatfollow,thecausalorderbetweenthefactorsisdescribed.Acausalorderisassumed,goingfromthehighestrankeditem(1)tothelowest(15).AllselectedvariablesareassumedtodirectlyorindirectlyinfluenceISAacceptability.
Thepersonalinformationfactors(age,gender,familysituationandeducation)areconsideredtobeexogenousvariablesinthemodel;and,hence,notinfluencedbyanyothervariables.Thedrivinginformationfactors(typeofcar,i.e.,companycar,privatevehicle,etc.,accidentinvolvement,mileageanddrivingexperience)arethenextvariablesincausalrankorder,onlyinfluencedbythesocio-demographicvariables.Bothofthesefactors(personalanddrivinginformation)mayaffectanyotherremainingvariableinthemodel:forexample,genderandagearenotedasrelevantdeterminantsintheperformanceofspeedingbehaviour;thatis,speedisassociatedwithyoungmaledrivers(Shinaretal.2001).
Thethirdfactor,socialnorms,relatedtospeedandspeedingbehaviour,mayinfluenceeverycontextualanddevice-specificfactorinthemodel.Thechoicetospeedornotcandependonthepersonalandsocialaimsofpeoplewhendriving.Thisfourthvariablereferstothedilemmabetweensocialorpersonalaimsandbenefitsofspeeding:thehypothesisisthatpeoplewhowanttodriveasfastaspossibleaccordingtotheirownpreferencescouldbelessawareofthespeedingproblemandotherissuesthatcauseaccidents.Attitudesonsafetywillbemeasuredbydefiningwhichissuescouldcauseaccidents:mostofthetime,peoplewillalsocomparethespeedingprobleminrelationtootherroadsafetyissues(Corbett2001),likeintoxication,experienceorinfrastructure.Thereforetheattitudesconcerningroadsafetycouldinfluencethelevelofproblemawarenessbutalsotheinformationandknowledgeabouttheconsequencesofexcessivespeed.Thefactorinformationandknowledgereferstotheassumptionthatpeoplewhoarebetterinformedarepossiblymoreawareoftheproblemandthealternativestotackleit.Oneofthemaincontextvariablesisproblemperception:inmanytrials(Vlassenrootetal.2010)itwasnotedthattheacceptabilityofISAwoulddependonawarenessthatspeedingisaproblem.Thelastcontextindicatorisresponsibilityawareness.
Allthecontextfactorscouldpossiblyinfluencethedevice-specificindicators.Thedeterminationoftheorderofthedevice-specificindicatorswasratherdifficult,becausemostofthesevariableswerenotinvestigatedinoneandthesamemodel.SometheoriesandapproachesusedinISAtrialsformedthebasetodeterminethecausalorder(Adell2007,Agerholmetal.2008,BidingandLind2002,Driscolletal.2007,Harmsetal.2007,Reganetal.2006,Varhelyietal.2004,Vlassenrootetal.2007).
EfficiencyofISArelatedtootherspeedmanagementsystems(e.g.,speedcameras,policeenforcement)canbeconsideredasa‘gate’betweenthecontextfactorsandthedevicespecificfactors:itisassumedthatpeoplewouldcomparethesuggestednewsolutiontocountertheproblem(speeding)withotherexistingmeasures.Efficiency,definedinthisway,impliesthatrespondentsrecognisethatspeedingisaproblem,andalsothattheyunderstandwhoisresponsibleforsolvingtheproblem;howtherespondentsgetinformationaboutthesolutions;andhowtheycomparetheseinstrumentsrelatedtotheirownorsocialaims,andwouldpossiblybeinfluencedbytheirpeers.IfISAisratedasefficientcomparedwiththeothermeasures,anextstepcanbetodefinehoweffectiveISAisratedbythepotentialdrivers.EffectivenessisfirstrelatedtootherITSdevicesthatsupportthedriver:itisassumedthattheeffectivenessandacceptabilityofISAwilldependonhowtheeffectivenessofotherITSisrated(Reganetal.2006).
Secondly,theeffectivenessofISAisdefinedbyratingtheeffectivenessofISAtomaintainspeedindifferentspeedzones(Agerholmetal.2008,BidingandLind2002).Thirdly,somesecondaryeffectsareidentified,suchasISAcanreducespeedingtickets,ISAisbetterfortheenvironmentandsoon.AcausalorderisassumedbetweentheeffectivenessfactorsgoingfromITSeffectivenesstoISAeffectivenesstosecondaryeffectsofISA.ThesethreeitemscouldpossiblyinfluencetheotherdevicespecificfactorsandtheacceptabilityofISA.
Thethirddevice-specificfactorisequity.Therespondentswereaskedtoindicatewhentheywould(penetrationlevel)useacertaintypeofISAandforwhomacertaintypeofISAwouldbethemostbeneficial.Theassumptionismadethatthelevelofpenetrationwouldalsoinfluenceforwhomthesystemshouldbebeneficial.Bothofthesefactorsareassumedtobeinfluencedbytheefficiencyandtheeffectivenessparameters.Thefourthandfifthdevice-specificfactorsaresatisfaction–thatis,whenacertainISAwouldbeused–andusefulnessofISAtosupportthedriver’sbehaviour.UsefulnessandsatisfactionaretwoparametersfromthemethodofVanderLaanetal.(1997).Satisfactionwillbeinfluencedmainlybyeffectivenessand,combinedwitheffectiveness,definesthelevelofusefulness.Thefinalparameterinourmodelisthewillingnesstopayforacertainsystemthatisinfluencedbyalltheparameters.WillingnesstopayisafrequentlyusedpredictortodefinetheacceptabilityofISAintrials(BidingandLind2002).
TodeterminetheacceptabilityofISAbydrivers,therespondentshadtoindicatewhichsystemtheypreferredonafive-pointscalegoingfromnoISA,informative,warning,supportivetorestrictive.
MeasuringAcceptability
TheSurvey
AWebsurveywasconstructed,testedandputonlineattheendofSeptember2009.TheWebaddressofthesurveywaspublishedbytheFlemishandDutchcar-usersorganisations.
Intotal,6,370individualsrespondedtotheWebsurveyinBelgiumand1,158personsintheNetherlands.Ofthese7,528respondents,5,599responsesofcardriverswereconsideredusefulforfurtheranalysis.Comparedwiththepopulationofdrivers’licenseownersinBelgiumandtheNetherlands,driversyoungerthantheageof34areunder-representedandtheagegroup45–64wasover-represented.Moremaleandolderdriversparticipated.Althoughoursamplewasnotrepresentativeofthewholepopulationofdrivers’licenseowners
samplewasnotrepresentativeofthewholepopulationofdrivers’licenseownersintheNetherlandsandBelgium,bothmotoristorganisationsindicatedthatourresultswererelevantcomparedtotheirmemberdatabases,althoughexactdataforeveryparameter(e.g.,educationlevel)wasnotavailable.Ourresearchgoalismainlytodefinehowdifferentacceptabilitypredictorsarerelatedtoeachother,ratherthandeterminingtheacceptabilityofacertainpopulation.
DataAnalyses
Itwasassumedthateveryindicatorisdefinedbythesetofsub-questions.Factoranalysiswasappliedtoexaminethestructureandthedimensionalityoftheresponses.AlsoCronbach’salphawascalculatedtodeterminethereliabilityofasummedscale.Notalltheitemsofthedifferentindicatorsloadedonasinglefactorlikeproblemperception,ISAeffectivenessandequity.Regardingtheproblemawareness,amaindistinctioncouldbemadebetweenlowspeedzoneslikehomezones,30kphareasandurbanareas,andhigherspeedzones,likeoutsideurbanareasandhighways.Inourmodelweallowedtheseitemstocorrelate.Thescaletodefineacceptabilityconsistsoffiveitemsbetweennointerveningsystemstohighinterveningsystems(closedISA).Therefore,itcanbeassumedthattheacceptabilityofhighinterveningtypesofISAhasbeenmeasuredinthismodel.
Cronbach’salphasoftheintendedscaleswereabove0.70,exceptforresponsibilityawarenessandefficiency.Itwasconcludedthatthereliabilityofthesescaleswasreasonable(e.g.,MolinandBrookhuis2007).Thescalescoreswereconstructedbysummingthescoresontheconstitutingindicatorvariables,equallyweightingeachvariable.
Structuralequationmodelling(SEM)wasusedforthedataanalyses.SEMisamodellingapproachenablingsimultaneousestimationofaseriesoflinkedregressionequations.SEMcanhandlealargenumberofendogenousandexogenousvariables,aswellaslatent(unobserved)variablesspecifiedaslinearcombinations(weightedaverages)oftheobservedvariables(Golob2003).SEMcontainsafamilyofadvancedmodellingapproaches,amongwhichispathmodelling(e.g.,MolinandBrookhuis2007,Ullman2007).
TheEstimatedModel
AninitialmodelwasestimatedbasedonthecausalorderpresentedinFigure4.2.Initially,allpossiblepathsweredrawnfromfactorsearlierinthecausal
ordertowardsallfactorslaterinthecausalorder.Theexogenousvariableswerecorrelatedwiththetwovariablesrelatedtospeeding.ThemodelwasestimatedwiththeprogramAMOS7.
Onlythevariableswithsignificanteffects(p<0.05)werefurtherusedinthemodel.Pathsthatwerenotsignificantwereleftoutofthemodel,whichledtoatotalnumberof139distinctparametersinourfinalmodeltobeestimated(df=186).Theprobabilitylevelis0.091andChi-squareis212.27.Thegoodnessoffit(GFT)is0.99.TheprobabilitylevelandtheGFTindicateagoodoverallfitofthemodel.Anotherindication,especiallywhenalargeamountofdataorcasesareusedtodefinethemodelfit,istheratiobetweentheChi-squareandthedegreesoffreedom:ifthefigureislowerthan2.0agoodfitofthemodelisindicated(Wijnenetal.2002).Inourestimatedmodeltheratiois1.141,whichalsoindicatesanacceptablefit.
MoredetailedinformationaboutthemodelandresultsaredescribedinVlassenrootetal.(2011).
DirectEffectsTheeffectsarebrieflydiscussedwithrespecttotheplausibilityofthesignificantrelationships.Thestrengthoftherelationshipsbetweenthevariablesisgivenbetweenbrackets.Onlythemostremarkableeffectsaredescribed.Noteveryclassrelatedtoage,havingchildren,caruseandmileagewerekeptinthemodelbecausetheyhadnosignificantinfluenceontheothervariables.Thedifferentlevelsofeducationseemedtohavenosignificantinfluence.
Thismodelexplains56percentofthetotalvarianceinacceptability.AcceptabilityofISAisdirectlyinfluencedbyeffectivenessofISAonspeed(0.37),equityonISAequipmentfordifferentgroups(0.31).Usefulness(0.13)andequityofISAdependingonlevelofpenetration(0.11):driverswhofindISAeffectiveandusefulwillacceptISAmore.AlsothelowerthepenetrationlevelisbeforeinstallingISA,andifmoreinterveningtypesofISAarechosenforthedifferentgroups,thehigheristheacceptability.Remarkableisthefindingthatthewillingnesstopayhasaverysmalldirecteffect(0.02)ontheacceptability.DriverswholikehigherspeedlimitsandspeedingwillacceptISAless(-0.09inhighspeedzones;-0.08inlowspeedzones).Respondentswhowouldratherchoosesocialaims(0.04)indrivinganddriverswhousethecarasmaintransportmodetowork(0.07)aremorewillingtoacceptISA.Driversbetween25and45yearsold(-0.04)preferISAless.
TotalEffects
FindingISAeffectiveinreducingspeeding(0.62)willhaveaveryhighinfluenceontheacceptabilityofISA.Thiswasalsoexpected.AlsobeingconvincedthatotherITSsystemsareeffective(0.21)willhighlyinfluenceacceptability.InthiswaywecanassumethatdriverswhoareconvincedthattechnologycanhelptosupporttheirdrivingbehaviourwillacceptISAbetter.AlsobeingconvincedthatISAisbeneficialformostofthegroupsofcertaintypeofdrivers(equity)(0.32)willincreasetheacceptability.ThelowertheISApenetrationlevelhastobe,thehigher(0.12)theacceptabilitycanbecome.BelievingthatISAcanbeusefulandsatisfyingwillincreasethelevelofacceptability.ThesetwoitemswerealreadyprovenasrelativelygoodpredictorsofITSandISAacceptance(Varhelyietal.2004,Vlassenrootetal.2007).Satisfaction(0.68)willhighlyinfluenceusefulness.Driverswholiketospeedinhigh-speedzones(-0.14)(aspartofthefactorproblemawareness)willacceptISAless.RatingISAasefficient(0.12)relatedtootherspeedreducingmeasureswillalsoincreasetheacceptability.Driversbetweentheageof25and45years(-0.14)willacceptISAless.Ahighervalueforsocialaims(0.23)willincreasetheacceptability.Whileinmanytrialswillingnesstopayhasbeenstatedtobeagoodpredictorforacceptance,thiswasnotfoundinourmodel.AlsothesecondaryeffectsofISAwillnothaveahighinfluenceonthelevelofacceptability.
DriverswhoarenotinfluencedbytheequitylevelofpenetrationofISAaremoresatisfied(0.19)andwillrateISAmoreasuseful(0.19).AlsothesedriversarehighlywillingtopayforISA(0.51).EffectivenessofISA(between0.22and0.59)onspeedandspeedingseemstobeagoodpredictorforallofthesystem-relatedindicatorsexceptforusefulnessandsatisfaction.Efficiency(between0.07and0.17)willalsoinfluencealltheothersystem-relatedindicators,exceptusefulnessandsatisfaction.ThesamecanbefoundforthetotaleffectsoneffectivenessofITS.
AhighvaluationoftheresponsibilityofthedifferentactorstocounterspeedwillinfluencetheefficiencyofISA(0.17)relatedtoothermeasures.BeingawareofresponsibilitycanalsoleadtofindingITSandISAmoreeffective(0.11and0.13)andahigherwillingnesstopay(0.13).PeoplewholiketospeedwillacceptISAless(-0.14inhighspeedzonesand-0.08inlowspeedzones)andwillfinditlesseffective(-0.06and-0.13).Beingconvincedthatcertaindrivingbehaviourandcontextualissues(itemsfromtheattitudesonsafety)cancauseaccidentscouldleadtoahigherresponsibilityawareness(0.22),highervaluationontheeffectivenessofITS(0.18)andfindingISAbeneficialfordifferentgroupsofdrivers(0.12)(aspartofthefactorequity).Personalandsocialaimswillhaveahighinfluence(higherthan0.10)onmanyofthevariables(excepton
usefulnessandknowledgeaboutISA).Socialnormswillmostlyinfluencepersonalandsocialaims(0.19).
GoingbycartoworkcanalsoincreasetheacceptabilityofISA(0.11).Mileagewilldecreasetheuseofacarastransporttowork(-0.11and-0.19):peoplewhodrivelessthan25,000kmonayearlybasiswillusethecarlessasatransportmodetowork.HavingchildrenwouldmainlyinfluencetheefficiencyofISA(0.09)butwouldslightlyleadtospeedinginlowspeedzones(-0.05).
Twoagegroupswerekeptinthemodelastheonlygroupsthathavesignificantinfluenceontheothervariables.Driversbetween25and45yearswillbelesslikelytoacceptISA(-0.14).Thisisalsothegroupwiththemostchildrenyoungerthan12yearsold(0.47).Socialnorms(0.13)andpersonalandsocialaims(0.17)willbehighlyaffectedbythisagegroupofdrivers.Driversagedbetween25and45willhavemainlyanegativeeffectonmostofthe‘device-specificindicators’(between-0.08and-0.15).Youngerdrivers(<25years)arelessconvincedthatcertainbehaviouroraccidentscouldcauseaccidents(attitudesonsafety:-0.12);thesedriverswillalsoevaluateresponsibilityawareness(-0.13)andefficiency(-0.13)lower.Femaledriverswillspeedlessinhigh-speedzones(-0.15)andarelessinformedaboutISA(-0.15).
Conclusion
ThelackofatheoryanddefinitionsofacceptabilityhasresultedinalargenumberofdifferentattemptstocaptureormeasureITSacceptability,oftenwithquitedifferentresults.Inourresearchwehavetriedtomakeacleardistinctionbetweenacceptanceandacceptability.Someexistingtheories,likeTPBandTAM,weredevelopedinacertaintimeframeandplaceandforspecificaudiences.Althoughthesemodelsarefrequentlyused,rarelyhasanyonequestionedwhethertheyaregoodenoughtobeusedtostudytheproblemofspeeding.
OneofourmainambitionswastoderiveamodeltodefineacceptabilitywithrespecttoITS.However,takingintoaccountsuchalargevarietyofindicatorsresultedinamodelthatisstillrathercomplex.Thissuggeststhatdefiningacceptabilityisrathercomplex.Wearealsoawarethatsomeoftheselectedtopicstodefinetheindicatorscouldbeimproved.However,thisresearchhasresultedinimprovedinsightintotheopinionsandattitudesthatcaninfluenceacceptabilityofISA.
Manydifferentitemsinfluenceacceptability,directlyorindirectly.Itis
importanttounderstandtheseinordertodevelopimplementationstrategies.IncreasingthesupportofISAhastobeestablishedatdifferentlevels.
OurmodelshowsthatthewillingnessofdriverstoadoptISAincreasesiftheyareconvincedthatISAdoeswhatitisdesignedtodo.Theissueof‘equity’hasrarelybeeninvestigatedinotherITSorISAstudies.However,inothertypesoftrafficandtransportstudies(e.g.,tolling),equityhasbeeninvestigated.Oftenwhenanewdriversupporttechnologyisintroduced–especiallywhenitcouldrestrictcertainfreedomindriving–amajorityofthepopulationisreluctantto‘buyoruse’thesystem.IntheGhentISAtrial,itwasnotedthatmostofthedriverswereconvincedoftheeffectivenessandwerehighlyinfavourofthesupportivesystembuttheystatedthattheywouldonlyuseISAfurtherwhenmoreorcertaingroupsofdriverswould(also/beforcedto)usethesystem(equityonlevelofpenetration).Inthedevelopmentofimplementationstrategiesthisisaveryimportantissue.Therefore,policymakersshouldbeawarethat,iftheywanttointroducecertaintypesofITS,thepenetrationlevelshouldbesufficientfromthestarttoconvinceotherstoadoptthesedevices(BrookhuisandDeWaard2007).PromotingITSbyimplementingitincertaingroupsofvehicles,forinstance,thosedrivenbyprofessionals(bus-,taxi-,van-,truck-drivers)oryoungerdrivers,maybehelpfultointroducecertainsystems(equityrelatedtotheequipmentofcertaingroups).ItisassumedthatimplementingITSinthefleetofprofessionalvehicleswouldbeveryeffectiveinincreasingacceptabilityrates.OurmodelshowedthatwillingnesstopaywasnotamajorindicatorinfluencingacceptabilityofISA.However,othershavereportedthatprice-policy,subsidiesandsooncouldbegoodinstrumentstoincreasethelevelofacceptabilityforapolicymeasure.
Ourstudyaimedatanunderstandingoftheindicatorsassociatedwithacceptabilitythatmaysupportdecision-makersindevelopinganappropriateimplementationstrategy.Throughtheconstructionofafeasibilityframework,weareablenowtoprovidedecision-makerswithmethodsandproceduresthatareeasytouseandunderstand,basedonwell-acceptedsocio-psychologicalmodels.
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Chapter5ModellingDriverAcceptance:FromFeedbackto
MonitoringandMentoringSystemsMahtabGhazizadehandJohnD.Lee
DepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineeringUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,USA
Abstract
Thischapterdiscussesdimensionsofdriversupportsystems,rangingfromfeedbackfromtechnologytomonitoringandmentoringbycoaches(e.g.,parentsorsafetysupervisors),anddrawsonpreviousworkininformationtechnology,organisationalbehaviouranddrivingsafetydomainstoproposeaframeworkforevaluatingdrivers’acceptanceofsuchdriversupportsystems.Theproposedmodel,comprisedofatrust-augmentedversionoftheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)byDavis,BagozziandWarshaw(1989)andthemodeloforganisationaltrustbyMayer,DavisandSchoorman(1995),viewsacceptanceofthetechnologicalandcoachingcomponentsofthesystemasdeterminantsofacceptanceofthesupportsystemasawhole.Devicecharacteristics,drivercharacteristics,drivingbehaviour,contextandcultureandcoachingcharacteristicsareintroducedanddiscussedinthecontextofdriversupportsystemacceptance.Thesefactorscapturethemultidimensionalnatureofacceptanceandcanguidethedevelopmentofeffectivesupportsystems.Systemeffectivenessoftendependsonthedegreetowhichthesefactorscombinetocreateamentoring,ratherthanamonitoring,system.
DriverFeedback,MonitoringandMentoringSystems
AccordingtoDonmez,BoyleandLee(2009:519),feedbackinthedrivingcontextisdefinedas‘theinformationprovidedtothedriverregardingthestateofthedriver-vehiclesystem’.Drivingperformanceinitselfprovidesfeedback(e.g.,laneposition);however,thisfeedbackcanbeaugmentedwithadditionalfeedbackbyin-vehicledevices,intheformofwarningsoralertsand/ordriving
performancereports.Althoughbothtypesoffeedbackcanenhancedrivingsafety,theiraimsaredifferent:warningshelpdriversavoidloomingimminenthazards,whereascumulativefeedback(e.g.,weeklyreports)goesbeyondguidingaparticularsingleactionandaimstoshapelonger-termattitudes,habitsandbehaviours(Donmezetal.2009).Assuch,thecombinationofthetwocanbemostpromising(Donmez,BoyleandLee2008,Lee2009),especiallybecausetheeffectofpoordrivingperformanceonsafetymaynotalwaysbeobvious,asadangerousdrivercanavoidcrashingformanyyears.Inthischapter,bothwarningsandcumulativefeedback,providedbytechnologyandpeople,areconsideredanddiscussedinthecontextofdriveracceptance.
Thebenefitsofdrivingfeedbackhavebeenestablished(Donmezetal.2008,McGeheeetal.2007b);however,forthesebenefitstoberealised,thefeedbacksystemneedstobeacceptedbydrivers.Assuch,anunderstandingofthefactorsthatdetermineacceptanceandwaystoincorporatetheminthedesignareimperativetosuccess.Animportantconsiderationpertainstoencouragingamentoring(asopposedtoamonitoring)relationshipbetweenthedriverandthecoach.Datacollectedbyaparticularin-vehicledevicecanbeusedtoformameaningfulmentor-protégérelationshipwiththedriveroritcansolelyfacilitateamonitoringprotocolthatrecordsviolations.Likewise,differentdeviceimplementationsmightenforceoneroleortheother.Thischapterprovidesbackgroundonfeedback,monitoringandmentoringsystemsandproposesamodeltoassesstheacceptanceofadriversupportsystem.
FeedbackfromTechnology
Feedbackviain-vehicledevicescanbepresentedusingdifferentmodalities,ondifferenttimescalesandwithdifferentlevelsofinformation.Auditory,visualandtactilealertsareexamplesoffeedbackmodalities.Majorclassesoffeedbackintermsoftimingareconcurrent(milliseconds),delayed(seconds),retrospective(minutes,hours)andcumulative(days,weeks,months)(Donmezetal.2009).Furthermore,feedbackcanbeassimpleasablinkingLED(HickmanandHanowski2011,McGeheeetal.2007b),oritcanprovidedetailslikealertsorwarningsthatspecifythenatureandtypeoftheriskybehaviour,forexample,alanedeviation.Feedbackdevicesandprotocolscanbedesignedforthegeneraldriverpopulationortargetspecificpopulationsliketeenagers(Farmer,KirleyandMcCartt2010,McGeheeetal.2007a,McGeheeetal.2007b,Carneyetal.2010),olderdrivers(Lavallièreetal.2012,Marottolietal.2007)orcommercialvehicledrivers(HickmanandHanowski2011,Lehmeretal.2007,Orbanetal.
2006).Donmez,BoyleandLee(2003)developedataxonomyofdistraction
mitigationstrategiescomposedof12categories,alongtwodimensions:levelofautomationandwhetherthestrategyisdriving-relatedornot.Eachofthedriving-relatedandnon-driving-relatedstrategieswasfurtherdividedintosystem-initiatedanddriver-initiated.Althoughthistaxonomywasintendedtoclassifydistractionmitigationssystems,thefeedbackstrategiesinthedriver-related,system-initiatedgroup(i.e.,intervening,warningandinforming)canbeusedtodescribedifferenttypesoffeedbacksystemsingeneral.Atthelowestlevelofautomation,informinginvolvesprovidingdriverswithnecessaryinformationthattheywouldmissthemselves.Atthemiddlelevel,warningsystemsalertthedrivertotakeaction,butdonotintervene.Finally,atthehighestlevel,thereisinterveningthatreferstotakingcontrolofthevehicleinhazardoussituations,whenthedriverseemsunabletomanagethesituationsafely.Analternativeperspectivetakesthewayinwhichfeedbackiscommunicatedtothedriverintoaccount,distinguishingbetweenmonitoringandmentoringroles.Thementor-monitordimensionaddsadimensiontoDonmezetal.’s(2003)taxonomythatmaybeparticularlyimportantforunderstandingdriveracceptance.
Monitoring
Monitoringoperatorperformanceviavideoandotherelectronicrecordingsisnotanewapproach,butonethathasfoundapplicationrecentlyindrivingsafetyresearch,aswellastheinsuranceindustryforbothdrivertrainingandforpremiumadjustment.Electronicperformancemonitoring(EPM)isdefinedasasysteminwhichelectronictechnologyisusedtocollect,store,analyseandreporttheactionsorperformanceofpeoplewhileworkingonthejob(NebekerandTatum1993).IntheUnitedStates,66percentofemployersmonitoremployeeInternetconnections,43percentmonitoremail,45percenttracktimespentonthetelephoneandnumberscalled,48percentusevideomonitoringtocountertheft,violenceandsabotageand7percentusevideosurveillancetotrackemployee’son-the-jobperformance(AmericanManagementAssociation[AMA]andtheePolicyInstitute2007).Thistypeofmonitoringmainlyaimsatenhancingproductivitybyevaluatingperformanceandcontrollingoperatorbehaviour.
Althoughknowntobenefitperformance(atleastforsimpleandfamiliartasks)(StantonandBarnes-Farrell1996,AielloandKolb1995),EPMsystems
haveshowntoincreaseworkerstress,bothdirectlyandthroughtheireffectonjobdesign(Carayon1993,1994,Smithetal.1992).Workers’perceptionsoffairnessofworkstandards,fairnessofthemeasurementprocessesandfairnessinapplyingmeasurementstoworkerevaluationareamongthemaindeterminantsofworkerstress,andconsequentlyworkers’satisfactionwithandacceptanceoftheEPMsystem(Westin1992).Managementstyle,organisationalstructureandworkenvironmentdeterminethephysicalandmentalworkload,whichinturninfluencethelevelofworkerstress(Carayon1993,1994).Additionally,atechnologythatrespectsworkers’privacyisbettertrusted(Muir1987,JonesandMitchell1995)and,therefore,acceptedbytheworkers(Stanton2000,TabakandSmith2005,Alder,NoelandAmbrose2006).
Thegoalofin-vehicleEPMsystemsisoftenrelatedtoimprovingsafetyandmitigatingriskybehaviours.Awidevarietyofparameterscanbemonitoredandperformancedatacanbecollectedonvehiclespeed,location,acceleration,brakingpatterns,fuelconsumptionandsoon.Somemonitoringsystemscollectvideodatafrominsideandoutsideofthedriver’scab,providingdataonbehaviourssuchasfailuretouseseatbelts,inattentionanddistractionandfatigue(Horreyetal.2011).In-vehiclemonitoringsystemsalsodifferinthatsomelogdatacontinuously,whileothersonlyrecorddatasurroundingsafety-criticalevents.Animportantfactorthatdifferentiatesin-vehiclemonitoringsystemsfromeachotheristhechannelforcommunicatingfeedbacktothedriver;thefeedbackcanflowdirectlytothedriveroritcanbedeliveredthroughathirdparty.Thisfactorandothers,suchasthequalityofthefeedback,caninfluencetheeffectivenessandacceptanceofthesystem.Eventhemerepresenceofthedeviceinthevehiclemayhavepositiveornegativeeffectsondrivers’behaviour(HickmanandHanowski2011,Horreyetal.2011).
Recently,theinsuranceindustryintheUnitedStateshasstartedvoluntaryinstallationofmonitoringdevicesincustomers’vehiclesinordertotieinsurancepremiumstoeachdriver’slevelofsafedrivingandalsotoenhancedriversafety.TheProgressiveCorporation,forexample,offersasystemcalledSnapshot®thattracksparametersoftravel,forexample,speed,time,mileageanddistance,aswellasthefrequencyofabruptbrakingevents,andtransmitsthesedatabacktothecompanywirelessly(ProgressiveCorp.2012).Theincentiveforsafedrivingcanbeuptoa30percentreductioninpremiumswhilethereisnopenaltyforunsafedriving.AsimilarprogramistheTeenSafeDriverProgrambyAmericanFamilyInsurance,whichprovidesfreeDriveCamvideofeedbacktofamilieswithinsuredteenagedrivers,withthegoalofhelpingteenagersreducetheirriskydrivinghabits(AmericanFamilyInsurance2007).Itshouldbenotedthat
differentmonitoringsystemsmaypursuevaryinggoals;whileSnapshot®ismoregearedtowardsidentifyingsafeandunsafedrivers,thegoalofusingDriveCambytheTeenSafeDriverProgramismainlytoenhanceteendriversafetyandfacilitatementorshipbyparents.TheDriveCamsystemisusedbyseveralcommercialandgovernmentfleets,inareassuchasconstruction,distributionandenergy(DriveCam).Althoughthetechnologicalcomponentofthesesystemsmightbesimilar,therelationshipthatisestablishedbetweenthedriverandthesystemgovernsitsacceptanceandeffectiveness.Systemsthatareviewedasmonitoringarelikelytobemuchlesseffectiveandacceptedthanthosethatareviewedassupportingmentoring.
Mentoring
Whilethecentralfocusofmonitoringisonevaluatingperformance,theemphasisofmentoringisonenhancingperformancebyestablishinganurturing,insightful,supportiveandprotectiverelationshipwiththeprotégé(Buchanan,GordonandSchuck2008,AndersonandShannon1988).Inthecontextofdriving,thesamevideorecordingmethodsthatcanbeusedtomonitorperformancecanalsomentordriverstoachievehigherdegreesofknowledgeandproficiencyindriving.Theideaofusingvideotoprovidefeedbackhasbeenpursuedineducation.Forexample,inperformancecoursesofthecommunicationdiscipline,reviewingone’srecordedperformanceisfoundbeneficialwhenaccompaniedbyinstructors’orpeers’constructivefeedback(QuigleyandNyquist1992).Averysimilarapproachcanbeundertakenindriving:recordingsofsafety-relevanteventscanbereviewedbythedriverandasafetysupervisororparentwiththegoalofhelpingthedriveridentifyhis/herareasofvulnerabilityandworkonthemtoachieveahigherlevelofsafedriving.
Asystemthatcollectsdatafromanoperator’sperformanceandsharesitwithathirdpartycanbeperceivedasplayingamonitoringrole,amentoringroleorarolebetweenthesetwopoles.Themonitoringroleisgenerallycharacterisedbycontrolandreactiveadvice,whereasmentoringischaracterisedbycareandproactiveadvice(Barry2000).ThegoalsofimplementinganEPMsystemguidedecisionsaboutthetechnicalfeaturesofthesystem(e.g.,typeofdatacollected)andthesupervisoryapproachesundertakentoincorporateEPMintotheworksystem.Inthedrivingdomain,anEPMsystemcanbeusedasatoolforcollectingquantitativeperformancedatatofacilitatetheenforcementofsafetystandardsor,alternatively,asameansofprovidingfeedbackthataimstoenhancedrivers’safetyandwell-being.Quantitativemeasuresofperformancethatarecomparedagainststrictworkstandardsareoftensuggestiveofa
thatarecomparedagainststrictworkstandardsareoftensuggestiveofamonitoringrole.However,thetypeoffeedbackprovidedisalsoimportant:doesthefeedbackmerelyincludenumericalcomparisonsagainststandards(e.g.,maximumnumberofabruptbrakingeventsperweek),requiringthosewhoperformedpoorlytoexercisemoreeffort(negativefeedback;‘monitoring’),ordoesitadditionallyprovidesupportbyfacilitatingsaferpractices(constructivefeedback;‘mentoring’)?Moreover,feedbackthatistiedtoeachdriver’suniquecharacteristicscanmotivateamentoringrelationship,justlikefeedbackthatcomparesthedriver’sperformancetootherscanstrengthentheperceptionofbeingmonitored.
ItisalsoimportanttoconsidertheinterfacebetweentheEPMdeviceandthedriver:Doesthedriverknowwhenthesystemisrecording?Isthedriverabletocontrolwhenandwhatisrecorded?Theserelatetotheconceptofprivacythatrequiresthatemployeesbenotifiedwhentheyaremonitored(StantonandBarnes-Farrell1996).Suchtransparencycanbeachievedbyeffortsonseverallevels:fromtrainingthattakesplacebefore/duringthedriver-systeminteraction,toreal-timeindicatorsthatsignalmonitoring(e.g.,asignallight).Atransparentsystemisbetterperceivedandtrustedasaco-operator(Muir1987,JonesandMitchell1995)andcansupportamentoringrelationship,whereasasystemthatispoorlyunderstoodwillenforcetheperceptionofmonitoring.
Incommercialdrivingapplications,thewaytheEPMsystemisincorporatedintojobdesigniscruciallyimportantintheperceptionsofitsmentoringormonitoringrole.Theelementsofjobdesigncanbegroupedintothreecategories:jobdemands,jobcontrolandsocialsupport(Carayon1993).Somefactorsrelevanttothesecategorieshavebeendiscussedearlierinthischapter;forexample,performancestandards(jobdemands)andtypeoffeedbackandsupervision(socialsupport).Job-demandfactorsinfluencetheperceptionsoffairness–whetherthestandardsandmeasurementprocessesarereasonable–andtheclimateofemployeetrustinmanagement(Westin1992).Ifthemanagementisperceivedasenforcingunfairandunrealisticstandardsbyobservingdrivers’performanceinunexpectedways,thenamonitoringroleismorelikelytoberealised.Conversely,iftheEPMdatacollectioniswellunderstoodandthemeasurementsareusedinawayperceivedasfairbythedrivers,theyaremorelikelytoseethemselvesinaprotégé-mentorrelationshipwiththesafetysupervisors.ThejobcontrolelementcanalsoshapetheperceptionsoftheEPMrole:degreeofautonomyisafunctionofthetypeofinputreceived–whethercertainpracticesaremandatedorworkersaregivenlatitudeinhowtousethefeedback.
TheinfluenceoftheEPMsystem’stechnicalcharacteristicsondrivers’attitudescangobeyondperceptionsoftransparency,privacyandfairnessto
attitudescangobeyondperceptionsoftransparency,privacyandfairnesstodeterminethedegreeoftrustinthesystem.Incaseswherethesystemisdesignedtoprovideperformancefeedback(e.g.,performance-relatedwarningsandperformancesynopses),falseinformationdeliveredbythesystemcanleadtosystem’scredibilitylossandworkers’mistrust(Breznitz1984),degradingtheEPMsystemtothelevelofanobtrusiveandincompetentmonitoringdevice.
CultureandcontextinfluencetheEPMsystemimplementationinseveralways:theydeterminemanagement’sattitudetowardssystemspecificationsandimplementationprocedures,aswellasdrivers’reactiontothesystem.Inasupportiveatmosphere,trustbetweenworkersandsupervisorsleadstopositiveperceptionsoftheEPM(Alder2001)andthebeliefthatthesystemisdesignedtoenhancetheirwell-being(mentoringrole).Thesepositiveperceptionsarefurtherreinforcedbyasystem’sfairness,respectforprivacyandinformationaccuracy.
Figure5.1summarisesthementoringroleversusmonitoringrolediscussionaboveandintegratesthefactorsthatencourageoneroleortheotherforanEPMsystem.Thesefactorsrangefromtheaimofthesystem(controlofthedriverversuscareforthedriver)torespectforprivacyandsystemtransparency.Perceptionsofmentoringormonitoringcanmovealongaspectrum,withperceptionsanywherebetweenthetwoextremespossible.
Figure5.1Factorssuggestingamentoringversusamonitoringrole
AssessingtheAcceptanceofFeedback,MonitoringandMentoringSystems
Inthissection,atheoreticalmodelforassessingdrivers’acceptanceofadriversupportsystemisproposedthatbringstogetherdrivers’acceptanceofin-vehiclefeedbackandmonitoringdevicesandtheiracceptanceofmonitoringor
feedbackandmonitoringdevicesandtheiracceptanceofmonitoringormentoringexercisedbyacoach(e.g.,parent,transportationcompanymanager).TheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)framework(describedbelow)willbeusedforassessingattitudestowardsthefeedbacktechnology.TheTAMisaugmentedbytrusttobetteraccountfordrivers’perceptionsofthein-vehiclesystem(LeeandSee2004)andisfurtherextendedbyconstructsfromMayeretal.’s(1995)modeloforganisationaltrusttocaptureperceptionsofthecoachingprotocols.Variablesthatcaninfluenceacceptanceareaddedtothemodelasexternalvariables.Themodellingframeworkisdevelopedbasedonthedifferentapproachestoprovidingfeedbackasdescribedearlierinthischapter.ThissectiondescribestheTAMframeworkandsomeofitsrelatedapplications,liststhecategoriesofexternalvariablesrelevanttodriversupportsystemacceptanceandproposesamodelforassessingdriversupportsystemacceptance.
TheTechnologyAcceptanceModel
Severalframeworksandmethodologiesexistthatdescribepeople’sacceptanceoftechnology(seealsoearlierchaptersinthisvolume).Withinthedrivingdomain,asimplemethodthatassessessystemusefulnessandsatisfactionhasbeenparticularlydominant(VanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard1997).Inotherdomains,theTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)hassuccessfullypredictedtechnologyuse,andassuchhasbeenbroadlyusedsinceitsintroductionmorethantwodecadesago.TheTAM(Davisetal.1989),builtupontheTheoryofReasonedAction(TRA)ofFishbeinandAjzen(1975),positsthatperceivedusefulnessandperceivedeaseofusearethemaindeterminantsofattitudetowardsatechnology,whichinturnpredictsbehaviouralintentiontouseandultimately,actualsystemuse.Sinceattitudeisfoundtoonlypartiallymediatetheeffectofperceivedusefulnessonintentiontouse,aparsimoniousTAMissuggestedthatexcludesattitude,asshowninFigure5.2(DavisandVenkatesh1996,VenkateshandDavis2000).TheTAMconstructshavebeenfoundtobehighlyreliable,validandrobusttomeasurementinstrumentdesign(DavisandVenkatesh1996).
TheTAMhasrecentlybeenappliedinstudiesassessingtheacceptanceofdrivingassistancesystems.Xuetal.(2010)usedtheTAMtoassessacceptanceofadvancedtravellerinformationsystems,incorporatingfourdomain-specificconstructs(i.e.,informationattributes,trustintravelinformation,socio-demographicsandcognitionofalternateroutes).ChenandChen(2011)usedtheTAMforevaluatingacceptanceofGPSdevices,addingperceivedenjoymentandpersonalinnovativenessconstructstothemodel.Afewotherstudieshave
alsousedtheTAMconstructsintheiranalysisofdrivingassistancesystems(Adell2010,Meschtscherjakovetal.2009),findingthatperceivedsystemdisturbanceandperceivedrisk,aswellassocialfactors,stronglyinfluencethebehaviouralintentiontouseasystem.ThesestudiesdemonstratetheaptnessoftheTAMfordrivingassistancesystemsassessmentandprovidebackgroundandstructureforfuturedrivingtechnologyevaluations.Longitudinalstudiesthattraceperceptionsovertimeandasafunctionofsystemusewouldbemosthelpfulinidentifyingelementsofthetechnologyandthehuman-technologyinteractionthatshapedynamicsofacceptanceandeventually,long-termadoptiondecisions(Ghazizadeh,LeeandBoyle2012a,KimandMalhotra2005,BajajandNidumolu1998).
Figure5.2TechnologyAcceptanceModel.AdaptedwithpermissionfromDavisetal.©1989,theInstituteforOperationsResearchandtheManagementSciences,7240ParkwayDrive,Suite300,Hanover,Maryland21076
FactorsInfluencingDriverSupportSystemAcceptance
Severalfactorscaninfluenceadriver’sperceptionofafeedback,monitoringandmentoringsystem.Inthissubsection,thesefactorswillbegroupedintofivemajorcategoriesthatdefineimportantconstructsinfluencingacceptance.Thislistofconstructsspansfromthedeviceandthedriver(drivercharacteristicsanddrivingbehaviour),tothecontextandcultureinwhichthedrivingtasktakesplaceandfinally,tothecharacteristicsofthecoachingsystem,describingadriver’sworksystem.Figure5.3providesaschematicrepresentationoffactorssurroundingadriver,withfeedbackfromthedriversupportsystemshownasdashedarrows.Thevariableswithineachcategorywillenterthedriversupportsystemacceptancemodelasexternalvariables,influencingacceptanceindirectlythroughtheirimpactonperceptionsofthesystem(Davisetal.1989).
DeviceCharacteristics
Thepropertiesofthefeedbackdevicecanlargelyinfluenceperceptionsofthesystemandeventually,decisionstoacceptorrejectfeedback.Drivers’perceptionsofthesystemcanbeformedalongseveraldimensions,rangingfromevaluationsofsystemeffectivenesstothedegreeofannoyanceinducedbythesystem.Variousfactorsinfluencetheseperceptions:feedbackcontent,style,timing,frequency,precision,style(positiveornegative)andmethodofdelivery(Arroyo,SullivanandSelker2006,McLaughlin,RogersandFisk2006aand2006b,Huangetal.2005,Huangetal.2008).Purelyinformativesystemsarelikelytobemoreacceptedthansystemsthatforcechanges(VanderLaanetal.1997).Adriversupportsystemmayinvolveadevicethatmerelyprovidesfeedback(e.g.,real-timeordelayed)ormayalsocollectdatathatissharedwithasafetycoach(e.g.,parents,safetysupervisorsatatruckingcompany)forfollowupwiththedriver.Basedonthespecificgoalofasystem,otherfactorscanbeaddedtothelist.Forexample,inthecaseofauditoryalerts,parameterslikeformat,soundtype,pulsedurationandinter-pulseintervalcanaffectannoyance(Marshall,LeeandAustria2007).
Figure5.3Aschematicrepresentationofthedrivingsystemwithdashedarrowsrepresentingfeedbackfromthedriversupportsystem
Whensystemshaveamonitoringcomponent,invasionofprivacycanbecomeanissue,tothepointthathindersthewillingnesstoinstallthedevice.Forexample,parentshaveshownconcernaboutinstallingmonitoringsystemsintheirteens’vehiclesbecausetheyperceivedmonitoringtobeaninvasionofprivacy(McCartt,HellingaandHaire2007).InvasionofprivacyhaslongbeenaconcernwithEPMsystemsandmeritscarefulattention(ZweigandWebster2002,Alder2001).Thetypeofdatacollected(privatebehavioursanddriving
2002,Alder2001).Thetypeofdatacollected(privatebehavioursanddrivingoutcomes)andwhetheranotherpersonviewsthedata(asopposedtodatabeingsharedonlywiththedriver)caninfluenceperceptionsofprivacyinvasion.Whileimportantformostpeople,privacycanbecomeamajorconcernforspecificgroupsofdrivers:olderdriversmaynotwanttosharetheirdrivingdataoutoffearoflosingtheirrighttodrive.Commercialdriversmayalsofinditdisturbingtobemonitoredandwithnowaytoavoidit,mightevenresorttosabotagingthesystem(HickmanandHanowski2011).
DriverCharacteristicsThecharacteristicsofdrivers,suchasage,genderanddrivingpurpose,caninfluencehis/heradoptiondecisions.Ageandgenderareimportantfactorsinthattheycaninfluencetherelativeimportanceofdeterminantsofacceptance.Venkateshandcolleagues(MorrisandVenkatesh2000,Venkatesh,MorrisandAckerman2000)conductedaseriesofstudiestoevaluatetheroleofageandgenderintherelativeimportanceofattitude,subjectivenorm(i.e.,perceivedsocialpressuretoperformabehaviour)andperceivedbehaviouralcontrol(predictorsofsystemusebasedontheTheoryofPlannedBehavior,Ajzen1991).Theirfindingsshowedthatyoungerworkers’technology-usedecisionsaremorestronglyinfluencedbytheirattitudestowardstechnology,whereasinolderworkers,subjectivenormandbehaviouralcontrolarethemaindeterminantsoftechnologyadoption(MorrisandVenkatesh2000).Asimilarpatternwasobservedinthecomparisonbetweenmenandwomen:men’sdecisionsaremorestronglyinfluencedbytheirattitude,whereaswomen’sdecisionsareprimarilydrivenbysubjectivenormandperceivedbehaviouralcontrol(Venkateshetal.2000).Inthecaseofdriversupportsystems,thesefindingssuggestthat,whenencounteredwiththesamesystem,differentdrivergroupsbasedtheirassessmentsonvariouscriteriaandthatthosecriteriamightbeweigheddifferentlyfromdrivertodriver.Furthermore,assessmentsofthesystemalongeachcriterioncanbedifferentbasedonadriver’scharacteristics.Intheassessmentofdistractionmitigationsystems,olderdriversacceptedthesystemmorethanmiddle-ageddrivers–apatternthatwasattributedtoolderdrivers’diminisheddrivingperformanceandtheirlowself-confidence,whichinturnledtohighertrustinsupportsystems(Donmez,BoyleandLee2006).Anotherstudyshowedthat,whileyoungerdriversweresomewhatdissatisfiedwithadrivingtutoringsystem,olderdriversheldapositiveattitudetowardsit(DeWaard,VanderHulstandBrookhuis1999).
Thepurposeofdriving–thatis,drivingforpersonalreasonsoraspartofone’sjob–isanotherfactortoconsider.Thosewhoonlydriveforpersonal
purposesandthosewhoareemployedtodrive(e.g.,commercialtruckdrivers)mayhavedifferentperceptionsofaparticulartechnology.Incommercialdrivingsituations,thedecisionastowhetherornottouseadriversupportsystemistypicallymadebymanagement.Thisisdifferentfromwhendriversvoluntarilydecidetouseadriversupportsystemtolowertheirinsurancepremiumorincreasetheirsafety–adistinctionbetweenmandatoryandvoluntaryuse.Withvoluntaryadoption,thedriverhasfreedomtodecidetousethesystem,whereaswithmandatoryadoptiontheuserisforcedtousethesystem(Rawstorne,JayasuriyaandCaputi1998).Whenevaluatingacceptanceofamandatorysystem,theeffectofperceivedeaseofuseonintentiontousewasfoundtobelargerthantheeffectofperceivedusefulnessonintentiontouse(Brownetal.2002),contrarytothefindinginmanyvoluntaryusecasesthatperceivedusefulnessistheprimarydeterminantofintentiontouse(e.g.,VenkateshandDavis2000,Gefen,KarahannaandStraub2003,Karahanna,AgarwalandAngst2006).Oneexplanationforthispatternisthat,becausepeopleknowthattheyhavetousethesystem,theirfocusshiftsfromusefulnesstohoweasyordifficultthesystemistoworkwith(Rawstorne2005).Theseobservations,bothfromwithinandoutsidethedrivingsafetycommunity,underscoretheimportanceofconsideringdrivercharacteristicsinpredictingacceptanceofdriversupportsystems.
DrivingBehaviourDriversdifferintheirdrivingskills,theirdegreeofcommitmenttosafetyandtheircompliancewithtrafficlaws.Thesedifferencescantranslatetotheiracceptanceofsupportsystemsandtheeffectivenessofthesesystemsinencouragingbehaviouralchanges.Novice(usuallyyounger)driversarestillintheprocessofdevelopingdrivingskills,whereasexperienceddrivershavealreadydevelopedsuchskills.Foryoungerdrivers,feedbackandtrainingaimsatshapingsafedrivingbehavioursandhabits;however,forexperienceddrivers,thegoalofsupportsystemsistomodifytheirriskyhabits.Whilebotheffortscanleadtopromisingresults,helpingyoungerdriverscanbemorereadilyacceptedandeffective.ThisasymmetrywasnotedbyHickmanandHanowski(2011)inexplainingthedifferencesbetweentheirstudyoncommercialvehicledriversandtheMcGeheeetal.’s(2007b)study:thedriversintheMcGeheeetal.studywerenovices,whereasthedriversintheHickmanandHanowskistudywereexperiencedprofessionaldrivers.
Thedegreetowhichadriversupportsystemiscompatiblewithdrivers’perceptionsofappropriatedrivingbehaviourcanbeadeterminingfactorinthedriver’sacceptanceofthesystem.AccordingtotheTheoryofDiffusionof
Innovations,oneofthemajorfactorsthatdetermineadoptionofaninnovationiscompatibility;thatis,thedegreeofconsistencybetweenatechnologyandusers’values,pastexperienceandneeds(Rogers1995).Assuch,anytargetpopulationofdriversmightevaluateaparticularsystemdifferentlythantheothers.Furthermore,differenttypesofdriverswithinthesamepopulation(e.g.,safeandriskydrivers)mighthavevaryingperceptionsofthesamesystem.Anexampleofsuchadifferencewasobservedinarecentpreliminaryanalysisofcommercialtruckdrivers’perceptionsofanon-boardmonitoringsystem:themajorityofdriverswithmovingviolationsintheirhistoryhadmoderatelypositiveperceptionstowardsthefeedbacksystem,whilemanywithcleanrecordshadnegativeperceptions(Pengetal.2012).Thisassociationmightbeduetotheidentificationoftheneedforbehaviouralimprovementbythosewithahistoryofviolations.
ContextandCultureDriversarenotisolatedoperators:drivinghappensinasocialcontextandisinfluencedbyculture.Driversexperiencethedrivingenvironmentthroughsomecontext:theircaristheirimmediateenvironment,whichisinturn(especiallywiththerecentproliferationofinfotainmentdevices)connectedtootherpeopleandplaces.Driversupportsystems,especiallythosewithamonitoringormentoringcomponent,canchangetheroleofcontextinone’sdrivingbymakingtheinfluenceofothers,suchasparentsorsafetysupervisors,moretangible.Dependingonthecharacteristicsofthecontext,aswellassocialandorganisationalcultureandmanagementstyle,thereactionofthedrivertosuchchangecanbedifferent.
OneexampleoftheroleofcontextandcultureontheattitudesofdriverstowardssupportsystemswasdemonstratedbystudiesoftruckdriversintheUnitedStatesandChina.ThecomparisonbetweenresultsdemonstratedthatChinesetruckdrivershadamorepositiveattitudetowardsfeedbackreceivedfromtechnologycomparedtoUStruckdriverswhostronglypreferredfeedbackfromahumantofeedbackfromtechnology(Huangetal.2008,Huangetal.2005).Thisexample,whilelimitedinscope,clearlydemonstratestheinadequacyofassessmentsmadewithoutconsideringcontextandculture.
CoachingCharacteristicsSystemcharacteristics,boththoserelatedtothedeviceandthoserelatedtothehumancoach,caninfluenceperceptionsofmentoringandmonitoring.Forexample,adevicethatistransparentandindicateswhenvideorecordingsarebeingmadeorwhenareportisbeingtransmittedtoasupervisor/parentislikelytobeperceivedmorepositivelyandbettertrusted(Muir1987,LeeandSee
tobeperceivedmorepositivelyandbettertrusted(Muir1987,LeeandSee2004,JonesandMitchell1995).Acoach’sapproachtoprovidingfeedbackandthestyleinwhichfeedbackisdelivered(negativeorpositive)isalsocriticallyimportantindefiningamonitoringormentoringroleforthecoachandtheacceptanceofthesupportsystem.
AModelforAssessingAcceptanceofDriverSupportSystems
Figure5.4integratesthebroadrangeoffactorsaffectingacceptanceofdriversupportsystemsusingtheTAMframework.Thismodelcanguidemeasurementofthevariousfactorsthatinfluencedrivers’acceptanceofanexistingsystemorcanbeusedasapredictivemodelthatcanguidedesignanewdriversupportsystem.Variablesalongthefivecategoriesdescribedabove(i.e.,devicecharacteristics,drivercharacteristics,drivingbehaviour,contextandculture,andcoachingcharacteristics)areconsideredasexternalvariables.AstheTAMismainlyconcernedwiththetechnologicalcomponentofthesystem,themodelisaugmentedbyconstructsfromthemodeloforganisationaltrustbyMayeretal.(1995).BothTAMandthemodeloforganisationaltrusthavebeenextensivelycitedandvalidatedintheliterature(e.g.,seePavlou2003,MayerandDavis1999,Szajna1996,Huetal.1999).
Themodelconsistsoftwoparts:TechnologyAcceptanceandCoachingAcceptance.TheTechnologyAcceptancepartisbasedontheTAM,withthetrustindeviceconstructaddedasapredictoroftechnologyacceptance.Trustisamajordeterminantofrelianceonandacceptanceofautomation,standingbetweenpeople’sbeliefstowardsautomationandacceptanceofit(LeeandSee2004,LeeandMoray1992LeeandMoray1994,Parasuraman,SheridanandWickens2008,Gefenetal.2003,Pavlou2003,CarterandBélanger2005).Becausepreviousstudiessuggestthattrustdoesnotfullymediatetheeffectofbeliefsonbehaviouralintentions(LeeandSee2004),thedirecteffectsofperceivedusefulnessandperceivedeaseofuseonacceptanceareretained(Ghazizadehetal.2012b).Externalvariablesrelatedtodevicecharacteristics,drivercharacteristics,drivingbehaviour,contextandcultureandcoachingcharacteristicscaninfluenceacceptancethroughtheireffectonperceivedusefulness,perceivedeaseofuseandtrustindevice,asindicatedinFigure5.4.Feedbackmechanisms(dashedarrows)emphasisethedynamicnatureofacceptancedecisions–justlikeperceivedusefulness,perceivedeaseofuse,andtrustindeviceinfluenceTechnologyAcceptance,acceptanceanduseinfluenceperceptions(KimandMalhotra2005,Ghazizadehetal.2012a).
Figure5.4DriversupportsystemacceptancemodelIthasnotbeenpossibletoamendthisfigureforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Fig5_4.pdf
TheCoachingAcceptancepartofthemodelcapturestheeffectofdevicecharacteristics,drivercharacteristics,drivingbehaviour,contextandcultureandcoachingcharacteristicsonacceptanceofcoaching.Itisproposedthatthesevariablesinfluencedrivers’trustinacoach,which,togetherwiththeperceivedriskofthesituation(itselfinfluencedbyexternalvariables),determineswillingnesstotakerisksofbeingcoachedandacceptanceofcoaching(Mayeretal.1995).CoachingAcceptancecaninturninfluencethetrustdriversplaceintheircoachandtheperceivedriskofbeingcoached.Thedashedarrowsshowfeedbackmechanisms.
Ifthesupportsystemincludesbothtechnologyandcoachingcomponents,thenthesecomponentsareofteninterwovenintoasingleentity.Theacceptanceofthesupportsystemasawholewillthenbedeterminedbydrivers’perceptionsofthetechnology-coachinghybrid,shownastheSupportSystemAcceptanceconstructinFigure5.4.Theacceptanceofthesupportsystemwouldinturn
influencedrivers’behaviour,thecontexttheyfindthemselvesinandalsotherelationshipformedbetweenthedriverandthecoach.DashedarrowsfromSupportSystemAcceptancetothesecategoriesofvariableshighlightthedynamicnatureofthesystemadoption.Thereisnoonedirectionfortheinfluences–externalvariablesinfluenceperceptions,trustandfinallyuse,whileusingthesystemalsoinfluencesthesefactors.
Conclusion
Theattributesofadriversupportsystemdesignarenotthesoledeterminantsofacceptance–decisionspertainingtoacceptanceandusearemadeinacontextthatencompassesthedriver,thefeedbackand/ormonitoringdeviceandthecoachingtechniquesemployed.Acceptanceandeffectivenessofthesesystemsoftendependsonthedegreetowhichthesefactorscombinetocreateamentoring,ratherthanamonitoringsystem.Thischapterproposedamodelthatviewsacceptanceasafunctionofperceptionsofboththetechnologicalcomponentandthecoachingcomponentofadriversupportsystem.Noteverydriversupportsystemiscomprisedofbothcomponents:somearemerelyafeedbackdeviceandsomefollowonlyamonitoringormentoringprotocol,oftenbasedonvideorecordings.Nonetheless,theacceptanceassessmentmodelproposedherecanbeusedtoprovideaframeworktoconceptualiseacceptance,andthuseffectiveness,ofabroadrangeofdriversupportinterventions.Interestingly,amappingisevidentbetweenthecategoriesofvariablesintheproposedacceptancemodelandthefivecomponentsoftheworksystemmodelbySmithandCarayon-Sainfort(1989);thatis,person,tasks,technologyandtools,environmentandorganisation.Justastheworksystemmodelemphasisestheinterplaybetweenthesefactorsinaffectingworkersandoutcomes,webelievethatallthesefactorcategoriesplayaroleinshapingadriver’sperceptionofthesupportsystem,whilealsoinfluencingtheotherfactors.Amoreelaborateaccountoftheseinteractionscanshedlightonthedependenciesoftheelements–animportantconsiderationwhendesigningasupportsystem.
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PARTIIIMeasurementofDriverAcceptance
Chapter6HowIsAcceptanceMeasured?OverviewofMeasurementIssues,MethodsandTools
EmeliAdellTrivectorTraffic,Sweden
LenaNilssonSwedishNationalRoadandTransportResearchInstitute(VTI),Sweden
AndrásVárhelyiLundUniversity,Sweden
Abstract
Thischapterdescribeshowacceptancehasbeenmeasuredandidentifiesvariousmeasurementcategories.Therelationshipbetweenthesemeasurementmethodsandthedifferentdefinitionsofacceptanceappearingintheliteratureisdescribedandthelackofcorrespondencebetweendefinitionandmeasurementishighlighted.Thechapterillustratesthedifferentoutcomesofacceptancemeasurementsdependingonchoiceofassessmentmethodandgivessomeguidancethatcouldbeused,dependingonthepurposeoftheassessment.
Introduction
Asseenthroughoutthisbook,substantialeffortshavebeenputintotheresearchanddevelopmentofvariousdriverassistancesystems,andsuchsystemsarenowbeingintroducedinvehiclesatafasterandfasterrate.Inthisconnection,itisimportanttorememberthattheexpectedimpactofadriverassistancesystemwillberealisedonlyifthesystemisused.AsVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997:1)putit,‘Itisunproductivetoinvesteffortindesigningandbuildinganintelligentco-driverifthesystemisneverswitchedon,orevendisabled’.
Theeffectofasystemintendedtoassistdriverswillbeinfluencedbydrivers’experiencesandacceptanceofit.Therefore,itisimportanttoinclude
assessmentofacceptanceintheprocessofsystemdevelopmentanddeployment,preferablyintheearlyconceptanddesignphasesandagaininiterativeassessmentsalongthedevelopmentchain.Knowledgeaboutuseracceptanceisvaluableforunderstandinghumansincomplexenvironments(likethetransportsystem)andforestablishingcontextualpossibilitiesandlimitations.Inrelationtodriverassistancesystems,understandingthehumanincludesunderstandinghis/herviewsandvalues,actionsandbehaviour,andhuman-systemperformance,aswellastheoutcomesandconsequencesofthese.Theestablishmentofcontextualpossibilitiesandlimitationsisanimportantprerequisiteforenablingpredictionsandestimations(e.g.,toforecastpossiblesystembenefits,userintentionsandinterests)andforadoptionofmeasures.Possibilitiesandlimitationsarealsovitalingredientsinimpactanalyses(usingdataonsystemuseandtakeup)andingeneratingtestablerecommendationsforimprovedsystemdesign.Thus,measuresofacceptancerepresentpiecesofinformationofgreatvalueforguidingsystemdevelopmenttowardssuccessfulandusedsolutions.
Inthefieldofdevelopingnewin-vehiclesystems,majorresearchprojectsundertakenpreviouslyhaverecognisedtheneedforacceptancemeasurementaswellasaccesstorelevantacceptancemeasurementmethodsandtools.InEurope,suchprojectsincludeADVISORS,FESTAandeuroFOT.
TheADVISORSprojectaimedtodevelopanintegratedmethodologyandrelevantcriteriafortheassessmentofroadnetworkefficiency,trafficsafetyandenvironmentalimpact,aswellasusabilityanduseracceptanceofADAS(AdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems)(Brook-Carteretal.2001).Inthatproject,theliteraturewasreviewedforinstrumentstoassessacceptanceofADAS.However,theresultwasdisappointingandledtotheprojectteampointingoutwhatwasanobviouslackofstandardisedandreliableproceduresandtoolsforassessingacceptance.AlthoughADVISORSdidnotdevelopareliableandvalidinstrumentfortheassessmentofacceptance,itwasrecommendedthatacceptancebemeasuredbyquestionnaire,basedonacomponentmodelintegratingthreedimensionsconsideredtoconstituteacceptance:usability,drivercomfortandsafetybenefits.Forthemeasurementofacceptance-relatedfeatures,thefollowingmeasuresweresuggestedandappliedbyADVISORS(SWOV2003):theusefulness/satisfactionscale(VanderLaanetal.1997),theusabilityquestionnaire(Brooke1996),thedrivingqualityscale(Brookhuis1993)andawillingnesstopayquestionnaire(Brookhuis,UnekenandNilsson2001).
IntheFESTAproject,ahandbookofgoodpracticefortheevaluationof
ADASusingfieldoperationaltests(FOTs)wasdeveloped(FESTAconsortium2008,FOT-NETconsortium2011).Theneedtomeasuredriveracceptanceofinvestigatedsystem(s),includingwillingnesstopurchase,wasputforwardasgeneraladviceinthepartofthehandbookdealingwithaims,researchquestionsandhypothesesdefinitions(seeAnnexBoftheHandbook).Intheworkundertaken,however,FESTAreferstoacceptabilityratherthanacceptance;whatacceptabilityis,aswellastoolsformeasuringacceptabilityoftechnologyhavebeenconsidered(Kircheretal.2008).Kircheretal.(2008:36)statethat‘regardingthefieldof“technologyacceptance”,thetermacceptabilityindicatesthedegreeofapprovalofatechnologybytheusers,whichcanbemeasuredbythefrequencyofuse’.
Also,thecontextwhereaspecifictechnologyis(orissupposedtobe)usedispointedoutasafactorofgreatimportancewhenevaluatingacceptability.Asthedrivingcontextisconstantlychanging,understandingifdriversarewillingandcapableofacceptingassistancesystemshastobeexaminedinavarietyofcontexts.FESTAconcludesthatacceptabilityoftechnologyiscomprisedofdifferent(described)dimensionsandthatnouniquemodelortheoryofitexists.Tomeasurethesedimensions,toolslikestandardisedquestionnaires,focusgroups,individualinterviewsandself-reportingmethodsaresuggested.Nospecificinstrumentforacceptance(oracceptability)measurementwas,however,proposedaspartoftheevaluationmethodologydescribedintheFESTAhandbook.
TheeuroFOTproject(euroFOT2012)wasaimedatevaluatingtheimpactofactivesafetysystemsbyapplyingthecommonEuropeanapproachdescribedintheFESTAhandbook.Systemsalreadyonthemarketorsufficientlymaturetorepresentcommercialapplicationswereexamined–forexample,adaptivecruisecontrol(ACC),lanedeparturewarning(LDW)andforwardcollisionwarning(FCW).Impactsatthetrafficsystemlevelintermsofsafety,efficiencyandenvironmentalfriendlinesswereinvestigatedaswellaseffectsattheindividuallevelintermsofdriverbehaviour,systeminteractionanduseracceptance.Driverbehaviourandacceptancewereanalysedtoassesstheimpactoftheinvolveddriverassistancesystemsbasedonrealdataandtoimproveawarenessaboutthepotentialofthesystems.Acommoncoreacceptancemeasurementquestionnairewasdevelopedenablingaddition,butnotdeletion,ofitemsbyeachresearchteam.Thequestionnairewassequentiallydistributedduringtheconsecutivephasesoftheone-year-longtestsofsystemexposure:priortothetest,afterbaseline/beforesystemexposure,atseveraloccasionsduringsystemexposureandattheendofthesystemexposure(testperiod).
TherehavealsobeenotherjointEuropeaninitiativestodevelopmethodologiesandguidelinesfortheassessmentofdriverassistancesystemswhere,surprisingly,workonacceptancemeasurementwasnotincludedatall.OneexampleistheHASTEproject,whichaimedtodevelopmethodologiesandguidelinesfortheassessmentofIVIS(In-VehicleInformationSystems).InHASTE,behavioural,psycho-physiologicalandself-reportmeasureswerestudiedwithafocusondrivingperformance,whileworkonacceptancemeasureswasomitted(Carstenetal.2005).
Despitetherecognisedimportanceofacceptance,thereisnoestablisheddefinitionofacceptance,andtherearealmostasmanywaystomeasureacceptanceasthereareresearcherstryingtodoso.Consideringthemanydifferentwaysofdefiningacceptance(seeChapter2andotherrelevantchaptersinthisbook)itishardlysurprisingthatnoconsistentwayofmeasuringitexists.Besides,thedefinition,andinturntheunderstandingandmeaningof‘acceptance’,areusuallytakenforgrantedinresearchdealingwithdriverassistancesystems,andresearchersmostlymeasureacceptancewithoutdefiningit.Thelargedifferencesindefiningandmeasuringacceptancepointtoalargediscrepancyinunderstandingtheacceptanceconceptandmakecomparisonsbetweensystems,designs,settingsandstudiesalmostimpossible.
MeasuringAcceptance
AthoroughreviewofstudiesassessingacceptancewasreportedbyAdell(2009).Thereviewshowsthatanumberofdifferentwaystomeasureacceptancehavebeenemployedpreviously.However,evenwhenresultsconcerningacceptancearepresented,howithasbeenmeasuredandhowtheresultshavebeenobtainedarenotalwaysdescribed,andthereliabilityandvalidityofthemeasuresareseldomexplored.
ThenumerouswaysofassessingacceptancefoundintheliteraturewerecategorisedbyAdell(2009)intoeightdifferentgroups,with25sub-groups(seeTable6.1).Mostresearchersusemorethanonemeasuretoassessacceptance,eitherfromthesamecategoryorfromdifferentcategories.Themeasurementsusedaremostfrequentlyderivedfromquestionnaires(questionsand/orratingscales),buttherearemeasurementsderivedfrominterviews,focusgroups,systemuseanddrivingperformance.
Table6.1Measuresusedtoassessacceptance,basedontheliteraturereview;maincategorieswithsubcategories(adaptedfromAdell2009).ForsourcereferencesseeAdell(2009).Includessimulateddrivingaswellasactualonroaddriving
AcceptanceMeasuresandTheirRelationtoAcceptanceDefinitions
ThedifferentcategoriesofacceptancemeasurementspresentedinTable6.1arediscussedbelow.FirstthecategoriesthatmatchanyofthedefinitioncategoriespresentedinChapter2arepresented.Thereafter,thosecategoriesthatdonotrelatetoanydefinitionofacceptancearepresented.
UsingtheWord‘Accept/Acceptable’Someresearchersdefineacceptancebyusingtheterm‘accept’.Consequently,theterm‘accept’or‘acceptable’isusedwhenmeasuringacceptance.Thisisrelativelycommonandusuallymeasurementsinthiscategoryusequestionsand
ratingscaleswithphraseslike‘wouldyouaccept…?’or‘howacceptableis…?’(e.g.,Menzel2004,Parkeretal.2003,Stradling,MeadowsandBeatty2004).Anotherwayofmeasuringacceptanceassignedtothisgroupistheusageofquestionsorratingsofthe‘willingnesstoaccept’something(e.g.,adriverassistancesystem).Usingtheword‘accept’clearlyrelatestotheacceptancedefinitionusingtheword‘accept’,butdoesnotprovideanyfurtherinformationorexplanationabouttheconceptand/ormeaningofacceptance.
SatisfyingNeedsandRequirementsand/orSumofAttitudesThedefinitionofacceptanceas‘satisfyingneedsandrequirements’impliesthattheassessmentofacceptanceshouldfocusonwhetherthesystemsatisfiestheneedsandrequirementsoftheuser,whereasdefiningacceptanceasthe‘sumofattitudes’demandsanaggregationofattitudesinsomeway.
Themostusedinstrumentformeasuringacceptance,theusefulness/satisfactionscaledevelopedandproposedbyVanderLaanetal.(1997),isoneexampleofthisaggregation.Thetoolisastandardisedinstrumentusedtoestimatethe‘usefulnessof’andthe‘satisfactionwith’adriverassistancesystem.The‘acceptance’ofthesysteminquestionisestimatedbyratingninebipolaritems(useful–useless,pleasant–unpleasant,bad–good,nice–annoying,effective–superfluous,irritating–likeable,assisting–worthless,undesirable–desirableandraisingalertness–sleep-inducing)onfive-pointratingscales.Theratingsonthebipolarscalesarethencombinedintooneusefulnessscoreandonesatisfactionscoreforthesystem.Whenlaunchingtheusefulness/satisfactionscale,thedeveloperspresentedinformationaboutthereliabilityoftheinstrumentaswellasinformationonhowtoinstructtheparticipantsdoingtheestimations.
Törnrosetal.(2002)usedtheVanderLaanscale(VanderLaanetal.1997)tomeasuredrivers’acceptanceofanACCsystem(AdaptedCruiseControl)inmotorwayandruralroaddrivinginamovingbasesimulator.TheVanderLaanscale(VanderLaanetal.1997)wasmandatorilyappliedalsointhepilotstudiescarriedoutintheADVISORSproject.ItwasconcludedthatacceptancewashighandconsistentoverconditionsforACC,lowforurbanACCwithS&G(AdaptedCruiseControlwithStop&Go),especiallyforyoungdrivers,andthatgettingadrowsinesswarningwhendrivingwithaDMS(Driver/DrowsinessMonitoringSystem)increasedacceptance(Nilssonetal.2003).OtherexampleswheretheVanderLaanscalehasbeenusedarestudiesreportedbyAdell,VárhelyiandHjälmdahl(2008),Duivenvoorden(2008),VanDriel(2007),Broekxetal.(2006),VanWinsum,MartensandHerland(1999)andVárhelyi,ComteandMäkinen(1998).
Thereexistalsoavarietyofmeasurementsdesignedtoassesswhethersystems‘satisfytheneedsandrequirements’ofusers.Insomestudies,‘satisfaction’ismeasuredinanotherway(thantheVanderLaanetal.1997scale)toassessacceptance.Examplesarequestionsaboutgeneralassessmentofsatisfactionwiththesystem,opinionsonwhetherhavingthesystemisanadvantageordisadvantage,theattractiveness/unattractivenessofthesystem,whetherthesystemisdisturbingorannoying,andwhetheritissupportiveorconstructive;see,forexample,Ervinetal.(2005),Menzel(2004),Nilsson,AlmandJanssen(1992)andTurrentine,SperlingandHungerford(1991).
Manystudiesalsoassess‘usefulness’toobtaindataonacceptance(withmethodsotherthantheVanderLaanetal.1997scale).Examplesarequestionsaboutwhetherandhowmuchthesystemfacilitatesthedrivingtask,andaffectsone’sowndrivingperformanceand/orthedrivingperformanceofothers;see,forexample,Najmetal.(2006),Stanley(2006),Collinsetal.(1999),KuikenandGroeger(1993)andTurrentineetal.(1991).Askingforusers’opinionsabouttheeffectivenessofthesystemaswellaswhatkindsofinstructions/correctionstheywantfromthesystembelongtothismeasurementcategory;see,forexample,Youngetal.(2007)andGMandDelphi-DelcoElectronicSystems(2002).
Concerningtherelationshipwithacceptancedefinitions,theVanderLaanusefulness/satisfactionscale(VanderLaanetal.1997)reflectsthedefinitioncategorydealingwith‘thesumofattitudes’(thethirddefinitioncategoryinChapter2ofthisbook).Usefulnessandsatisfactionmeasurementsmaybeassociatedalsowiththeacceptancedefinitiondealingwith‘needsandrequirements’(theseconddefinitioncategoryinChapter2ofthisbook).
WillingnesstoUse–ortoSubmittoSomethingThedefinitionofacceptanceasthe‘willingnesstouse’asystemimpliesthestraightforwardassessmentofwillingnesstouseandsomestudiesapplythiswayofmeasuringacceptance;see,forexample,Cherri,NodariandToffetti(2004)andChalmers(2001).However,quiteafewstudiesmeasurewillingnesstopay,eitherbyposinganopen-endedquestionoraclosedonewithdifferentpriceintervals;forexample,AdellandVárhelyi(2008),Najmetal.(2006),Piaoetal.(2005),Comte,WardmanandWhelan(2000)andCarstenandFowkes(1998).Further,willingnesstobuy,accept,have,keepandinstallasystem,aswellasthewishtoshutdownasystem,havebeenproposedasindicatorstoassessacceptance;see,forexample,AdellandVárhelyi(2008),VanDriel(2007),Broekxetal.(2006),Marchauetal.(2005)andNilssonandNåbo
(1996).Thewillingnesstopayfordifferentdriverassistancesystems,bothfor
installingandforinitialpurchasewhenbuyinganewcar,wasinvestigatedintheADVISORSprojectbylettingthetestparticipantschoosebetweengivenpriceintervals.TheresultsshowedthatthetestdriverswerewillingtopayamoderatepricefortheACCandtheLSS(LateralSupportSystem),alowpricefortheDMS(Driver/DrowsinessMonitoringSystem)andthataboutone-thirdofthedriversdidnotwanttopayanythingatallfortheurbanACCwithS&G(AdaptedCruiseControlwithStop&Go)(Nilssonetal.2003).
ActualUseThelastapproachtodefiningacceptance(mentionedinChapters1and2ofthisbook)isbyreferencetoactualuseofthesystem.Measurementsofvoluntaryuseofthesystem,frequencyofsystemuseandactsofshuttingdownthesystemareexamplesofthis.Thesemeasuresaremostfrequentlyderivedfromquestionsandratingscalesbutaresometimesderivedalsobyobservingorrecordingdrivers’drivingbehaviour.Drivers’statementson,forexample,howoftentheyoverridethesystemmaybeseenasanindirectmeasureofsystemuse;itdependsonwhetheroneseesoverridingthesystemasnotusingthesystemorasutilisingacertainfeatureofthesystem.ExamplesofstudiesthathaveusedthiswayofmeasuringacceptanceareVlassenrootetal.(2007),Broekxetal.(2006),Ervinetal.(2005),PhilippsandSchmitz(2001),NilssonandNåbo(1996)andKuikenandGroeger(1993).
Apartfromthemethodsofmeasurementsthatbuildonadefinitionorjusthappentobeinlinewithsomeoneelse’sdefinition,therearealsoanumberofacceptancemeasurementmethodsthatdonothavesupportinanydefinition.
GeneralSystemAssessmentSomeresearchersuseageneralapproachtomeasureacceptance.Examplesofthiswayofmeasuringarejudgementsoftheconcept/ideaofasystemgenerally,oftheperceivedpopularityofthesystem,whetherthedriverisinfavourofthesystemandwhethertheuserwouldrecommendtolovedonesthattheyusethesystemorappreciateitiftheydid;see,forexample,AdellandVárhelyi(2008),Najmetal.(2006),Piaoetal.(2005),Chalmers(2001),MarellandWestin(1998),Várhelyietal.(1998).Suchgeneralstatementsdonotrelateclearlytoanyacceptancedefinitionfoundintheliterature(seeChapter2inthisbook).However,themeasurementsindicate,tosomedegree,theattitudetowardsthesystem(‘sumofattitudes’)andtheusefulnessofthesystem(‘satisfyingneeds
andrequirements’).
ImportanceoftheSystemTheimportanceofasystemisseenbysomeresearchersasreflectingacceptance.Theimportanceofthesystemismeasured,forexample,byrankingitcomparedtoothersystems(ormeasurements)orbyjudgingitsnecessity.Measuresofwhetheranimplementationofthesysteminquestionissupportedarealsoincludedinthismeasurementcategory;see,forexample,MolinandBrookhuis(2007),Cherrietal.(2004),Matsuzawa,KanekoandKajiya(2001).Theimportanceofasystemdoesnotclearlyrelatetoanyoftheacceptancedefinitions.However,alsoforthismeasurementcategory,themeasuresmay,tosomedegree,mirrortheattitudetowardsthesystem(‘sumofattitude’)andtheusefulnessofthesystem(‘satisfyingneedsandrequirements’).
ReliabilityoftheSystemSystemreliabilityintermsofdrivers’leveloftrustinthesystemorthecredibilityofthesystemhasbeenusedtomeasureacceptanceinafewstudies;see,forexample,Stanley(2006)andPhilippsandSchmitz(2001).Again,thereliabilityofasystemdoesnotclearlyrelatetoanyacceptancedefinitionbutmaybeassociatedwiththe‘sumofattitudes’and‘satisfyingneedsandrequirements’.
HMIAssessmentsTheHMI(Human–MachineInteraction)ofanewdriverassistancesystemisthesystem’s‘face’towardthedriver;hence,itisimportantfortheintendeduseofit.Thus,insomestudies,acceptanceismeasuredbyassessingtheHMIofthesystem.ThemeasuresusedcovermainlydriverexperiencesofvariousHMIdesignissueslikethetimingofpresentedinformationandinterventions,theintensityoffeedbackgivenbythesystem,ifthereasonsforpresentedalertsareunderstood,ifinformationandinterventionsarestartlingandsoon;see,forexample,Najmetal.(2006),Stanley(2006)andCollinsetal.(1999),NilssonandNåbo(1996)andNilsson,AlmandJanssen(1992).
SummaryThemanydifferentwaysofmeasuringacceptancemaycauseconfusionandthereforeleadtoincorrectconclusionsandinterpretations.OneillustrationofthisproblemwasfoundintheEuropeanPROSPERprojectwheretwoIntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA)systems–BEEP(auditorywarningwhenexceedingthespeedlimit)andAAP(‘activeacceleratorpedal,’withupwardpressurewhen
exceedingthespeedlimit)–wereevaluatedinfieldtrialsinHungaryandSpain(Adelletal.2008).MostofthedrivershadapositiveattitudetotheconceptofthetestedISAsystems(generalsystemassessment).Bothsystemswereconsidered‘good’,‘effective’,‘useful’,‘assisting’and‘raisingalertness’,allofwhichareitemsrelatingto‘usefulness’intheVanderLaanscale(VanderLaanetal.1997).TheBEEPsystemwasconsidered‘annoying’and‘irritating’(both‘satisfaction’itemsintheVanderLaanscale),butalso‘raisingalertness’morethantheAAP(sumofattitudes).Inspiteofthis,thedriversweremorepositiveabouthavingtheBEEPsystemintheirowncarsascomparedtotheAAP.Whenchoosingbetweenthesystems,moredriversselectedtheBEEPovertheAAPandmoredriverswantedtokeeptheBEEPsystemthantheAAP(willingnesstohave).However,driverswillingtopaytokeepthesystemweregenerallywillingtopay40percent(Hungary)and75percent(Spain)morefortheAAPthanfortheBEEP(willingnesstopay).Thisclearlyillustratesthegreatinfluencethechoiceofmeasurementmighthave.TwoofthesatisfactionitemsintheVanderLaanscale(VanderLaanetal.1997)wereratednegativelyfortheBEEP,whichwouldimplyahigheracceptanceoftheAAP.Nonetheless,thedrivers’willingnesstohavethesystemintheircarsandthechoicebetweenthesystemsshowahigheracceptanceoftheBEEPsystem.
Oneinterpretationofthedifferentresultsisthatthemeasurementsuseddonotmeasurethesamekindofacceptance.Theconceptofthesystemandtheusefulness/satisfactionscalerelatetothe‘sumofallattitudes’,whilethewillingnesstokeeprelatestothe‘willingnesstouse’.However,evenifmoremeasurementsassessingthesamekindofacceptancewereused,therewouldbenoguaranteethattheresultswouldconcur,sincevalidationsofthemeasurementsusedarevirtuallynon-existent.Mostresearchersdefineacceptanceimplicitlybythemeasurementtoolstheyusetoassessit,makingvalidationimpossible.
Thepresentsituationistroublesome.Ifacceptancehasnotbeendefined,thenwecannotbesurethatthetoolweusetomeasureitwillgivevalidresults.Theinconsistencyofacceptancedefinitions(implicitlydefinedornot)andofmeasurements,andtherebythediversityofresultseventhoughcollectedinthesameexperiment,presentsabreedinggroundformisinterpretationsandmisuseoftheresults.Whatismore,itmakescomparisonsbetweensystems,studiesandsettingsalmostimpossible.
Figure6.1Thethreepillarsoftheacceptanceconcept
FrameworkforMeasuringAcceptance
Itisarguedhere(andalsoinChapters2and3ofthisbook)thatacceptancemeasurementisoneofthethreecloselyrelatedpillarsoftheacceptanceconcept(Figure6.1).Itrestsonadefinitionofacceptanceandhasitstheoreticalfoundationinanacceptancemodelwithitsconstitutingitemsandconstructsaswellasrelationshipsbetweentheseconstructs.Measuringacceptancerequireswell-definedmeasurementmethodsandtoolsbasedonknowledgeofwhatacceptanceis(definition)aswellasitsdelimitationintermsofthecontextorfieldofapplicationoftheacceptancemeasurement(e.g.,transportsystem,driverassistancesystem).Boththeacceptancedefinitionandtheacceptancemodelarenecessaryforenablingestablishmentofavalidandreliablemethodforacceptancemeasurement.
Onestarting-pointformeasuringacceptancehasbeenusabilityengineering,whichisthefoundationforNielsen’s(1993)frameworkofacceptability,wherethefocusis‘Cananindividualusethesystem?’AccordingtoNielsen(1993),thegeneralacceptabilityofaninteractivesystemdependsonwhetherthesystemcansatisfytheneedsandexpectationsofitsusers.TherelationshipsbetweentheconceptsincludedinNielsen’sframework(1993)aredescribedas‘Systemacceptability’branchedoutto‘Practicalacceptability’(intermsofcost,compatibility,reliabilityetc.)andthento‘Usefulness’and‘Usability’(intermsofeasetolearn,efficiencytouse,easetoremember,fewerrors,subjectively
pleasing).Thus,severalofthefeaturesbeingcomponentsinthisframeworkappearasacceptancemeasuresinvariousstudiesevaluatingdriverassistancesystems.
Anotherpointofdepartureformeasuringacceptanceissystemadoptionpatterns,modelled,forexample,byRogers(1995).Thefocushereis‘Whowillusethesystem?’Theprocessofdifferentusergroupssuccessivelyadoptinganewtechnology/driverassistancesystemisdescribedfromthefirstusers(innovators),overearlyadopters,earlymajority,latemajorityandfinallyincorporatingthelaggards,untila‘saturated’levelofusageisreached.Fromthisframework,acceptancemeasuresreflectingactualuseandwillingnesstousecanbeidentified.
Attemptshavealsobeenmadetomorestrictlyseparateacceptancefromacceptabilityandsystemuptake(euroFOT2012)forenablingbetterguidanceonhowtomeasureacceptance.Ithasbeensuggestedthatacceptanceshouldmean‘howmuchasystemis/wouldbeused’,inlinewiththedefinitionproposedbyAdell(2009),whileacceptabilityshouldmean‘howmuchasystemisliked’anduptakeshouldmean‘howlikelyitisthatsomeonewouldbuyasystem’(Jamson2010).
Conclusions
Inthischapterwehavedescribedvariouswaysofmeasuringacceptance.Howtomeasureacceptanceinavalidwaydependsonhowacceptanceisdefined.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thattheweakcommongroundregardinganacceptancedefinitionhasresultedinalargenumberofdifferentattemptstomeasureacceptance.Thelargedifferencesinthemeasuresusedindicatequitealargediscrepancyintheunderstandingofacceptance,aswellasinwhatarebelievedtobeimportantandvalidindicatorsofacceptance.
Themanydifferentwaysofmeasuringacceptancemaycauseconfusionandleadtoincorrectconclusionsorinterpretations.ThisisclearlyillustratedinthePROSPERproject(Adelletal.2008),whereseveralmeasurementsofacceptanceofadriverassistancesystemwereused,inparallel,withdifferentresults.
Todaythefieldofacceptancemeasurementissurprisinglyimmature.Nomethodsandtoolsthatarewidelyagreedandacceptedbythescientificcommunityexist.TheVanderLaanscale(VanderLaanetal.1997)istheonlyinstrumentforobtainingknowledgeanddataondrivers’acceptanceofassistancesystemsthatwasdevelopedfromscientificworkandalsovalidatedto
acertainextent.Theavailabilityofthisscaleandthescientificpresentation/publicationofithasmadeitfrequentlyused,butitcouldstillbediscussedwhetherthefinalusefulnessandsatisfactionscorestrulyreflectacceptance.TheacceptancequestionnaireusedforacceptancemeasurementintheeuroFOTprojectwasdevelopedandusedbyseveralEuropeanresearchteamstogetherandhasthereforebeenrelativelywidespread.Themeasurementapproachdistinguishesbetweenliking,usingandadoptingasystem.Otherinstrumentsappliedaremoreadhocanddesignedmorepersonallyandforaspecificstudy.Morejointscientificactivitiesareneededtodevelopreliableandvalidatedmethodsandtoolsforthemeasurementofacceptance.Tobemoresuccessfulinthiswork,acoupleofissues,inparticular,havetobesolved.Oneistocometoanagreementaboutwhethermanifestationinuseofasystem(willingnessand/oractual)shouldberequiredforacceptancetooccurandthusbethefocusformeasurement.Anotherissueistomoreconcretelydefinethedifferencebetweenacceptabilityandacceptance,andalsoseparateacceptanceclearlyfromusability.Manyofthetoolsappliedtomeasureacceptanceintermsofvariousvariables/dimensionsprobablyworkwell.Theproblemiswhetherthesevariablesreflectacceptance.
Withourcurrentstateofknowledge,itisnotpresentlypossibletogiveanyconcreteadviceonhowtomeasureacceptance,sincethereisnouniversallyaccepteddefinitionoftheterm.However,thereissomeguidancethatcouldbeuseddependingonthepurposeoftheassessment:
1.Ifthemaingoalistoinvestigatetheacceptanceofadriverassistancesystem,makesurethatyoudefinewhatyoumeanbyacceptanceandsticktothatdefinitionwhenchoosing/constructingthemeasurementtool;
2.Ifthemaingoalistocompareyoursystemtoanother,alreadyinvestigatedsystem,usethesamemethodtoassessacceptance;
3.Insteadofdevelopingnewtools,useandadapttoolsthatarealreadyfrequentlyused(e.g.theVanderLaanetal.1997scale);and
4.Ifpossible,usemorethanonewayofmeasuringacceptance.
Itisdesirabletoinvestinfundamentalresearchintheareaofacceptancetohelpbuildacommondefinition,modelandmeasurementtool.Thiswouldfacilitateandimprovethequalityofappliedresearchanddevelopmentofnewtechnologies–andthisisoffundamentalimportance.
Meanwhilehowever,allstudiesofacceptancecancontributetothefurtheringofknowledgeintheareabyclearlydefiningwhattheymeanby‘acceptance’andbyconsequentlyusingthatdefinitionwhenmeasuringthe
‘acceptance’andbyconsequentlyusingthatdefinitionwhenmeasuringtheconcept.Inthiswaywewillstartshapingmoredetailedknowledgeofwhatacceptanceisandhowtomeasureit.
Acknowledgements
Thischapterdrawsonthedissertation‘Driverexperienceandacceptanceofdriverassistancesystems–Acaseofspeedadaptation’(Adell2009)aswellasanumberofmethodologicaleffortswithintheEuropeanresearchframeworkprograms.
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Chapter7MeasuringAcceptabilitythroughQuestionnairesand
FocusGroupsEveMitsopoulos-Rubens
MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,MonashUniversity,Australia
MichaelA.ReganTransportandRoadSafetyResearch,UniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
Abstract
Thischapterexploreshowfocusgroupsandquestionnairescanbeusedtomeasureacceptabilityofnewvehicletechnologies.Itisintendedtoserveasapracticalguidetoassistresearchersandsystemdevelopersinchoosingthemostappropriatemethodforassessingacceptabilitygiventheirneedsandexpertise.Wearguethattheevaluationaims,theprecisestageofsystemdevelopmentanddefinitionofacceptabilitybeingadoptedareatthecoreofthischoice.Guidanceineachofthesethreeareasisoffered,asismorespecificguidanceonfocusgroupdesignandconduct,andquestionnairedesignandadministration.Casestudiesarealsopresentedtoexemplifytheimplementationofeachapproachinthemeasurementofacceptability.
Introduction
Asseeninotherchaptersofthisbook,theextenttowhichusersfindasystem‘acceptable’playsanimportantroleintheultimateeffectivenessofthatsystem.Thus,theabilitytomeasuretheacceptabilityofasystematcriticalpointsduringthesystem’sdevelopmentisparamount.
Thischapterexploreshowfocusgroupsandquestionnairescanbeusedtomeasuredriveracceptabilityofnewvehicletechnologies.Guidanceisofferedonwhichmethodmightbethemoreappropriatetousegiventhecircumstances.Whilethetendencyinthischapteristofocusonacceptabilitypriortoasystem’simplementation,wecontendthattheissuesraisedandguidanceofferedhereare
alsoapplicabletotheevaluationofasystem’sacceptancepostitsimplementation.Further,whileweconcentrateonfocusgroupsandquestionnaires,itisimportanttonotethatthereareothermethodsavailableformeasuringacceptability.Theseincludeone-on-oneinterviewsanddirectobservationsofsystemuse.Thecurrentemphasisismotivated,atleastpartly,bythepopularityoffocusgroupsandquestionnairesinacceptabilityevaluations.
DefiningAcceptabilityinanOperationalSense
Havinganoperationaldefinitionofacceptabilitytoguidetheevaluationisparamount.Asseenelsewhereinthisbook,theterm‘acceptability’isgenerallyusedtorefertowhatisquiteanabstractconstructandwhosemeaningislikelytodifferfromonepersontothenext,andfromonepointintimetoanotherasone’sexperiencewithanewtechnologyincreases.Forexample,issuesrelatingtointerfacelookandfeelmayfigureprominentlyinone’sassessmentofacceptabilitywhenauserfirststartstointeractwithagiventechnologybutlesssolaterononcetheuserhashadthechancetoadaptorcompensateforanydeficienciesinthesystem’slookandfeel.Atthispoint,‘deeper’issuessuchaswhetherornotthesystemisactuallymeetinganeedand/orworkingreliably,willbeassignedahigherweightinginauser’soverallassessmentofanewsystem’sacceptability(Chau1996,Neilsen1993).
Whileanumberofformaldefinitionsofacceptabilityexist,commontomostisthatacceptabilityconstitutesamultidimensionalconstruct.Examplesofcommondimensionsincludeusefulness,satisfactionandeaseofuse(e.g.,Davis1989,Reganetal.2006,VanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard1997,Vlassenrootetal.2010).Thesedimensionstoo,shouldbeoperationallydefined.Havingattheoutsetclear,unambiguous,operationaldefinitionsofexactlywhatitisthatoneistryingtoassesswillensurethatthedesignofthedatacollectiontoolanditscompositionremainfocusedandthatthetoolincludesonlythosequestionsthatareconsideredcentraltotheassessmentoftheacceptabilityoftheparticularsystemunderstudy.Itwillalsohelptoensurethatquestionsareunambiguousanddonotrequireanyguessworktoanswer;andthatresponses,oncecollated,canbeanalysedandinterpreteddirectly.
WhatAreQuestionnaires?Inbroadterms,aquestionnaireisadatacollectionmethodthatcomprisesaseriesofquestionspresentedinawrittenformat,whichcouldbeonpaperorcomputer-based,includingonline.Questionnairesprovideasystematicmeansthroughwhichtocollectinformationaboutindividuals’knowledge,beliefs,attitudesandbehaviour(BoyntonandGreenhalgh2004).
attitudesandbehaviour(BoyntonandGreenhalgh2004).Questionnairesareconducivetothecollectionofbothquantitativeand
qualitativeinformation;althoughadistinctadvantageofquestionnairesoverothersubjectiveassessmentmethodsisintheprovisionofnumericaldatawhichcanbeanalysedusingquantitativetechniqueswhereappropriate.Questionnairesareintendedforcompletionbyindividualrespondents,althoughadministrationofaquestionnairetoindividualrespondentssimultaneously(i.e.,inagroupsetting)maysometimesbeappropriateandmorecost-efficient.
WhatAreFocusGroups?
AssuccinctlydefinedbyStewartandShamdasani(1998:505),‘afocusgroupinvolvesagroupdiscussionofatopicthatisthe“focus”oftheconversation’.Inessence,focusgroupsinvolveseveralindividualsbroughttogethertodiscussaparticulartopicundertheguidanceofaskilledmoderator.
Focusgroupsarebestsuitedtothecollectionofqualitativedata.Thatis,thedatacollectedaregenerallynotsuitedtofurtherscrutinyusingquantitativetechniquesforcollationandanalysis.Inpart,thisisbecausefocusgroupsamplesarenotarepresentativesampleofthepopulationandtendtobequitesmall(MorganandKrueger1993).Therealvalueoffocusgroupsisintheirabilitytogenerateindepthinformationonthetopicofinterest–informationwhichmaybeenrichedthroughthegroupdynamic.Focusgroupsshouldnotbeusedifthegoaloftheinvestigationistoresolveconflicts,buildconsensusortochangeattitudesbutareappropriateifthegoal,ingeneral,istobringoutthevariouspoints-of-viewoftheindividualstakingpart.
ShouldQuestionnairesorFocusGroupsBeUsed?
Basedonourexperience,webelievethattherearethreeoverarching,non-independentissuesthatonemustconsiderwhendecidingwhethertousequestionnairesorfocusgroupstoexploretheacceptabilityofanewtechnology:(1)whataretheevaluationquestions,(2)whatisthestageofsystemdevelopment,and(3)whichaspectsofacceptabilityaretobeexplored?
WhatAretheEvaluationQuestions?
Theprimaryissuetoconsiderwhencontemplatingtheuseofquestionnairesor
focusgroupsistoask,whataretheevaluationquestions?Thatis,whataretheaimsofthedatacollectionexercise?Inthecaseoftechnologyacceptability,theoverarchingaimwillbeinvariablytogaugetheacceptabilityofasystem.However,morespecificaimsmustalsobedefined.
Specificaimscouldincludetheidentificationofparticularbarrierstoacceptability,asopposed,orinaddition,totheprovisionofamoreglobalestimateofacceptability,whichmaybeusedforcomparisonand/orbenchmarkingpurposes.Forexample,questionnaireswouldbemoreappropriatewhenagoaloftheevaluationistoobtainaglobalmeasureornumericalestimateofacceptabilityforcomparisonovertime.Acceptabilityisgenerallyconsideredtobeadynamicconstruct(e.g.,Várhelyi2002).Assuch,theabilitytocapturechangesinusers’acceptabilityofanewtechnologyasafunctionoftheirincreasingexposureto,experiencewith,andproficiencyinusing,thenewtechnology,maybeaworthwhilegoaloftheresearch.
Whilebothfocusgroupsandquestionnaireslendthemselvestothecollectionofinformationonbarrierstoacceptability,focusgroups,beingqualitativeinnature,maybemoreappropriatewhentheidentificationofbarriersand,inparticular,brainstorminganddiscussingpotentialwaystoovercomeoraddressthesebarriers,isthemaingoal.
WhatistheStageofSystemDevelopment?
Indecidingwhetherquestionnairesorfocusgroupsaremoreappropriate,theevaluationaimsmustbeconsideredinthecontextofthestageofsystemdevelopment.Theuseofquestionnairesforgaugingacceptabilitymaybemoreappropriatewhenthereisapartialorfullyfunctionalprototypeofthenewtechnologywithwhichuserscaninteractdirectly.Incontrast,focusgroupsmaybebettersuitedtogaugingtheacceptabilityofsystemsthatareearlierinthedesignprocess–forexample,attheconceptstage,wherethesystemmayexistsimplyasanideaorasanearly,two-dimensionalorlowfidelity,prototype.
WhichAspectsofAcceptabilityAreYouInterestedinMeasuring?
Someaspectsofacceptabilitymaybebettersuitedtoexaminationthrougheitherquestionnairesorfocusgroups.Forexample,moreconcrete,specificissuesregardinginterfaceusabilitymaybeadequatelyaddressedthroughaquestionnaire,whichisadministeredoncetheparticipanthashadtheopportunitytoexperiencethesystem.Ontheotherhand,moreconceptuallyabstractareassuchasperceivedeffectivenessandusefulnessmaybebetterservedthrough
suchasperceivedeffectivenessandusefulnessmaybebetterservedthroughfocusgroups,asthecontextprovidesparticipantswithgreateropportunitytojustifyandexpandupontheirviews.
TheApproachHasBeenDecided.WhatNext?
Onceithasbeendecidedwhichapproachwouldbemostappropriateformeasuringacceptability,attentioncanturntomakingdecisionsregardingthecompositionoftheparticipantsampleandthedesignofthedatacollectioninstrumentitself.Specificguidanceineachoftheseareasisgivenbelowforfocusgroupsandquestionnaires.Acasestudyispresentedtoexemplifytheuseofeachapproach.Itisbeyondthescopeofthischaptertoprovidespecificguidanceontheanalysis,interpretationandreportingofquestionnairesandfocusgroups.Forguidanceintheseareas,refertoBoynton(2004)forquestionnairesandMorgan(1997)forfocusgroups.
FocusGroupDesignandConduct
ParticipantsandGroupComposition
Akeytothesuccessoffocusgroupsisthecompositionofthegroups,thenumberofparticipantsineachgroupandthenumberofgroups.Itisgenerallyrecommendedthateachfocusgroupinvolve6to10participants.Iftherearetoofewparticipants,thereistheriskthatthediscussionwillstagnateandthattoofewperspectiveswillbecanvassed.Iftherearetoomanyparticipants,thereisthepotentialforparticipantstobreakoffintosmallergroupsthatcandisrupttheflowofthecoregroup,andmakeitdifficulttogetbackoncourse.
Atthecentreoftheissueofgroupcompositionisanacknowledgementbytheinvestigatorsthatthequalityofthediscussionisdependentonboththeindividualswhomakeupthegroupandthedynamicsofthegroupasawhole(Morgan1997).Individualswhoareunwillingtoexpresstheirviewsinagroupsettingareperhapsnotappropriateasfocusgroupparticipants.Inasimilarvein,conductinggroupscomposedofindividualswho,giventheresearchtopic,arenothomogenousmaymakesomeindividualslesslikelytovoicetheirviews.Attemptingtorunagroupcomposedofyoungnovicedriversandolder/middle-agedexperienceddriversmayprovecounterproductiveastheimmediateneedsfromthetechnologyandexperiencesofthetwogroupswouldbeexpectedtodifferquitemarkedly.
Themoreheterogeneousthedesiredparticipantsamplewithrespecttothe
Themoreheterogeneousthedesiredparticipantsamplewithrespecttotheresearcharea,thegreaterthenumberofgroupsthatmayneedtobeconductedinordertoensurethat,withineachgroup,participantsareashomogenousonthecriticalvariablesasispracticable.Beyondthisconsiderationthedecisionofthenumberoffocusgroupstoconductwilltypicallyhaveapragmaticbasisrelatingtotheavailabilityofresources–namely,money,time,staffingand,critically,thesizeoftheparticipantpool(overallandwithineachsub-group)fromwhichindividualscanberecruitedtotakepartinthefocusgroups.Whilewillingnesstoparticipatewillinfluencethesizeoftheparticipantpool,participantavailabilitywillalsobeafactor.Schedulingfocusgroupsforadayofweekandtimeofday(e.g.,weekends,evenings)whenparticipantsaremostlikelytobeavailablewillhelpmaximiselikelihoodofattendance.Givingparticipantsmorefocusgrouptimingoptionswillalsohelpinthisregard.
DiscussionGuideandtheRoleoftheModerator
Theidealfocusgroupdiscussionshouldbefree-flowingandshouldnevertaketheformofasimplequestion-and-answersession.Achievingthesegoalsrequiresawell-constructeddiscussionguideandaskilledmoderator.
Informulatingthediscussionguide,itisimportanttobemindfuloftheoveralltimeallottedtothefocusgroup–thatis,usuallyoneandahalftotwohours.Thisisnotalotoftimeinpracticeandsoitisimportantthatanattemptismadenottocovermoretopicsthanisneededtoaddresstheevaluationquestionsadequately.Agooddiscussionguidecomprisesalistofgeneralopen-endedquestions,orlooselyphrasedquestions,aboutthetopicsofinterest.Examplesofprobesforfurtherinformationmayalsobeincludedforuseifneeded.Questionsthataretoospecificarenotidealasthesemaygiverisetoonewordorsentenceanswers,whicharedifficult,andperhapsevenpointless,toexploreingreaterdepth.Moreover,questionsthataretoospecifichavethepotentialtostagnatethediscussionanddisengagetheparticipants.Thediscussionshouldflowandprogressnaturallyandlogicallyand,assuch,theorderingofquestionsisimportant.
Aneffectivewaytostartafocusgroupdiscussioniswithaverygeneralquestionabouttheareaofinterest.Inthecaseoftechnologyacceptabilityresearch,thefocusgroupsessionwouldusuallybeginwithademonstrationofthesystem.Nielsen(1997)recommendsthatparticipantsbepresentedwiththemostconcreteexamplesofthetechnologybeingdiscussedasispossible.Thegroupcanbeaskedabouttheirfirstimpressionsofthetechnology.Thiscanleadtomoretargetedquestionsframedaroundtheconstructsofacceptabilityofinterest,forexample.Ausefulwaytoendafocusgroupistoaskparticipantsto
interest,forexample.Ausefulwaytoendafocusgroupistoaskparticipantstoprovidea‘take-homemessage’–thatis,theirviewsontheoneortwomostimportantissuesraisedduringthediscussion.Intheacceptabilitycontext,thiscouldinvolveaskingparticipantstocommentontheaspectsofthetechnologythattheylikedmost,theaspectsthattheylikedleast,andwhatfeatureorfeaturesofthetechnologytheywouldmostliketoseechangedandinwhatways.
Theroleofthemoderator,ineffect,istogetusefulinformationfromtheparticipants.Themoderatorneedstobewell-prepared,withsufficientdomainexpertise,and,duringthediscussion,beattentive(MorganandKrueger1993).Themoderatormustkeepthediscussiononpathwithoutinhibitingtheflowofideasandcomments(Nielsen1997).Themoderatormustknowwhentoprobefurtherandwhennottodoso.Thus,themoderatordoesmuchmorethansimplykeeptimeanddeliverthequestions–themoderatorisintegraltodataquality.
Itisoftenimpracticalforthemoderatortotakedetailednoteswhilealsofacilitatingthediscussion.Toaidaccuratedatacollection,itisgenerallyrecommendedthatanote-takerbeenlistedand/oranaudiorecordingofeachfocusgroupbetakenforlaterreviewandtofacilitateextractionofkeythemes.Whenreportingtheresults,preferably,thesekeythemesshouldbeorganisedaccordingtotheevaluationaims,andconsideredinthecontextofthegroupcomposition,thedefinitionofacceptabilitywhichwasadoptedandthestageofsystemdevelopment.
CaseStudy1
Toexemplifytheuseoffocusgroups,wepresentasacasestudyaprojectwhichwecompletedfortheRoyalAutomobileClubofVictoriainAustralia(Reganetal.2002).ThepurposeoftheprojectwastoassesstheacceptabilitytoVictoriancardriversofcertainin-vehicleintelligenttransportsystemswhichwerejudgedatthetimetohavehighsafetypotential.
Thereweretwokeyresearchphases.Phase1involveddeterminingonwhichtechnologiestheresearchshouldfocusandtodeterminethecompositionofthegroups.Phase2involvedgaugingtheacceptabilityoftheselectedtechnologiesthroughfocusgroupsinvolvingmembersofthedriversub-groupsidentifiedinPhase1.Ofspecificinterestwastheidentificationofanybarrierstotheuseofthetechnologiesinthemannerintendedbysystemdevelopers.
Acceptabilitywasdefinedascomprisingfiveconstructs:usefulness,effectiveness,usability,affordabilityandsocialacceptability.Tobeuseful,theusermustperceivethesystemtoserveapurpose.Tobeeffective,theusermustbelievethatthesystemdoeswhatitisdesignedtodo.Tobeusable,theuser
believethatthesystemdoeswhatitisdesignedtodo.Tobeusable,theusermustperceivethesystemtobeeasytouse.Affordabilityconcernswhetheruserscanaffordtopurchaseandmaintainthesystem,whilesocialacceptabilityisconcernedwiththebroadersocialissues(e.g.,privacy)thatmaybetakenintoaccountbyusers.
Seventechnologieswereselectedforstudy:ForwardCollisionWarning,IntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA),EmergencyNotification,ElectronicLicence,AlcoholInterlock,FatigueMonitoringandLaneDepartureWarning.AnalysesofthemostrecentlyavailableVictorianroad-crashdatawereconductedtoidentifythedriversub-groupsthatareover-representedandthosethatareinvolvedmostinthecrashtypesforeachofthesevenselectedtechnologies.Theoutcomesoftheseanalysesservedastheprimarybasisforselectingthedriversub-groupcompositionoftheeightfocusgroups.Otherconsiderationswerethattherebenomorethantwotechnologiesfordiscussioninanyonefocusgrouptoensurethattherewassufficientopportunitytodiscusseachtechnology,andthattheagerangebehomogenouswithineachfocusgroup(e.g.,18to24years)toensurethatparticipantsdidnotfeelinhibitedfromfreelyexpressingtheiropinions.Wherethiswasnotfeasible,therangeofagesspannednomorethantwoconsecutiveagegroups(e.g.,18to24and25to39years).Further,itwasfeltthat,providedtheagerangewashomogenous,agroupcomprisedofmalesandfemaleswasnotinappropriate.ThecompositionofeachoftheeightfocusgroupsisshowninTable7.1,alongwiththetechnologiesdiscussedineachgroup.
Atotalof52driverstookpart,withmostfocusgroupseachinvolvingsixorsevenparticipants.Allparticipantswerenaiveusersofthetechnologiesunderstudy.Alistofopen-endedquestionswasdevelopedtoguidethefocusgroupdiscussions.AnextractofthediscussionguideisgiveninTable7.2,alongwithexamplesofprobingquestions.Thesequestionscoveredthefiveconstructsofacceptabilityasdefinedinthecurrentresearch(seeTable7.2).Briefvideoclipsdemonstratingeachofthetechnologieswerealsodevelopedtoprovideparticipantswithinformationpriortothediscussionregardingthelookandfunctionalityofthetechnologiesandofthetypeofwarningsthatthetechnologiesissue.Allsystemsshowninthevideoswereprototypeversions,althoughsomesystemswerealittlemoredevelopedthanothers.Asparticipantswerenotbeinggiventheopportunitytointeractdirectlywiththetechnologies,issuesrelatingtousabilityweregenerallygivenlessemphasisandallottedlesstimeinthediscussionthanissuesrelatingtoperceivedusefulness,effectiveness,affordabilityandsocialacceptability.
Table7.1Focusgroupcompositionandtechnologiesfordiscussion
Table7.2ExtractoffocusgroupdiscussionguidefromReganetal.(2002)alsoshowinglinkbetweenquestionandacceptabilitydimension
Itisbeyondthescopeofthecurrentchaptertopresentthefindingsoftheresearch.ThereaderisdirectedtoReganetal.(2002)orMitsopoulosetal.(2002).
QuestionnaireDesignandAdministration
ExistingQuestionnaires
Havingmadethedecisionthataquestionnaireisanappropriatemethodtopursue,aconsiderationiswhethertherealreadyexistsaquestionnairewhichwilladequatelymeettheneedsoftheevaluationwerethisquestionnairetobeused.Ifsuitable,thereareseveraladvantagesintakingsuchanapproach.Theseincludesavingsincostandtime,whichmightotherwisehavebeenspentondesignanddevelopmentactivities,andtheabilitytomakeinter-studycomparisons(BoyntonandGreenhalgh2004).
Inthevehicletechnologydomain,asseenelsewhereinthisbook,anexampleofanexistingquestionnaireforassessingacceptabilityisthatdevelopedbyVanderLaanetal.(1997).Thisquestionnairegivesascoreforusefulnessandalsoascoreforsatisfaction,facilitatingcomparisonsacrossstudies,systemsandtime(withincreasingsystemexperience;e.g.,beforeandafteruseofthe
technology).Despiteitsadvantages,thisparticularquestionnairewouldnotbeappropriatewereabroaderdefinitionofacceptabilitybeingadoptedand/oriftheelicitationofinformationonspecificbarrierstoacceptabilitywereagoaloftheevaluation.Inthiscase,theuseofadditional,oralternative,methodswouldberequired.
ParticipantSample
Individualsfromtheintendedusergroup(s)shouldformtheparticipantsampleintechnologyacceptabilityresearch.Thisisastrueforquestionnairesasitisforfocusgroups.Havingaclearunderstandingoftheusergroup(s)isanessentialearlystepinthequestionnairedesignprocess.Notonlywillithelptargetparticipantrecruitmentefforts,butsuchknowledgewillhelpguidethelookandfeelofthequestionnaireitself.
Thetargetnumberofparticipantswilldependlargelyonthestudydesign,which,naturally,willhavebeendeterminedbytheevaluationobjectives.Timeandmoneyavailablewillalsoplayarole.Forexample,thepurposeofthestudymaybesolelytogaugetheacceptabilityofarangeofin-vehicletechnologies,whicharestillintheconceptorideastageofdevelopment.Afurtherpurposemaybetoexploretheextenttowhichcertaindemographic,behaviouraland/orattitudinalfactorsmight,inprinciple,influencetheacceptabilityofeachofthosetechnologies.Inthisexample,inordertoachievethegoalsoftheinvestigation,arelativelylargenumberofparticipantsoverallmightneedtobeaskedtocompletethequestionnaire.
Asafurtherexample,aquestionnaireorseriesofquestionnairesforgaugingacceptabilitymightbeadministeredtoparticipantswhoaretakingpartinastudy,theprimaryaimofwhichistoexploreobjectivelytheeffectofagivennewtechnologyortechnologiesoncertainmeasuresofdrivingperformance.Inthiscontext,andrelativetothepreviousexample,asmallernumberofparticipantsoverallmaybeaskedtocompletethequestionnaires.Herethegoalmaybetoexplorechangesinacceptabilityasafunctionofincreasingexperiencewithusingthetechnologyinasingle,relativelyhomogenousgroupofindividuals.Theimplicationisthatthehomogeneityoftheparticipantsampleisanimportantdeterminantofthedesiredsamplesize:themoreheterogeneousthesample,thelargertherecommendedsamplesize.Further,asitisoftendesirabletosubjectthenumericaldataderivingfromquestionnairestostatisticalanalysis,itisworthwhilenotingheretherelationshipwhichexistsbetweensamplesizeandeffectsize.Thatis,thesmallertheeffectthatoneisinterestedindetecting,thelargerthesampleneededinordertodetectthateffectifitindeedexists.
thelargerthesampleneededinordertodetectthateffectifitindeedexists.
QuestionTypes
Broadly,questionscanbecategorisedaseither‘closed’or‘open-ended’.Bothcategorieshaveaplaceintechnologyacceptabilitystudies.Thereareseveraltypesofclosedquestion,butcommontoallisthatthemethodinwhichparticipantsshouldarticulatetheirresponseisprovided.Moreover,thedataprovidedaretypicallynumerical,orcanbecodednumerically.Thesefactorstogetherfacilitatelaterdatacollationandanalysis.Riffenburgh(2012)distinguishesbetweenthefollowingtypesofclosedquestion:dichotomous(e.g.,‘yes’or‘no’),multiple-choice(i.e.,participantsarerequiredtoselectoneorseveraloptionsfromasetofoptionswhicharenotnecessarilyorderable),ranked(i.e.,participantsarerequiredtoplaceasetofpossiblefactorsinrankorder),continuous(i.e.,participantsarerequestedtoprovideanumberorplaceamarkonavisualanaloguescale)andrated(i.e.,participantsselectacategoryfromamonganorderedsetofcategories;forexample,numberedonetofive,whereonemeans‘never’andfivemeans‘always’).Open-endedquestionsallowforafree-text,narrativeresponse.Atypicaltreatmentofsuchresponsesistoscrutinisethemforkeythemes.
Withoneofthemainadvantagesofquestionnairesbeingthattheyprovideamechanismthroughwhichnumericaldatacanbecollected,itisrecommendedthatopen-endedquestionsbeusedonlyifnecessaryandsparingly.Ifthequestionnaireendsupconsistingmainlyofopen-endedquestions,thismayraisetheissueofwhetheranalternativedatacollectionapproach,suchasthefocusgroup,maybemoreappropriate.
QuestionWordingandPresentation
Criticaltoquestionnairereliabilityisthateachofthequestionsisunderstoodbythosecompletingthequestionnaireasisintendedbytheinvestigators.Questionsneedtobesimplyworded,withtheuseoftechnicaljargonbestavoided.Questionsshouldnotbedifficultorimpossibletoanswer.Also,itisbesttoavoidquestionswithambiguouswording,double-barreledquestionsandleadingorloadedquestions(Marshall2005,Riffenburgh2012).Wheretheresponsetoaquestionisdependentonquestionnairetiming,settingthetimeframeforthequestioniscrucial(Riffenburgh2012).Thatis,indeterminingtheirresponsetoagivenquestion,shouldparticipantsbethinkingaboutthepresent,thelastweekorthelastmonth,forexample?Marshall(2005)alsocautionsagainstasking
individualstorecounttheirexperiencesfrommorethansixmonthsago–asresponsestosuchquestionstendtobelessaccuratethanthosewhichaskparticipantstorecalltheirmorerecentexperiences.
Clarityofexpressionisalsoimportantforanyaccompanyinginstructionstoparticipants.Further,thesequencingofthequestionsshouldbelogical,andfilteringquestionsshouldbeusedwhenappropriatetoensurethat,foragivenrespondent,thequestionnairedoesnottakemoretimethanisnecessarytocomplete.Questionnaireswhichtakeinexcessof20minutestocompletearebestavoided.Suchmeasureshelptoensurethatparticipantsremainengagedandcooperativeandincreasethelikelihoodthatparticipantswillcompletethequestionnaire–inotherwords,theyhelptoincreasetheresponserate.Aprofessionallayout,withsufficientspacingforresponses,andtheuseofanappropriatelysizedandstyledtypeface,willalsocontributeinthisregard(BoyntonandGreenhalgh2004,Marshall2005,Riffenburgh2012).
AdministrationMode
Commonmodesofquestionnaireadministrationare‘paper-and-pencil’and‘Web-based’.WithmorepeoplehavingaccesstotheInternetandwiththeavailabilityof‘easy-to-use’softwaretoolsforquestionnaireimplementation,Web-basedadministrationhasincreasedinpopularity.Amongotherconsiderations,Web-basedadministrationallowsformoreefficientdatacollectionandcodingofthedatainpreparationforanalysis.Nonetheless,paper-and-pencilmaystillbethepreferredmodeforsomepotentialusergroups–forexample,theelderly.Thus,selectingthemostappropriatemodeofadministrationgiventheparticularneedsandpreferencesoftheintendedparticipantsisanimportantdeterminantofresponserates,andassuchoughttobefactoredintoadministrationplanningdiscussions.
PilotingandPreparingforDataCollection
Asometimesunderratedyetcrucialstepinquestionnairedevelopmentistheprocessofpiloting.Pilotingthequestionnairepriortoitsadministrationproperwillprovideanindicationofthereliabilityandvalidityofthequestionnaire.Inthisregard,amainpurposeofthepilotingexercisewouldbetoidentifyanyquestionsorinstructionsinneedofrewordingandrefinement,andanyredundant,superfluousorinappropriatequestionsand/orresponsecategoriesforpotentialexclusion.Afurtherpurposeofpilotingwouldbetoensurethatthedataarebeingrecordedaccuratelyandasintended,particularlyinthecaseofa
dataarebeingrecordedaccuratelyandasintended,particularlyinthecaseofaWeb-basedadministrationmode,andthatthedataareinaformsuitableforanalysisandsubsequentinterpretationinthecontextoftheevaluationaimsanddefinitionofacceptabilitythatisbeingadopted.
CaseStudy2
Asacasestudyintheuseofquestionnairestomeasuretheacceptabilityofnewin-vehicletechnologies,wepresentthe‘TransportAccidentCommission(TAC)SafeCarProject’(Reganetal.2006).Theprimaryaimoftheprojectwastoevaluatethepotentialsafetybenefitsofasuiteofin-vehicleintelligenttransportsystems.Afurtheraimwastoexplorethedegreetowhichdriversfoundthetechnologiesacceptable,andwhetherthislevelofacceptabilityvariedasafunctionofexperiencewithagiventechnology.Barrierstosystemacceptabilitywerealsoofinterest.Inpresentingthiscasestudy,thefocusisonthetimingofquestionnaireadministrationgiventhestudyaims,studydesignandtheadopteddefinitionofacceptability.Forfurtherdetailonthequestionsthemselvesandontheresultsobtained,refertoReganetal.(2006).
Eachof15testvehicleswasequippedwithfourtechnologies:IntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA),FollowingDistanceWarning(FDW),Seat-BeltReminder(SBR)andReverseCollisionWarning(RCW).Eachof23driversdroveoneofthevehiclesforapproximately16,500kilometres.Driverswerevolunteersfromparticipatingorganisations,whichhadagreedtoleaseatleastoneofthetestvehiclesfordedicatedusebytheiremployees.Participantsbelongedtoeitherthetreatmentorcontrolgroup.
Thestudycomprised‘Before’(2),‘During’(3)and‘After’(3)periods.NotechnologieswereactiveduringBefore1.InBefore2,SBRandRCWwereenabledandremainedenabledfortherestofthestudy.InagivenAfterperiod,thesystems(i.e.,ISAbyitself,FDWbyitselfandISAplusFDW)thatwereenabledintheprecedingDuringperiodwerenolongeractive.
ThedefinitionofacceptabilitywasthesameasthatinCaseStudy1:usefulness,effectiveness,usability,affordabilityandsocialacceptability.AnoverviewofthequestionnairesadministeredisgiveninTable7.3.AnexamplequestionforISAandforeachacceptabilitydimensionisprovidedinTable7.4.
Thefirstquestionnairewasadministeredtoallparticipantsatthebeginningofthestudyandbeforeactualuseofthesystems.Thisquestionnaireprovidedabaselinemeasureofacceptabilityandcomprisedquestionsforassessingtheacceptabilityofallfourtechnologiesunderstudy.Withtheexceptionofusability,allacceptabilitydimensionswereassessedaspartofthebaseline
questionnaire.Usabilityassessmentsofthetechnologiesoccurredonceonlyforeachsystemandearlyinparticipants’firstperiodofexposuretoagivensystem.Questionnairestoassessusefulness,effectiveness,affordabilityandsocialacceptability(subsequenttothebaseline)wereadministeredduringeachofthethreeAfterperiods.Thesamequestionswereusedinallthreequestionnairesandthebaselinetoenableexaminationoftheeffectsofsystemexposureonusefulness,effectiveness,affordabilityandsocialacceptability.
Table7.3QuestionnairesadministeredintheTACSafeCaron-roadstudytoassessacceptability
Table7.4ExtractofquestionnairesforISAfromReganetal.(2006)alsoshowinglinkbetweenquestionandacceptabilitydimension
Ithasnotbeenpossibletoamendthistableforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Tab7_4.pdf
ConcludingRemarks
Questionnairesandfocusgroupscanbepowerfultoolsforgaugingtheacceptabilityofnewvehicletechnologies.However,theyarenotwithouttheirdrawbacks.Thebestdefencehereisknowledgeofwhatthemethodscanandcannotdoandthenselectingthemethodthatbestmeetstheneedsoftheevaluationintermsoftheaims,thestageofsystemdevelopmentandtheaspectsofacceptabilityofinterest.
Inthischapter,beyondtheprovisionofgeneralguidance,wealsoprovidespecificguidanceonwhatconstitutesgoodpracticeinthedesignandconduct/administrationoffocusgroupsandquestionnaires.Inthecaseoffocusgroups,elementsofgoodpracticeincludeawell-constructeddiscussionguideandtheuseofaskilledmoderator.Inthecaseofquestionnaires,questionwordingandtheprocessofpilotingareparamount.Finally,weexemplifytheapplicationofeachmethodthroughcasestudies.
References
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Chapter8TheProfileofEmotionalDesigns:AToolforthe
MeasurementofAffectiveandCognitiveResponsestoIn-VehicleInnovationsRobertEdmundsandLisaDornCranfieldUniversity,UK
LeeSkrypchukJaguarLandRover,UK
Abstract
Driveracceptanceofin-vehicletechnologydesignisseenbyOriginalEquipmentManufacturersasdependentuponitsemotional,cognitiveandexperientialeffectontheconsumer.Thischapterdescribesthedevelopmentandvalidationofaninstrumentaimedatmeasuringconsumer’saffectiveresponsestoinnovativein-vehicletechnologiesandreferredtoasthe‘ProfileofEmotiveDesigns’(PED).AliteraturereviewgeneratedtheitemsandexistingscalesfortheconstructionofthePED,andPrincipalComponentsAnalysisofresponsesfrom674participantsforthreedifferentin-vehicletechnologies,revealedfourscales(TechnologyAcceptance,ModeratingFactors,AffectiveAppraisalandEmotionalValence).TheresultsfromStudy1showedthatthesescalesdiscriminatedbetweenthreein-vehicledesignsandwerepredictiveofintentionstopurchasethevehicle.Study2foundthattherewasnodifferenceinthePEDscalesforlevelofinformationprovidedaboutthein-vehicletechnologydesignandscoreswerealsoverysimilarforpreandpostin-vehicleexperience.Thedifferencesthatdidemergewereconcernedwitheaseofuseandtheanticipatedhelprequiredusingthetechnology.Thisisintuitive,asonlyin-vehicleexperiencewillgiverichinformationofadesign’susability.Thefindingsarediscussedwithreferencetodriveracceptance.
Introduction
Theautomotiveindustryhasanumberofchallengeswithrespecttogainingdriveracceptanceoftheuseoftechnologywithinavehicleanddifferentiatingtheirproductsinthemarketplace.Whendevelopingtechnologyforthemodern-dayvehicle,notonlydoestheinterfaceneedtobeeasilyusableandnotdistracting,butithastoengagetheuserandgivethemasenseofenjoymentandsatisfaction.Thismeansthatin-vehicleinterfaceshavedevelopedasenseof‘formaswellasfunction’whichcomplementsthepreviousmantraofpurposetoachieveafunction.Thereforethequickerandmoreeffectiveadesignisatcapturingtheimaginationoftheuser,themorelikelytheinnovationwillgaindriveracceptance.Achievingcustomersatisfactioncanbedoneinmanyways.Someindividualswillgetexcitedbythelookofacar,somebythetechnologyandsomebythebrandnameorthewaythevehiclesounds.However,thecommonmeasurablecomponentacrossallthesefeaturesisthedriver’semotionalresponsesandtheirattachmenttotheoverallproduct.
Whendevelopingtechnology,theOriginalEquipmentManufacturer(OEM)mustunderstandtheimpactoftheseinnovationsandensurein-vehicledesignsolutionsinvokeapositiveresponsefromthecustomer.Thisisespeciallytrueforpremiumcarsinwhichconsumerexpectationformarketdifferentiationishigh.Therefore,thedevelopmentofanunderstandingofthefundamentalrelationshipbetweendrivers’affectiveandcognitiveresponsetotechnologyandhowthisaffectstheirperceptionofaproductorserviceiscriticalandonewhichcanhelpmakedecisionsonhowandwhatisdeliveredinthenextgenerationofin-vehicletechnologies.Driveracceptanceofin-vehicletechnologydesignisseenbyOEMsasdependentuponitsemotional,cognitiveandexperientialeffect.
Inrecenttimes,theproliferationoftechnologyintovehicleshascreatedanexplosionofnewfeaturesthattheusercaninteractwith.Thisisadouble-edgedswordintermsofcustomersatisfactionasthereisabalancebetweentheamountandcomplexityofthefeaturesavailableandtheeffectofthetechnologyintermsofdriverdistraction.Therearemanychallengesassociatedwiththisanditisbecomingincreasinglymoredifficultasdriversappeartowantandexpecttoexecutesecondarytaskswhilstdriving.Theautomotiveindustryfrequentlyintroducesinnovativedesignsandcarmodelstoproduceabetterproductandalsocreateconsumerdemand.Insuchacompetitivesectoritisoftheutmostimportancetoproduceadesignthatmeetsconsumerneeds;otherwise,thecompetitiveedgewillbelost.ItisthereforevitalthatOEMsunderstandwhichtechnologieswillofferbothsignificantcustomersatisfactionandhelpprioritisewhichfeatureswillattractthenextgenerationofcustomersthatachievesthe‘wow’factorwhilstbeingfunandsafetouse.
‘wow’factorwhilstbeingfunandsafetouse.Whileagreatdealofmarketresearchisconductedtopositionabrandand
alsotogaugeconsumerreactiontothefinishedproduct,thereseemstobelittlesystematicresearchtounderstandcustomerresponsestonewtechnologiesintheearlydesignstages.Rather,thisisguidedbytheintuitionofthedesignerusingpastexperienceandproducthistory(Jordan2000).Therefore,theefficacyofmeasuringtheaffectiveimpactofaproductduringearlydesignstageswasalsoinvestigated.
DevelopmentoftheProfileofEmotiveDesigns(PED)
ThischapterdescribesthedevelopmentofthePEDinstrumentdesignedtomeasureconsumer’saffectiveresponses(definedasanypositiveornegativefeelingsandemotions)tonewin-vehicletechnologies.Athree-yearresearchprogramundertakenbyCranfieldUniversitywascommissionedbyJaguarLandRover(JLR)todevelopthePEDasameasurefortheassessmentofin-vehicleinnovationsforallstagesofproductdevelopmentandforuseacrossalltypesofin-vehicletechnologies,suchasanewsatellitenavigationsystem,anovelinteriorcarcontrolortheautomationofsomefunction.JLRrequiredaninstrumentthatwouldmeasurein-vehicleinnovationsreliablyacrossdifferentmodesofpresentation;forexample,astoryboard,avideo,aprototypeorthein-vehiclerealisationofthedesign.
Consumeraffectoninteractingwithaproductislikelytoengagecomplexaspectsofcognitionandemotion,soamultidimensionalscalewasrequiredtocapturetheimportantfacetsofhumanresponsesgenerated.Theinstrumentshouldbecapableofdiscriminatingbetweenagenerallylikedanddislikedinnovationandalsobesensitiveenoughtodifferentiatebetweenquitesimilartechnologies.Theinstrumentshouldbeshorttocompleteandcapableofidentifyingindividualdifferences.WhiletobedevelopedinitiallyfortheJaguarXFmodel,itshouldalsoworkacrosscontexts;thatis,forothermodelsofcar.Finally,thescoresobtainedbytheinstrumentshouldcorrelatewithsomeothermeaningfulvariableforvalidationpurposes,especiallyintentiontopurchasethecar.
Theresearchundertakenaddressedthreemainquestions.Firstly,couldaninstrumentbedesignedthatmeasuresaffectiveresponsestoin-vehicleinnovationsthathasanelementofuserinteraction?Secondly,couldthisinstrumentprovidecomparableanddiscriminatingscoresacrossdifferenttypesofinnovation?Thirdly,couldtheinstrumentmeasureresponsesatdifferentstagesofthedesignprocessinameaningfulwaythatwouldgiveanindicationofhowfavourablythedesignwouldbeevaluatedwheninproductionand
ofhowfavourablythedesignwouldbeevaluatedwheninproductionandinstalledinthetargetvehicle?Toaddressthesequestions,awide-rangingliteraturereviewwasconductedcoveringareasofpsychology,marketingandergonomics,inordertodesignaframeworktotheoreticallyunderpinthedevelopmentofthePEDandinformitsconstruction.
SummaryFindingsoftheLiteratureReview
Givenspaceconstraints,onlyasummaryofthekeyfindingsoftheliteraturereviewispresentedhere.In-vehicletechnologiesusuallyrequiresomelevelofuserinteraction;thus,understandingtheimpactofrelevantproductfunctionontheindividualisimportant.Withinthecognitivedomain,thereisextensiveliteraturecoveringtechnologyacceptanceandusability.Asseeninotherchaptersofthisbook,perhapsthemostwidelycitedistheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM;Davis1989).Thatmodelisparticularlyappropriatehereasitconcernsindividuals’perceptionoftechnology,ratherthanjustananalysisofproductfunctionality,measuringtwofactors:‘perceivedeaseofuse’and‘perceivedusefulness’.However,theTAMdoesnotencompassmanypossibledriversoftechnologyacceptance.VenkateshandDavis(2000)attemptedacomprehensiverevisiontotheTAMtoincludefourmaindeterminantsofanintentiontousetechnology;thesewereperformanceexpectancy,effortexpectancy,socialinfluenceandfacilitatingconditions(Venkateshetal.2003),indicatingthatindividuals’perceptionofproducttechnologycouldbemultidimensional.Inparticular,thehedonicaspectsofconsumerinteractionorperceivedinteractionwithaproductcanhaveasignificanteffectonthesatisfactionwiththeproductatalevelbeyondthatcapturedbyjustitsutilitarianaspects.Yietal.(2006)provideafurtherexampleofanintegrativeapproachoutliningapredisposedtendencytowardsadoptinganinnovation,andBrunerandKumar(2005)alsoextendedtheTAMbyincorporatinghedonicaspectsoftechnologyuse.SimilarlyLuetal.(2009)foundthatperceived‘enjoyment’significantlyinfluencedattitudetowardsusingatechnology.
Jordan(2000;seealsoChapter18inthisvolume)proposedthat,onceaproducthasbecomefunctionalandeasytouse,theconsumersearchesforaproductthatispleasurabletouse.However,theexperientialoutcomeofinteractionwithaproductislikelytobecontextdependent.Howtheformalandexperientialpropertiesofaproductlinktoeachotherisavitalstepinunderstandingaffectiveproductdesign.Kanseiengineeringdevelopedby
MisutoNagamatchiconsidersconsumers’feelingsandimageusingstatisticaltechniquesandsocapturestheideaofaffectivedesign(Nagamatchi1995,Schutteetal.2004).Whilethistechniquehasprovedsuccessful,thereareanumberofproblemsinitsuse.FirstlytheKanseiwordsforanalysescomefromdivergentsourcesandthechoiceofwordsissubjective.Secondly,aclusteranalysisrequiresalargenumberofexamplesoftheproductpropertiesandthismaynotbefeasible.Finally,andmostimportantlyforthepresentresearch,Kanseiknowledgewillbespecifictotheproductandmaynotgeneralisetootheraspectsoftheoveralldesignorevensimilarproducts.
Forthepresentresearchaimsitwasalsoimportanttoconsiderwhattypesofproductattributesarelikelytogeneratepositiveemotions.Kano(1984)proposesthreedistincttypesofneedsplottedontwoaxes,oneforsubjectivesatisfactionlevel(satisfiedtodissatisfied)andthesecondanobjectivemeasureonhowwelleachneedhasbeenexecuted(‘verywell’to‘notatall’)(seeFigure8.1).ThethreetypesofneedsplottedontheseaxesareBasicneeds,PerformanceneedsandExcitementneeds(FullerandMatzler2007).
Themodelsuggeststworoutestoincreasecustomersatisfaction:eitherbyincreasingsomescalarqualitysuchasperformance/economy,oralternatively,surprisethecustomerwithsomeinnovationthatmeetsalatentdemand.Basicproductqualitiesarenotaroutetoincreasesatisfaction,butmayleadtodissatisfactionifnotexecutedproperly.Whilethismodelprovidesaninterestingframeworktounderstandthedifferentdimensionsofproductquality,itdoesnotprovideanydetailedpredictionofwhatattributesmayleadtopositiveaffect.
Figure8.1KanoModelDimensions
EvansandBurns(2007)termedextremecustomersatisfactionas‘delight’definedasapositiveemotionalstateresultingfromhavingone’sexpectationsexceededtoasurprisingdegree(Burns2003,RustandOliver2000).Intheirstudy,34attribute-baseddelightreactionsthatcouldnotbeascribedtoeitherofKano’stworoutestosatisfactioncouldbefound.FortheEvansandBurns(2007)study,noneoftheattributescouldbeascribedaseitherunexpectedorhighperformance;yetthey‘delighted’thecustomers.Someoftheproducts’attributeswerecommonplaceincars,butdelightedcustomersbecauseofthenovelwaytheyweredelivered.Othersdelightednotbecausetheyhadveryhighperformance,butbecausethelevelofperformancewas‘justright’.Athirdcategoryfordelightwasalsorevealed;itseemsthatsomeattributesweresatisfyingastheywerepartoftheholisticappealofthecar.Thisenhancesourunderstandingofthepossibleroutestopositivecustomeraffectordelight,but‘distinctivedelivery’,‘justtherightperformance’and‘holisticappeal’stillneedtobefurtherunpacked.
Indesigninganinstrumenttomeasurecustomeraffectordelightwheninteractingwithaproduct,itisclearthatmoodandemotionmustbeconsidered.Thereisextensivepsychologicalliteraturefocusingonmoodandemotion,inparticular,theideathatemotionsareobjectdrivenandevaluative(Scherer2005)isparticularlyrelevantforthepresentresearch;indeterminingtheaffectiveimpactofanovelin-vehicledesignthechangeinaffectshouldbeaboutthe
designaftersomeevaluationhastakenplace.InScherer’sterms,individualswillberequiredtoundertakeacognitiveappraisalofhowtheyarefeelingatthatparticularmomentwhenevaluatingthedesignwhichmaydifferfromthefastandmostlikelyautomaticappraisalthattakesplaceduringtheonsetofanemotionalevent,butonewillinfluencetheotherandleadto‘responsesynchronisation’.Cognitiveandphysiologicalcomponentsaremobilisedtogethersothatanemotionaleventwillelicitanumberofchangesintheindividual,eachofwhichcanpotentiallybemeasuredfollowinganinteractionwithin-vehicleinnovationsandleadtoa‘behaviouralimpact’(Scherer2005).Thissuggeststhatabothpersistentandmeasurablechangemayoccuronpresentationofthetargetinnovation.
MehrabianandRussell’s(1974)theory,thePleasure,ArousalandDominanceparadigmofaffect(PAD),isparticularlyusefulhereandassertsthatthreedimensionsareneededtoassesstheindividual’sfeelings,andthesefactorsinturnalsoinfluencebehaviour(Kulviwatetal.2007).Thefirstdimensionispleasureandreferstoanenjoyablereactiontotheobject;theseconddimensionrelatestoarousalandexcitement.Dominancereferstothelevelwithwhichanindividualfeelstheyareincontrolorcontrolledbyastimulus.Dominanceisrelevantwhenconsideringconsumerreactiontonewinteractiveinnovationssuchasacomplexdesignwhichisnotintuitivetouse.Thismaybeimportantfornoveldesignsolutionssincenewtechnologymayhaveanaversiveeffectifthecustomerfeelssubmissiveandunabletomasteranewinnovation,andthismayimpactontheaffectivestateofself-efficacy.
BasedontheliteraturereviewedtoinformthedesignanddevelopmentofthePED,therearefourcoreareasofrelevanceforitstheoreticalunderpinning:
•Incorporatingameasureoftechnologyacceptance;•Moderatingeffectsofsocialandattitudinalfactors;•Affectiveappraisaldimensions,suchasdelightandsurprise;•Valence(mood/emotion).
TheexactcompositionofthePEDscaleswillnotbedescribedhereasitwasdevelopedforJLRandtheiruse;howeveranextensivesetofitemswasrequiredtocoverthesecoreareasandexistingscaleswereincludedinthepilotversionofthePEDwhererelevant;forexample,thePleasure,ArousalandDominancescalestakenfromthePAD.
Study1:AComparisonofThreeDesignInnovations
Aim
TheaimforStudy1wastoexaminethefactorstructureofthePEDusingalargesampleandtodeterminewhethertheinstrumentwassensitivetodifferenttypesofin-vehicletechnologies.Thatis,doesitmeetthemaingoalofproducinglowerscoresforlesswell-likeddesignscomparedtodesignsthatareknowntobewellreceivedbyconsumers?
Stimuli
Threetechnologieswerechosenforthisstudy.ThefirstwastheJaguargearselectioncontrol(JaguarDrive™),whichutilisesarotarycontrolthatrisesfromthecentreconsoleonstart-upandallowsselectionoftheautomaticdrive.Second,theJaguarcabinlight(SenseLights™),whichturnsonwhenitistouched,eliminatingtheneedtofindaswitch.Boththesetechnologiesareinproductionandknowntobedeliveringcustomersatisfaction.Thethirdtechnologychosenisnotinproductionandhashadalessfavourable,moremixed,reaction:theso-calledSenseWindows™,whichopensthewindowdependingonwhatpositionistouchedonthewindowpillar.Itwashypothesisedthatthetwoproductiontechnologieswouldberatedasmorefavourablethanthewindow-openingdesign.
ParticipantsandMethod
Sixhundredandseventy-fourJLRemployeesbasedatCoventry,UK,completedthePED:258fortheJaguarDrivesurvey,206fortheSenseLightsand210fortheSenseWindows.Asurveywasconductedforeachtechnology.Participantscouldviewapictureandadescriptionofoneofthedesignsovertheintranetincludingashortvideoofthedesignbeingused.FollowingthistheywereaskedtocompleteanonlinepilotversionofthePED.
PrincipalComponentsAnalysis
Theresponsesacrossthethreeinnovationsweresubjectedtoprincipalcomponentsanalysistoidentifytheconstructsunderlyingeachofthefourscales(TechnologyAcceptance,ModeratingFactors,AffectiveAppraisalandEmotionalValence).Thenumberoffactorstoextractwasdeterminedbyconsideringtheparallelanalysisof1,000randomcorrelationmatricesusingtheprogramwrittenbyO’Connor(2000),screeplotandEigenonerule(Factors
programwrittenbyO’Connor(2000),screeplotandEigenonerule(FactorswithanEigenvalue≥1areacceptedassalient).Principalaxisanalysiswasusedtoextracttherelevantnumberoffactors,andtheseweresubmittedtoobliquerotationusingaquartiminprocedure(DirectOblmin)toachievesimplestructure.Itemloadingsgreaterthan0.30wereregardedasimportantforinterpretingthefactorssoastoretainasmanyitemsaspossibleattheearlystageofthePEDdevelopment.Thefinalinstrumentwillaccepthigherloadingsof0.40or0.50,soastoreducethenumberofitemsforeachofthefactors.
Theitemsyieldingsalientloadingsofthemagnitudeofatleast0.30oneachfactorweretakentodefineasub-scale,andeachparticipantwasassignedscoresoneachsub-scalebycalculatingthemeanoftheirresponsestoitsconstituentitems.Thereliabilityofeachsub-scalewasestimatedusingCronbach’scoefficientalpha.
ForTechnologyAcceptance,twofactorsemerged:UsefulnessandEaseofUse.Eachsub-scalewasfoundtoyieldvaluesofcoefficientalphaof0.918and0.917,respectively,regardedassatisfactoryaccordingtoconventionalcriteria.ModeratingFactorsloadontothreefactorsthatcapturedideasabout‘AttitudetotheTechnology’,theamountof‘AvailableHelp’requiredtousetheinnovationandissuesover‘Anxiety’abouttheinnovation.AfterreversingthescalescoreforthetwonegativelycorrelateditemsontheAnxietyscale,eachsub-scalewasfoundtoyieldvaluesofcoefficientalphaof0.894,0.869and0.762,respectively.FollowingparallelanalysisitwasdeterminedthattwofactorsshouldbeextractedfortheAffectiveAppraisalsub-scale;thesetwofactorswereconcernedwiththeconceptsofdelightandnovelty,yieldingvaluesofcoefficientalphaof0.956forDelightand0.825forNovelty.ThefinalscalemeasuredvalenceusingthePADmodel(thePleasure,ArousalandDominanceparadigmofaffectdescribedearlier).Analysisfoundthatthethreesub-scaleswerereplicatedinthecurrentcontextofcardesign,withfactorsofPleasure,ArousalandDominance,eachyieldingrespectivevaluesofcoefficientalphaof0.929forPleasure,0.842forArousaland0.807forDominance.Overall,theanalysesindicatetheinternalreliabilityofthePEDisadequate.
Results
Calculatingmeanresponsescoresforeachsub-scalerevealedanencouragingpatternofresultsaccordingtothethreedifferenttechnologies.SenseWindows™wasscoredleastpositivelycomparedwiththeJaguarDrive™andSenseLights™.SenseWindows™wasseenaslesseasytouseanduseful,producedalesspositiveattitudeandlowerlevelsofdelightandpleasure.Respondentsreported
thatSenseWindows™waslesseasytocontrol,butcreatedhigheranxietyandwasthoughttorequiremorehelptouse.IncontrasttheSenseLights™scoredhighestformostsub-scales,requiringlittlehelptouse,butwasmoreusefulandeasytousethantheothertwotechnologies.Somewhatsurprisinglythough,theSenseLights™scoredlowestinnovelty.
Whenthescoresweresummedacrossallthescalesusingasimplealgorithmthatreversedsomescoresfornegativescales,theresultsshowninTable8.1werefound.
Table8.1Meanscore*technologycollapsedacrossscales
ANOVArevealedthattherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenthethreetechnologies;F(2,636)=29.54,p<0.001Partialetasquared0.085.Cronbach’salpha=0.835.PosthocTukeytestsfoundasignificantdifferenceinscoringonlybetweentheSenseWindows™technologyandJaguarDrive™andSenseLights™t(p<0.05),suggestingthattheSenseWindows™ratedasleastappealingacrossallthescalescomparedwiththeJaguarDrive™andSenseLights™;theselattertwodesignswerefoundtohavenosignificantdifferenceinresponsesbetweenthem.
Participantswerealsoaskediftheinclusionofthetechnologywouldencouragethemtopurchasethecar;respondingviaafive-pointscalefrom‘notatall’to‘verymuchso’.ThisitemwasusedasameasureofintentiontopurchasetoprovidesomesupportforthevalidityoftheinstrumentandtheresultsarepresentedinTable8.2.
Table8.2Regressionresults‘intentiontopurchase‘
Table8.2showstheresultsfromalinearregression,withthealgorithmscoreasthepredictorandtheintentiontopurchasescoreasthedependentvariable.TheanalysisrevealsthestandardisedcoefficientofBeta=0.585,t=17.999,p<0.001.Thet-testonBsuggeststhatthefindingsarenotclosetozeroandtissignificantsuggestingthatthemodelismeaningful.Thisindicatesthatscalescorespredictparticipants’responsesaboutintentiontobuytheproductbasedontheinnovation.
Insummary,thefindingssuggestthatthePEDsuccessfullydiscriminatesbetweenthetechnologiesand,aspredicted,theSenseWindows™designwasleastliked.Whenthescoresweresummedacrossthescales,theynotonlysignificantlydiscriminatebetweenthethreetechnologies,JaguarDrive™,SenseLights™andSenseWindows™,butthealgorithmscoreisalsoasignificantpredictorofintentiontopurchase.
ItwouldseemfromthisstudythatthePEDmeetstheobjectivesassetoutandhighlightsimportantindicatorsofconsumeraffectandcognitionaboutin-vehicleinnovations,discriminatingbetweenfavourableandlessfavourabledesigns.ItshouldbenotedatthispointthatthePEDscoresonlymakesensewhentheyareusedtocomparedifferentdesigns;itisnotpossibletospecifyanabsolutecriterionvaluethatindicateswhetheritisagoodorbaddesignatthisstage.WhilsttechnologieswithdifferentfunctionsweretestedinStudy1,theinstrumentisrequiredtomeasuretheemotionalimpactofthedesignwithfunctionalcomponentsbeingpartofthisevaluation.Theimportanceofthe
functionalcomponentofinnovativedesignsisexploredfurtherinStudy2.However,weassessedsystemmock-upsinStudy1ratherthanactualsystems.Study2usesanactualsystemandcomparesPEDresponsesacrossdifferentmodesofpresentation.
Study2:ModesofDesignPresentation
Aims
TheprimaryaimofthesecondinvestigationwastodeterminehowdifferentmodesofdesignpresentationwouldaffectPEDscores.Thatis,iftheinnovationispresentedinadegradedformsuchasapictureorvideo,willtheresultsbeindicativeofthescoresobtainedwhenseatedintheproductioncarandinteractingwiththedesigninnovation?Thisisanimportantaspectasitishopedthattheinstrumentwillbeusefulatearlystagesofthedesignprocessaswellasatthephysicalprototypeorproductionstage.AsecondaryaimofStudy2wastoinvestigateanotherdesigninnovationthatisbothfunctional,in-vehicleandmayhaveemotiveappeal,whileextendingtheresearchbeyondJaguarcars.AdesignthatmeetsthesecriteriawastheBMWiDrive.
Stimuli
Whileaestheticsmaybepossibletojudgefromagraphicrepresentation,whatthedesignfunctionisliketouseismoredifficulttodetermineusingthismodeofpresentation.Forthisreasonadescriptionofhowthedesignfunctionswaspresentedalongsideanypictureorvideooftheproduct.Similarly,thecontextinwhichthedesignissetmayhaveaneffect,andsopicturesofthetargetcarandcabinwerenecessarytoincludeforratingtheinnovation.Generally,itisknownthatthemoreinformationthatisprovidedaboutadesign,thegreatertheindividual’sengagementwiththeproductandthemorepositivetheirimpressionofthatproductbecomes(Meyers-Levy1989,Nagaraj2007,CastleandChattopadhyay2010).ToaddressthesecondaimofStudy2,theBMWiDrivewaschosenas,likeJaguarDrive™,itismultifunctional,controllingmanyaspectsofthetechnologyinsidethecarandintendedtoneatentheinteriorofthecar,reducingthenumberofswitchesnecessary,whilelookinggoodandimpressingtheconsumer.Finally,ithassomesimilaritiesinappearancetotheJaguarDrive™,buthasacompletelydifferentfunction.
ParticipantsandProcedure
Twenty-fiveparticipantstookpartinStudy2drawnfromemployeesandstudentsbasedatWarwickUniversity.JLRprovidedatopoftherange6seriesBMWwithsecondgenerationiDrive(Figure8.2).ParticipantswereinvitedtotakepartbyemailandrespondentswererandomlyassignedtooneoftwoconditionsandsenteithertheText/PictureinformationabouttheiDriveorsentthisinformationinconjunctionwithashortvideoclipoftheiDrivebeingused.TheywereinstructedtoviewtheinformationandthencompletethePEDonline,savetheirresponsesandsenditbacktotheresearcherasanemailattachment.
Figure8.2InteriorandiDriveintargetvehicle
AftercompletingthePED,participantswereaskedtoattendadesignatedlocationafewdayslatertositinthecarandexperiencetheiDrivefirsthand.Eachparticipantwasaskedtositinthedrivers’seatwhiletheresearchersatinthefrontpassengerseat.Abriefdescriptionofthepurposeofthestudywasgiven,indicatingthattheirevaluationoftheiDrivewasimportantandthattheywouldbeaskedtocompleteapaperversionofthePEDoncemoreattheendofthestudy.Usabilityofthedesignsolutionwhilstdrivingwasnotassessedduringthisstudy;however,futureresearchwillemploydrivingsimulator-basedmethodologytoinvestigatehowdifferentdrivingexperiencesmightimpactonthecognitiveandaffectiveaspectsofdifferentdesignsolutions.
TheresearchertheninstructedparticipantstousetheiDriveanditsvariousfunctions,suchasradio,satellitenavigation,heatingandvehicleinformation.Someofthesefunctionsrequiredtheparticipanttonavigatethroughanumberofsub-menusandscrollthroughanumberofoptionsdisplayedonthecentrescreen.Whenallthetaskshadbeenattempted,participantswereaskedtocompletethePEDforafinaltime,whichtookanaverageofthreeminutes.
Results
Thestudyemployeda2x2factorialdesignwithonewithin-subjects’factorofExperiencewithtwolevels(InformationandIn-vehicle)andonebetween-subjects’factorofInformationTypewithtwolevels(Text/PictureandText/Picture+Video).TheeffectofsittinginthecarandusingtheiDriveonPEDratingswasalsoinvestigatedacrossgroups.
NostatisticallysignificantdifferenceswerefoundforthePEDscalesbetweenthetwodifferentlevelsoninformation(InformationandIn-vehicle)orpreandpostexperienceoftheactualdesignin-vehicle.Multivariateanalysisfoundtheonlystatisticallysignificantdifferencebetweenconditionswasforthe‘Anxiety’and‘AvailableHelp’scales.Beforesittinginthecar,respondentsweremoreanxiousaboutthedesignafteronlyviewingthepictureanddescriptioninformationcomparedtothosethatalsoviewedthevideoinadditiontothisinformation.Thisdifferencedisappearedaftersittinginthecar.However,whenscoringthedesignatthispoint,respondentsfeltthatmorehelpwasneededtousethedevicecomparedtowhentheyhadjustviewedtheinformationsupplied.
Anotherwaytoanalysetheeffectofinformationtypeswastodeterminewhetherthescoresfromthevideoandtextmaterialpredictthescoresthatwerelaterobtainedinthecar.Inotherwords,dotheratingsindividualsgivefrom
impoverishedinformationstillproduceresultscomparabletothatfoundwhenthefinishedproductispresentedinthevehicle.Resultsofaregressionanalysisindicatedthatindividuals’scoresbeforesittinginthecarwerepredictiveofthepatternofscoringfoundaftersittinginthevehicle,exceptforEaseofUsewheretheregressionwasnotsignificant(seeTable8.3).
Table8.3Regressionresultspreandpost
Insummary,therewasnosignificantdifferencebetweenthetwoconditionsforlevelofinformation;Text/PictureorText/Picture+Video.Scoreswerealsoverysimilarforpreandpostin-vehicleexperience.Also,Prein-vehiclescoresseemedpredictiveofscoresafterparticipantssatinthecarandusedtheiDrive.
Thedifferencesthatdidemergeseemedcentredaroundeaseofuseandtheanticipatedhelprequiredusingthesystem.Thisisintuitive,asonlyin-vehicleexperiencewillgiverichinformationofitsusability.
ThissuggeststhatthePEDmayprovideanindicationofemotivereactionstoinnovationsatvariousstagesofthedesignprocess.Printeddescriptionsandphotographicinformationaloneseemtoprovidesomecuesforindividualstogaugetheirfeelingaboutthedesign,exceptthoseusabilitydimensionsthatmayvaryacrosspresentationtypes.Itwouldstillbesensibletosuggestthough,thatwhendirectlycomparingdesigninnovations,theyshouldbepresentedinthesamemodalitiesforavalidcomparisonofthescores,sincetheregressionmodels,whilestatisticallysignificant,explainonlyaportionofthevariance.Thisstudyprovidessomeearlyevidencethatindividualscanmeaningfullyscoredifferentinnovationsfromdifferenttypesofpresentationmaterialandthesescoresaretosomeextentpredictiveofthescorestheywouldgivewhensittinginthevehicleinteractingwiththedesigninnovationitself.
Conclusion
Thefindingsindicatethatdriveracceptanceofin-vehicletechnologydesignmaybeamultidimensionalconceptdependentupontheemotional,cognitiveandexperientialeffectontheconsumer.Thecomplexityrequiredtomeasuretheindividual’sresponsetoanautomotiveinnovationisanimportantmessageforthischapter.Otherattemptshavebeenmadetomeasurethedriver’sacceptanceofvehicletechnologies,suchasthescalesuggestedbyVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997),whichhasausefulness(similartotheTAM)andsatisfactioncomponent.Whilescalesliketheseareshortandsimpletouse,theydonotconsiderthepotentialmoderatingemotionalandcognitivefactorsinsuchdepthasthePED.ThePEDwasconstructedtocapturethemaindriversofaffectfornovelin-cardesignsasfullyaspossibleanditsadvantageliesinthisanditsdemonstratedusefulnessatvariousstagesofthedesignprocess.
ThePEDscaleandsub-scalesdoseemtomeasureimportantaspectsofconsumeraffectandcognitionstodowithdesigninnovations.FocusinghereontheJaguardriveselector,cabinlightsandwindowopening,thescalesdiscriminatedbetweenthesethreein-vehicledesigntechnologiesintheexpecteddirection.ConsideringthedifferentmodesofpresentationfortheBMWiDrive,sinceresponsestographicalrepresentationsofadesigncorrelatedwithresponsestothein-vehicleexperience,thissuggeststhattheinstrumentmaygiveareasonableindicationofreactionstothefinalproductfromearlyrenderingsofthatdesign.
thatdesign.WhilethePEDcapturedresponsesthatdifferentiatedthetechnologiestested,
measurementingeneralmaybemorecomplexandsuggestsfurtherareasofdevelopmentfortheinstrument.Forinstance,thefactorswhichareimportanttomeasureacceptanceinprestigemodels,oftenpurchasedforaestheticsandperformancereasons,maydifferwhensimilartechnologiesareinmoremundanevehicles.Alsothechangeinappraisaloftheinnovationovertimeneedstobeconsidered;certaindesignsmaybefrustratingtobeginwith,butbecomemoresatisfactoryasitsfunctionsarelearned.However,itisalsopossiblethatadesignthatisacceptabletobeginwith,maybecomejustanoveltyovertimeandretainlessaffectiveappeal.
AfinalthreadoffutureinvestigationforinstrumentssuchasthePED,couldbetoinvestigatewhethersuchscalesaresensitiveenoughtodiscriminateacrossdifferentlevelsofacceptancebetweenquitesimilartechnologies,suchassubtlydifferenttypesofdriveselector.Itisreasonabletoconcludethatdriveracceptanceasaconceptneedstoincorporateabroadrangeoffactorsinordertounderstanditsimpactonbehaviour.Asin-carinnovationsareincreasinglyincorporatedintovehicledesignthisisanimportantareatopursue.
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Chapter9AnEmpiricalMethodforQuantifyingDrivers’LevelofAcceptanceofAlertsIssuedbyAutomotiveActive
SafetySystemsJan-ErikKällhammer
AutolivDevelopment,AB,Sweden
KipSmithNavalPostgraduateSchool,USA
ErikHollnagelUniversityofSouthernDenmark,Denmark
Abstract
Thischapteraddressesthreeissuesrelatedtofalsealarmsandthedevelopmentofautomotiveactivesafetysystems.First,itisprudentforsystemdeveloperstoacknowledgethatfalsealarmsareinevitableconsideringtherarityofaccidentsandtofocusonachievingdriveracceptanceforalertsthatarefalsealarms.Second,systemdeveloperswhoconsiderfalsealarmstobeanintegralpartofthedesignofactivesafetysystemsthataddresspotentialaccidentsituationscantakeadvantageofthedrivers’subjectiveperceptionofthosesituationstoguidethespecificationofthesystem’salertingcriteria.Third,thisapproachtothedevelopmentofactivesafetysystemsislikelytoproducesystemsthatachieverelativelyhigherlevelsofdriveracceptance.
Introduction
Thispaperpresentsareviewofissuesraisedbytheprevalenceoffalsealarmsbyautomotiveactivesafetysystems.Ithasthreesections.Thefirstdefinestheterms‘driveracceptance’and‘falsealarms’,discussesdriveracceptanceoffalsealarmsandreviewsfalsealarmswithinthecontextofthedevelopmentofautomotiveactivesafetysystems.Thesecondsectionurgesthatsystem
developersacknowledgethatfalsealarmsarenotonlypragmaticallyunavoidable,buthavegenuineutilitywhendevelopingactivesafetysystems.Thethirdsectionarguesthathighlevelsofdriveracceptanceofissuedalertsshouldbecomeoneofthemaintargetsofsystemdevelopment.Itpresentsanempiricalmethodologyforsystemdevelopmentbasedondrivers’acceptanceofalertsinsituationswherefalsealarmsareunavoidable.
Thediscussioninthisreviewisrestrictedtodriverassistancesystemsthatissuealertsbutthatdonotintervenetoinitiateavehicleresponse.Muchofthediscussioncanbeextendedtoincludesystemsthatdotakecontrolinsomeform.Issuesrelatedtoalarmreliability(BlissandGilson1998),theabilityofahumanobserver(driver)todetectandactonanissuedalert,andtheinfluenceofalertmodalityandintensityondriveracceptancearebeyondthescopeofthisreview.
ActiveSafetySystems
Anactivesafetysystemmaybedefinedasanyautomotivesafetysystemwithfunctionalitythatisactivatedbeforethecollision.Theyaredesignedtoassistdriversinthedetectionofpotentialaccidentsituations.Suchsystemsarealsoreferredtoasprimarysafetysystems.Incontrast,passivesafetysystems–orsecondarysafetysystems–aredesignedtomitigatetheconsequencesafteracollisionhasoccurred.
Therearetwobroadclassesofactivesafetysystems,thosethatissuealertsandthosethatautonomouslyintervenetoinitiateavehicleresponse.Theeffectivenessofsystemsthatissuealertswilldependontimelyandappropriateactionbythedriver.Systemsthatautonomouslytakestepstoavoidanaccidentwillnotdependoneitherthedriver’sreactionorlevelofacceptanceofthesystemorofitsresponse.However,anysystemactivation–eitheralert,interventionorboth–willlikelymodifythedriver’sattitudetowardsthesystem.Accordingly,thebenefitsofanyactivesafetysystemthatissuesalertswilldepend,inpart,ondriveracceptanceandtheadequacyofthetechnology.
DriverAcceptanceandFalseAlarms
InlinewithAbeandRichardson(2005),Breznitz(1983)andVlassenrootetal.(2010),wedefine‘driveracceptance’asthedriver’sattitudetowardsaninstalledsystemwherethedegreeofacceptanceisinfluencedbytherateandnatureofitsmissesandfalsealarms.Thisdefinitiontiesdriveracceptancetowell-known
constructsofSignalDetectionTheory(GreenandSwets1966),afamiliarandpowerfultoolforquantifyingtheaccuracyandbiasofdecisionoutcomes.SignalDetectionTheorystandsasthebasisofourdiscussionoffalsealarms,althoughweacknowledgethatotherdefinitionshavebeenproposed,forexample,XiaoandSeagull(1999).
Weusetheword‘alert’asageneraldescriptionofanyresponseissuedbyanactivesafetysystem,independentofitsmodalityorobjectiveorsubjectivevalidity.Weusetheterm‘falsealarm’exclusivelyforalertsthatarefalseaccordingtoastrictdefinition:alertstopredictedeventsthatdonotoccur.Weusetheterm‘miss’foreventsthatdooccurbutarenotpredictedbythesystem.
Astheconsequencesofamisseddetectioncanbecatastrophic,itoftenismoreimportanttoreducemissesthantoeliminatefalsealarmswhendesigningsystemsthatcanreducetheriskoffatalities(RiceandTrafimow2010,ZabyshnyandRagland2003).Reducingtherateofalertsthatarefalsealarmsbysettingthedecisioncriteriamoreconservativelyoftenleadstoadelayedactivationofthealert.Alertsthatcometoolateareoftenmistrusted(AbeandRichardson2005).However,conventionalwisdomstatesthatfalsealarmswillreducethetrustinsystemreliabilityand,asaconsequence,compliancewithissuedalerts.Thisdistrustisoftenreferredtoasthe‘crywolf’syndrome(Breznitz1983).Itcanleadthedrivertoneglectthesystemortofindcreativewaysofbypassingit.Theerosionofconfidenceinthesystemmayleadtounderuseandeventodisuseofthesystem(FarberandPaley1993,Lerneretal.1996,ParasuramanandRiley1997).
Afalsealarmisalwaysaposthoccategorisation.Todeterminewhetherthealertwascorrectorafalsealarm,itmustbeknownwhethertheeventoccurredornot.Inthecontextofvehiclecollisions,analertthatisafalsealarmisanalerttoanysetofconditionsthatcouldbeassociatedwithacollisionbutwhichdonotleadtoone(non-collisionevent).Strictlyspeaking,thisdefinitionimpliesthatevenanalerttoasituationwherethedriveravoidedthecollisionisafalsealarm–astheevent(collision)didnottakeplace.Thealternative,classifyingtheeventasatruealarmwithasuccessfuloutcome,islikelytobedifficulttojustify,astheinfluenceofanyalertorresponsebythesystemmaybehardtodemonstrate.
Ouruseoftheterm‘alert’doesnotimplyanylevelofcorrectnessorimmediacy.ItadherestotheconditioninSignalDetectionTheorywherethenullhypothesishasbeenrejectedandtheissuedalertmaybeeitherahitorafalsealarm.WedonotfollowBlissandGilson(1998)todifferentiatea‘warning’froman‘alarm’.Webelieveourterminologyismoreinlinewiththosemoretraditionallyusedindiscussionsofautomotivesafety.
traditionallyusedindiscussionsofautomotivesafety.Acomplicationinherenttoanydiscussionoffalsealarmsinthecontextof
automotivesafetyisconfusionaboutwhatactuallyconstitutesafalsealarm.Onelineofthinkingholdsthatfalsealarmsaresystemfailuresofsomekindandshouldbeavoided.Forexample,Lerneretal.(1996)statedthatfalsealarmsimplysometypeofhardwarefailureorasituationwhereanalgorithmhasincorrectlyidentifiedanon-threateningsituationasahazard.Wesuggestthatthislineofthinkingisnotveryuseful.Itisoftendifficulttoestablishwhetherornotasystemhasfailedorevasiveactionswereinitiatedbyeitherparty.
FalseAlarmsandNuisanceAlerts
ResearchersinEurope,JapanandtheUnitedStateshaveconductedmanystudiesontheimpactsofalertsthatarefalsealarmsondriveracceptanceofactivesafetysystems.Manyofthesestudiesdistinguishbetweenusefulalertsthatarefalsealarmsandthosethatareanuisance.ThisdistinctionmayoriginallyhavebeendrawninstudiesofForwardCollisionWarning(FCW)systemssponsoredbytheUSNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA2005).FCWsystemsaredesignedtoadvisedriverstoimpendingrear-endcollisions.Kieferetal.(1999)usedthetwoterms‘nuisancealarms’and‘nuisancealerts’interchangeablyanddefinedthemasalertsissuedbytheFCWsystemthatthedriverbelievesarenotjustifiedbythesituation.Theydescribedtheidealsystemasonethatactslikeanalwaysattentivepassenger,providingacrashalertonlywhenheorshebecomesalarmed.Kieferetal.acknowledgedthattheidentificationofanalertaseitheranuisanceoraswelcomeisnecessarilysubjective.Harringtonetal.(2008)discussthesubjectivenatureofnuisancealertsandsuggestthatthecriteriathatmakeanalertanuisancearedriver-andcontext-dependent.
Kieferetal.(1999)distinguishedthreecasesofnuisancealerts:thosecausedbynoiseorinterferencewhenthereisnoobjectpresent,out-of-pathnuisancealertsandin-pathnuisancealerts.Out-of-pathnuisancealertsarecausedbyobjectsthatarenotinthepathofthesubjectvehicle.Somein-pathnuisancealertsarecausedbyvehiclesthatareinthepathofthesubjectvehiclebutareatadistanceormovingataspeedthatdriversdonotperceiveasalarming.Otherin-pathnuisancealertsareissuedinsituationswherethedrivercanavoidacollisionbyhisorhernormalbrakingbehaviourandintensity.
AsKieferetal.(1999)pointout,alertsthatshouldtriggeradriverresponsehavetobeissuedearlyenoughtoallowaninattentivedrivertotakeappropriateaction.Asaresult,analertthatsomedriversconsideranuisancemaybe
acceptedbyothersasbothvalidandhelpful.Thishasaclearimplicationforsystemdesign:therateofacceptanceislikelytobeincreasedifdriverscanadjustthelevelofthreshold.However,suchadjustmentsshouldneverfrustratesystemfunctionality.
Najmetal.(2006)definedfalsealarmsinthecontextofrear-endcollisionavoidancesystemsasalertsissuedinsituationswherethehostvehicleisnotonarear-endcrashcoursewithanin-pathobstacle.Theyalsodefinedtheterms‘conflicts’and‘near-crashes’alongacontinuumofsituationsthatrequiredriver(re)actionatthelastsecond.Asituationthatisaconflictrequiresdriverbrakingorsteeringatnormalresponselevels,whereasanear-crashrequiresharddecelerationorsteeringmanoeuvresatthelastsecond.Implicitinthesedefinitionsisthecontentionthatonlyalertstoeventsthatwouldleadtoacollisionwouldbeconsideredatruealert.However,Najmetal.pragmaticallyacknowledgedthefuzzinessoffalsealarmsanddriveracceptance.Ontheonehand,theypointedoutthatalertsmaybeconsiderednuisancesbysomedriversiftheyaredeemedtobeunnecessaryorcometooearly.Ontheotherhand,theysuggestedthatout-of-pathalerts(whichtheydefinedasfalsealarms)maybehelpfulingettingadistracteddrivertorefocusattentionbacktotheroad.Thus,Najmetal.consideredalertsthatarefalsealarmstobehelpfuliftheygetapositiveresult.
LeesandLee(2007)distinguishedbetweenfalsealarmsandunnecessaryalarms.Theydefinedfalsealarmsasnon-useful,unintendedalertsthatareeitherinconsistentwiththedesignofthesystemorcharacterisedbyunpredictableactivation.Thislineofthinkingimpliesthatalertsarefalsealarmsiftheydonotmatchathreatorarenotunderstoodbythedriver.Incontrast,theydefined‘unnecessaryalarms’asalertsthatarepredictableandunderstoodbythedriver,butthatarenotconsidereduseful.Thus,anunnecessaryalarmisanuisancethatisfullyconsistentwiththedesignofthesystem.
OurreadingofKieferetal.(1999),Najmetal.(2006),LeesandLee(2007)andothersunderstandsthemtoarguethatthedistinctionofwhetherornotalertsarefalseshouldbelessrelevantthanwhetherornottheyareuseful.Acorrectalerttoconditionsthatoftenprecedeacollisionwherethecollisionisavoided(duetodriveraction)isafalsealarm,accordingtoourstrictdefinition,andmaybeconsideredanuisancebymanydriversbutnotbyall(SmithandZhang2004).Indeed,manydriversarelikelytofindafalsealarmcausedbyanobjectoreventinasituationnormallyassociatedwiththeriskofanaccidenttobeunderstandable,acceptableanduseful.
Insummary,many(butnotall)automotiveresearchershaveconcludedthatthedistinctionsbetweenafalsealarmthatisanuisanceandafalsealarmthatis
thedistinctionsbetweenafalsealarmthatisanuisanceandafalsealarmthatishelpfulandacceptabledependsonbothcontextanddriverjudgment.Manyalertsthatarefalsealarmsareinfactuseful.
FalseAlarmsAreUnavoidableandHaveUtility
Thebaserateforcrashesislow.ActuarialstatisticsbasedonUSdataindicatethatfatalmotorvehiclecrashescanbeexpectedapproximatelyonceevery5,000driveryears,acrashresultinginaninjurycanbeexpectedapproximatelyonceevery100driveryearsandpropertydamagecrashesapproximatelyonceevery50driveryears(NHTSA2005).DatafromSweden,theUKandtheNetherlands–thecountriesoftheEuropeanUnionwiththebesttrafficsafetyrecords–showthatfatalcrashescanbeexpectedapproximatelyonceevery8,000driveryears,severeinjuriesapproximatelyevery900yearsandslightinjuriesapproximatelyevery200years(Koornstraetal.2002).Theimplicationoftheseactuarialdataisthattheactivationofaspecificactivesafetysysteminresponsetoasituationthatactuallywouldleadtobodilyinjury(iftheactivesafetysystemwerenotpresent)willoccur,onaverage,lessthanonceinthelifetimeofeverydriver.
Becauseaccidentsarerare,thebaserateoftruealerts–alertsthatarenotfalsealarms–isnecessarilylow.Thisfacthastwoundesirableconsequencesifdesignersstrivetoeliminateallfalsealarms.First,thefewtruealertswouldbesorareastobeutterlyunfamiliarandthedriver’sreactionunpredictable,evenifthealerthadsucceededindirectingthedriver’sattentionappropriately.Second,thefrequencyofalertswouldbeinsufficienttoenabledriverstocalibratetrustinthesystem.
Driverawarenessofsystemfunctionalityisinfluencedbythefrequencyofalerts.Itisanironyofautomationthatefficientrecallofhowtoreactdependsonthefrequencyofuse(Bainbridge1983).Accordingly,therarityofalertsthatarenotfalsealarmsreducesthelikelihoodthatdriverswouldbeabletorespondappropriatelyandinatimelyfashion(Leeetal.2002,Parasuraman,HancockandOlofinboba1997).Analertonlyinsituationsleadingtoacrashwouldbesorarethatitmightaggravateanalreadycriticalsituation.
Anysystemdesignedtoprovokethedrivertotakeactionrequiresdriverawarenessofthemeaningandutilityofitsalerts.Thisawarenessenablesthedrivertodeveloptrustinthesystem(Riley1996).Thedevelopmentoftrustmayrelyonhearsayorreputationbutismoregenerallybasedonexperiencingmanyalertsandforminganopinionaboutthesystem’sreliabilityandpredictability(LeeandSee2004).
Duetothelowbaseratesoftrafficcollisions,webelievethattheonlytype
Duetothelowbaseratesoftrafficcollisions,webelievethattheonlytypeofsystemactivationfrequentenoughtoprovidethisexperienceisthefalsealarm.Accordingly,weencouragedesignersofactivesafetysystemstoacceptthatthesystemwillissuealertsthatarefalsealarmsandtoworktoensurethatthosealertsaresufficientlycommonandpredictablethatdriversacceptthemandcancalibratetheirtrustinthesystem.
Insummary,alertsthatarefalsealarmswilllikelybeacceptediftheyprovideuseful,trustworthyinformationtothedriver.Italsoimpliesthatfalsealarmsaretheonlysourceofalertsfrequentenoughtoallowthedrivertodeveloptrustinthesystem.Theseconsiderationssupportourproposalthatsystemdesignersneedtorecognisethatfalsealarmsarenotnecessarilyundesirableand,infact,cansupportdrivers’developmentoftrustinthesystemandtheiracceptanceofthesystem.
FalseAlarmsAreNotNecessarilyBad
Thenegativeconsequencesofalertsthatarefalsealarmscanbelargelymitigatediftheyarepredictable(LeeandSee2004).Large,butpredictable,errorsmayaffectdrivertrustinthesystemlessthanminorunpredictablefaults(MuirandMoray1996).Theeffectivenessofthesystemdependsonwhetherthedriverwillbecomeawareoftheriskysituationearlierwiththesystemthanwithoutit(McLaughlin,HankeyandDingus2008).Tobeeffective,alertsneedtoberare,predictableandinformative.Driverscanbenefitfromalertsthatarefalsealarmsiftheycanadoptastrategythatcanbenefitfromtheimperfectinformationtheyprovide.
Evensomewhatunreliablesystemscanaiddistractedusers(DixonandWickens2006,MaltzandShinar2007).Thereisabodyofresearchthatindicatesthatdriversmayacceptalertingsystemsthatproducenuisancealertssystematicallyandrelativelyfrequently.Forexample,vehiclesinthefieldexperimentsreportedbyLerneretal.(1996)issuednuisancealertsroutinelyonceortwiceaweek.Driversreportedminimalannoyancelevels.Learneretal.concludedthatintrusivealarmsareacceptableatmodestrates.LeBlancetal.(2008)suggestthat15alertsper100miles(160km)drivenmaybeanacceptablelevelofnuisancealerts.Preciselyhowtheyreachedthatnumberis,however,unclear.
Thegoalofminimisingmissesandfalsealarmsisimportant,buttheoverridinggoalshouldbetopromptappropriatedriverbehaviourinresponsetoallalerts,especiallythosethatare‘truealarms’.Wearguethatthiscanbeachievedifandonlyifthedriverregularlyacceptsmostofthealertsissuedby
thesystem.Ourviewoffalsealarmstakesintoaccounttheutilityoftheinformationand
thedriver’sperceptionofthesituation.Forexample,analertbyapedestriandetectionsystemtoachildinthestreetwilllikelybeconsideredusefulinformationeventhoughthereisnoimmediateriskofacollision.Manydriverswilllikelyacceptanalertforthistypeofsituation.Falsealarmsareusefulwhentheymatchthedriver’sexpectationforanalertgiventhesituations.
RethinkingFalseAlarms
Ourdiscussionoftheseissuessupportstheclaimthatdrivers’perceptionsofissuedalertscanprovideusefulinformationinthedevelopmentofalertingstrategiesthatbettermatchthedrivers’expectations.
Sullivan,TsimhoniandBogard(2008)notedthatthesubjectiveassessmentofthereliabilityofasystemmaybethemostimportantinfluenceonthedriver’sresponsetoitsalerts.Asthisreliabilityneedstobemeasured,theysuggestedanapproachthatasksthedrivertodirectlyassessthesystem.Themethodwepropose–driveracceptanceratingstocalibratesystemdesign–followstheirsuggestion.
Weproposethatdrivers’acceptanceshouldshapethesystem’sactivationrequirements(alertingcriteria).Toachievethisgoal,designersneedtofocusonthedriver’sexpectationsandtosetthetargetofmakingdriveracceptanceashighaspossible,ratherthanfocusingonreducingthefalsealarmrate.Wemustthereforerethinktheconceptoffalsealarms.Falsealarms–alertstosituationsthatmaydevelopintoacrashbutdonot–provideusefulinformationtothedriverand,whenissuedinsituationswheretheriskofanaccidentisself-evident,arelikelytobereceivedwithrelativelyhighlevelsofdriveracceptance.JustasAven(2009:929)definedsafety‘byreferencetoacceptablerisk’,theperformanceofanactivesafetysystemmaybedefinedbyreferencetoacceptablefalsealarmrates.
Amajorimplicationofourargumenttoreconsidertheutilityoffalsealarmsisthatresearchersanddesignersshouldseektounderstandthefactorsthatinfluencedriveracceptanceofalertsthatarefalsealarms.Understandingthesefactorsmakesitpossibletodefineobjectivecriteriathataresuitableforimplementationinthedecisionalgorithmsusedbyactivesafetysystems.
DesigningforAcceptanceofFalseAlarms
Thisre-evaluationoftheutilityoffalsealarmsleadsustoproposeanempiricalmethodologyforthedesignofactivesafetysystems.Ifwecandefinethefactorsthatpredictwhenmostdriverswillacceptalertsthatarefalsealarms,itbecomesreasonabletofocusthedesignofanactivesafetysystemondriverexpectationsforwhenthesystemshouldissueanalert.Byconformingtodriverexpectations,thesystemshouldbeabletoachievearelativelyhighlevelofuseracceptanceandbecomeaneffectivepartnerinthedriver-vehiclesystem.
Ourmethodusesvideorecordingsofalargenumberofactualtrafficsituationsrecordedfromthedriver’spointofview.Therecordingsarecapturedbyanactivesafetysystemthathasareasonable(e.g.,prototype)levelofperformanceinthefield,ontheroad.AsingleframefromaneventrecordedusingaNightVisionsystemisshowninFigure9.1.
Figure9.1AtypicalalertissuedbyaNightVisionsystemwithpedestrianalert
Thesystemcouplesafarinfrared(FIR)sensor,pedestrianrecognitionalgorithms,alertinglogicandaconsoledisplay.Priortopresentationinthelaboratory,thevideoclipsarereviewedtoeliminatebothincorrectlydetectedcars,pedestriansorotherobjectsandtrafficsituationswherethereasonforanalertmightbeambiguousorunrelatedtothepurposeofthestudy.Presentingtheserecordingsinalabenvironmentprovidesexperimentalcontrolofstimuliwhileretainingmuchofthehighecologicalvalidityofactualtrafficevents.
Participantsinthelabareexperienceddrivers.Inaself-pacedtask,theyviewarecordingandratetheacceptabilityofanalerttoitstrafficsituation.TheratingscanbeelicitedusingeitherasliderbarlikethatshowninFigure9.2orasetofradiobuttonsthatcreateaLikert-typescale.Thescalebarisanchoredat
oneendby‘Reject’andattheotherby‘Accept’.Whenasked,participantshaveindicatedthattheyunderstoodthescaletorepresentacontinuumfrom‘completelyacceptable’to‘completelyunacceptable’.Thetaskiscompletewhentheparticipanthasviewedandratedthealertstothefullsetofvideorecordings.
Figure9.2Continuousscaletoratethelevelofacceptanceofanassumedalert
Ourmethodbuildsupontwoestablishedprocedures.Thefirstistheself-reportratingtooldiscussedbyVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997)thatmaybethemostwidelyusedtechniqueforassessingdriveracceptanceofnewautomotivetechnology.Thistoolmeasuresdriveracceptancebyaskingparticipantstorateninedifferentattributesoftheevaluatedsystemusingananchoredfive-pointscale.Ithasbeenusedtocomparedriverresponsestoavarietyofsystems.
ThesecondfoundationforourmethodisthehazardperceptiontestthatispartofUKdrivingtests(Jackson,ChapmanandCrundall2009).Inthistest,participantsarerequiredtowatchaseriesofvideoclipsrecordedfromthedriver’spointofviewandtopushabuttonwhenheorshedetectsahazard.Theresponsetimefromtheappearanceofthehazardisthedependentmeasure.Examplehazardsarepedestrians,parkedcars,cyclistsandothervehicles,regardlessoftrafficlaneordirection.
Likethehazardperceptiontest,ourapproachquantifiestherelativelevelwithwhichdriversarelikelytoacceptanalertfromanactivesafetysystemandhowthatlevelvariesacrosssituations.ItfollowsVanderLaanetal.(1997)tocollectsubjectiveratingsratherthantheresponsetimes.InsteadoftheninescalesadvocatedbyVanderLaanetal.,ourapproachusesasinglemeasureofalertacceptabilitytosimplifyandclarifytheparticipants’task.Theratingsarerankedtocontrolforindividualdifferencesinscaleuseandtheranksthereafterusedinwithin-subjectsstatisticalanalyses.
Application
Ameasureofagreementbetweenthefieldandlaboratorycanbegainedbycomparingtheposthoc,laboratoryratingbythedriverswhoexperiencedtherecordedeventstotheresponsesoftheparticipantswhodidnot.Thecorrelationsbetweenthedrivers’ratingsandthemeansoftheothers’ratingshasalwaysexceeded80percent.Theseresultssuggeststhattheratingsarerobustandgeneralisabletothepopulationsampled.
Inonestudy,drivershadatwo-buttonresponseunit(Accept/Reject)thattheyusedtoindicateatthetimeofpedestrianencountersinthefieldwhetherornottheyfoundthealertsissuedbythesystemtobeacceptable.Ourreviewofthein-fieldbuttonpushesandtheratingsprovidedinthelaboratorysuggeststhatthelaboratoryresultsarehighlyconsistentwithresponseselicitedinthefield.
ThismethodforextractingusefulinformationfromalertsthatarefalsealarmscanbeusedtoassessdriveracceptanceatthevariousstagesofsystemdevelopmentorduringFOT.Forexample,Källhammeretal.(2007)appliedthemethodtoelicitdrivers’assessmentsofavarietyofnaturalistictrafficsituations.IthasalsobeenusedbySmithandKällhammer(2010)toassesstheriskposedbyintersectionencroachments.
KällhammerandSmith(2012)usedthemethodtoassesstheacceptabilityof57pedestrianalertsthatwereallfalsealarmsandtoidentifyfactorsthatinfluencedrivers’ratings.Aregressionanalysisidentifiedtwofactors,pedestrianlocationandvelocity.Afollow-upstudygeneratedabest-fitregressionmodelusingpedestrianlocationandvelocityaspredictorvariablesandmeanratingsastheresponsevariable(SmithandKällhammer2012).Themodelexplainedmorethan60percentofthevariabilityindriverratings.
Discussion
Themethodcanbeusedtoobtainimmediatefeedbackfollowingreplaysofactualfalsealarmeventsortoobtainretrospectivelaboratoryanalysisbythedriversthemselvesorbyothers.Themethodisprovingtobeacost-effectivetoolforbridgingthegapbetweenfieldexperimentswiththeirhighlevelofecologicalvalidityandlab-basedexperimentswiththeirhighlevelofexperimentalcontrol.
Elicitingdriverratingsoftheacceptanceofalertsthatarefalsealarmscanbeusedtotestalternatecriteriaforissuinganalert.Byvaryingthecriteriathatgeneratethealertsforthecollectedincidents,itispossibletotesthypotheses
generatethealertsforthecollectedincidents,itispossibletotesthypothesesabouttheirimpactondriveracceptanceofthesystem.Themethodcanalsobeappliedtovideodatacreatedinasimulatedoranimatedenvironment,benefitingfromtheadditionalexperimentalpossibilitiessimulatorsprovide.Driveracceptanceratingsofanimationsbasedonreconstructedaccidentscouldprovidevaluableadditionaldatawhenactualcrashesarenotavailableforthedrivertoassess.
Disclaimers
Wedonotclaimthattheproposedmethodwillworkforallautomotiveactivesafetyapplications.Thedriver’sabilitytojudgesystemperformancewilldependonhisorherabilitytojudgetheconditiondetermininganalert(Sullivanetal.2008).Aforwardcollisionwarningisoneexamplewherethemethodmayhavelimitedutilityifthealertingsystemactsoninformationthatthedriverhasdifficultyperceivingorunderstandingorboth.Aswehaveyettoextendthemethodtoinvestigatebehaviouralresponsestoalertsthatarefalsealarms,wecannotcommentonthelinkagebetweenfalsealarmsanddriverbehaviour.
ChenandTerrence(2009)showedthattheresponsetosystemsthatarepronetoissuingfalsealarmsand/ormissesvariesacrossindividualsandtheirscoresonatestofattentionalcontrol.Participantswithrelativelyhighscoresfoundfalsealarmstobemoredisadvantageousthandidparticipantswithrelativelylowscores.Conversely,miss-pronesystemsweredeemedmoredisadvantageousbyparticipantswithlowscoresonthetest.
Conclusion
Theinvolvementofdriversinthefunctionofactivesafetysystemsimpliesthatthesystemscannotbeseenastechnicalsystemsalone.Knowledgeofhowthedriverandthevehiclefunctiontogetherasajointcognitivesystem(HollnagelandWoods2005)iscriticaltoachievingasuccessfuldesign.Driveracceptancehastobeanimportantdesigngoalforanyactivesafetysystem.Toachievethisgoal,designersneedtofocusonthedriver’sexpectationsandtosetthetargetofmakingdriveracceptanceashighaspossible.Findingtheproperbalancebetweenfalsealarmsthatareperceivedasusefulandasnuisanceswillrequireextensiveempiricalworkbothinthelaboratoryandthefield.Wehavedevelopedandareusingamethodthatelicitsfromdriversassessmentsoftheutilityofalertsthatarefalsealarms.Theseassessmentshelptotunethedesignofactivesafetysystemsandpromotetheiracceptance.
ofactivesafetysystemsandpromotetheiracceptance.
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PARTIVDataonDriverAcceptance:CaseStudies
Chapter10DriverAcceptanceofIn-VehicleInformation,
AssistanceandAutomatedSystems:AnOverviewGaryBurnett
HumanFactorsResearchGroup,FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK
CyrielDielsCoventrySchoolofArtandDesign,DepartmentofIndustrialDesign,Coventry
University,Coventry,UK
Abstract
ThischapterprovidesanoverviewofHumanFactorsissuesrelevanttotheacceptancebydriversoftechnology-basedsystemswithinvehicles.Adistinctionismadebetweenissuesrelevanttosystemsprovidinginformationtosupportdriving-relatedtasks(e.g.,navigation),systemsthatprovidesomedegreeofcontrol-basedassistance(e.g.,AdaptiveCruiseControl)andthosesystemswhichautomatethedrivingtask(e.g.,platooning).ItisrecognisedthatarangeofHumanFactorsissueswillhaveadirectinfluenceontheacceptanceofthesesystems,includingthoserelatedtodistraction,trustandreliability.Moreover,itisapparentthatacceptanceitselfwillimpactonsystemusage,primarilyraisingissuesofreliance.Thechapterconcludesbyhighlightingsometopicswhichhavereceivedrelativelylittleconsideration,butwillbecriticalfortheultimateacceptanceofin-vehiclesystems.
Introduction
Itiswidelyacknowledgedthatvehiclesareexperiencingarevolutionindesignasincreasingamountsofcomputingandcommunicationstechnologiesarebeingintroducedwithineverydaydrivingsituations.Manytechnologiesareutilised,butfromthedriver’sperspective,systemscanbeclassifiedintothreebroadcategories:
1.Systemsthatprovideinformationorwarningsofrelevancetothedrivingtask(e.g.,navigation,trafficandtravel,driverstatusmonitoring,lanedeparturewarnings);
2.Systemsthataimtoassistthedriverinfundamentalandspecificvehiclecontroltasks(e.g.,adaptivecruisecontrol,collisionavoidance,intelligentspeedadaptation);and
3.Systemsthatreplacethedriverinarangeofvehiclecontroltasks,ultimatelyautomatingdriving(e.g.,platooning,driverlesscars).
Inaddition,itisimportanttonotethatarangeofsystemsprovideinformationandservicesrelatedtoothersalientgoals:forinstance,forcomfort/entertainmentpurposesortoenhanceworkingproductivity(e.g.,email/Internetaccess).Thesesystemsareimportantintermsoftheimpacttheycanhaveonprimarydrivingtasks(distraction,behaviouraladaptationetc.).
Theacceptanceofsuchtechnologybyendusers(predominantlydriversandtheirpassengers)isimportantforseveralreasons.Firstly,andperhapsmostimportantly,systemsmustbeacceptediftheyarethentobeused(autilityargument),suchthatthefundamentaldesigngoalsforasystem(safety,drivingefficiencyandsoon)havethepotentialtobemet.Secondly,anunderstandingofacceptanceisrequiredwhenconsideringthecloselyrelatedissuesofusabilityandsatisfaction(seealsothechaptersinthisbookbyGreenandJordan,Chapter18;andStevensandBurnett,Chapter17).AsnotedbyFaulkner(2000),thereisnouniversalviewonhowthesevarious‘soft’termsshouldbedefined,butitisclearthattheyimpingeoneachother.Finally,acceptanceishighlyrelevanttokeyissuesoftrustandrelianceforin-vehicletechnology(seealsothechapterinthisbookbyGhazizadehandLee,Chapter5).Whennewsystemsarewhollyaccepted,trustlevelsmaybeoverlyhighandtheremaybeamismatchbetweenobjectiveandsubjectivelevelsofreliabilityforasystem.Consequently,complacencyeffectsmayarise(e.g.,followinginstructionsfromanavigationsystemwhenitisinappropriatetodoso).Conversely,asystemconsideredunacceptabletousersmaybedeemeduntrustworthyandmaybeusedinaninappropriatefashion(misuseeffects).Suchbehaviouraladaptationisacommonresultofnewtechnologicalinterventionswithinanoverallsystemperspective(Wickensetal.2004).
Considerabledatahavebeencollectedbytheresearchcommunityrelatingtotheacceptanceofin-vehicleinformation,assistanceandautomatingsystems.Thischaptersetsthesceneforsubsequentchaptersinthissectionbyhighlightingthebreadthofstudiesthathavebeenconducted.Inparticular,we
willdiscussacceptanceissuesforthreedistinctexamplesystems:vehiclenavigation(information),adaptivecruisecontrol(assistance)andplatoondriving(automating).Inthesethreetypesofsystems,thereareconsiderabledifferencesinthematurityandadoptionofthetechnology.Moreover,thelevelofautomationassociatedwiththetechnologyriseswitheachsubsequentexample,leadingtodifferencesinthefundamentalHumanFactorsissuesofinterest.Asaconsequenceofsuchvariation,thenatureofresearchandconclusionsthatcanbedrawncanbeexpectedtobesignificantlydifferent.
AcceptanceIssuesforSpecificSystems
VehicleNavigationSystems
VehiclenavigationsystemsareanexampleofaubiquitousinformationtechnologywheretherehasbeenconsiderableHumanFactorsresearchbothbeforeandafterwidespreadimplementation(e.g.,Rossetal.1995,ForbesandBurnett2007).Thesesystemsaimtosupportdriversinthestrategicandtacticalcomponents(planningandfollowingroutes,respectively)ofthedrivingandnavigatingtask.Theyhavebecomeincreasinglypopularinrecentyears,acrossmanycountries,ascostshavereducedandthetechnologyhasmatured.Threebroadtypesofsystemnowexist,eachwiththeirowndistinctadvantagesanddisadvantages:
1.Originalequipmentmanufacturer(OEM)systems(integratedwithinavehicle);
2.Personalnavigationdevices(PNDs–nomadicdevices,designedspecificallytosupportnavigation);and
3.Smartphones(multifunctional,smallscreendeviceswhichpossessnavigationfunctionality).
Therehasbeenanevolutionindesignofthesesystemssincethe1990s,reflectingtechnologicaladvancesaswellasacceptanceissuesforusers.Originally,navigationsystemsusedbydriverswerewhollyOEMsolutions.Morerecently,PNDshavebeendominant,reflectingconsumers’desiresforaffordable,dedicatedandportabledevices.Nevertheless,thissituationischangingasincreasinglypeopleexploittheconvenienceofnavigationfunctionalitywithinasmartphonedevice.Indeed,thereisnowsomelinkingbetweensystemtypesasvehiclemanufacturershavedeveloped‘human–
machineinterfaces’(HMIs)whichcanadaptanin-vehiclesystemtoaccountforthepresenceofasmartphone(e.g.,byutilisingthepreferencesstoredonasmartphonebutpresentinginformationwithinthevehicleaccordingtoanOEMsolution–largerdisplay,in-vehiclespeakers,steeringwheelcontrols,etc.).Forcurrenttrendsinnavigationsystemdesign,seehttp://www.autoevolution.com/newstag/satnav/.
Considerableliteraturehasfocusedonthehuman-centreddesignissuesforvehiclenavigationsystems(seereviewsbySrinivisan1999andBurnett2009).Itisevidentthatthemajorityofresearchinthisareaassumesthatissuesofdistractionandexcessiveworkloadarethemostlikelyconcernsthatnavigationsystemdesignersmustbeawareof.Thefundamentalsuppositionisthatacceptancewillnotariseunlessbasicsafetyconcernsareaccountedfor.Previousauthorshavenotedthatdrivingisalreadyacomplex,largelyvisualtaskandnavigationsystemHMIdesignswillbeassociatedwithdividedattentionandadditionalinformationprocessing(Srinivisan1999,MoriartyandHonnery2003).Consequently,thereispotentialfordriverstomakefundamentalerrorswhilstengagingwithanavigationsystem,suchasfailingtoobserveintimealeadvehicleslowingdownorwaveringoutoflane(Green2007).
Thereisconsiderableliterature(especiallyfromthe1980sand1990s)focusingonthedistractioneffectsofnavigationsystems(visual,auditory,cognitiveandbiomechanical)andseveralinfluentialdesignguidelineshandbookshavebeenproduced,informedbyresearchstudieswiththisfocus(e.g.,Rossetal.1995,Greenetal.1997;Campbell,CarneyandKantowitz1998).Thesehandbooksprovideawiderangeofguidancefordesignersconcerningissuesasdiverseasthechoiceofmodalityforinterfaces,thecontentandtimingofvoicemessages,displayposition,colourcombinations,fonttypes/sizes,orientationofmapdisplaysandsoon.Clearly,suchhandbookscanbeimportantsourcedocumentsforHumanFactorsprofessionalsinanindustrywishingtoargueacaseforaspecificHMI.
Basedontheauthors’understandingofthecontentofthesehandbooks,itistemptingtospeculatethatmanyofthecurrentvehiclenavigationHMIshavebeeninfluencedbytheavailableguidance.Inparticular,manyvehiclenavigationsystemsareclearlydesignedtomaketheworkloadassociatedwiththenavigationtasklow.Thisisoftenachievedusingsimpleturn-by-turninstructionsgivenintheauditorymodality,combinedwithpredominantlyarrow-basedgraphicsanddistance-to-turninformation.Insomerespects,thiscouldbearguedasasuccessforHumanFactorsresearch.Studieswereconducted(oftenonpublicroads,butoccasionallywithinsimulators)toprovidethe‘believable’
empiricaldataforguidelines;whichaccordinglyhaveinformedbestpractice(e.g.,BurnettandJoyner1996,Dingusetal.1989).Unfortunately,however,asaresultoftherecentmassuptake,additionalissueshavecometolightthatimpingeonsafety/comfort,routingefficiencyandultimatelyacceptance,butmaybeoflargerconcerntodriversthandistraction.Inparticular,twokeyissuesrelatingtotheautomationeffectsofnavigationsystemshavebeenfoundtobesignificant,whichcanbeconsideredbroadlyundertheheadingsofreliabilityandreliance.
Reliability
Surveys,inconjunctionwithconsiderableanecdotalevidence,havedemonstratedtheproblemsassociatedwithunreliableguidanceinformationfromvehiclenavigationsystems.Theresultingproblemshaveobvioussafetyimplications(e.g.,whenadriverturnsthewrongwaydownaone-waystreet)andcanhaveaconsiderableimpactontheefficiencyoftheoveralltransportsystem(e.g.,whenalorrygetsstuckunderabridge).
Forbes(2009)(alsoreportedinForbesandBurnett2007)conductedasurveyof872navigationsystemowners,whichestablishedthat85percenthadreceivedinaccurateguidance.Whenaskedaboutguidancethatwasconsidereddangerous/illegal,23percentofrespondentsadmittedtoobeyingtheinstructionsonatleastoneoccasion.Importantly,therewasaclearrelationshipwithage,suchthatolderdriversweremorelikelytofollowtheunreliableguidancethantheiryoungercounterparts.
Fromanacceptanceperspective,itismostinterestingtoconsiderhere(a)whycertainindividualsarepronetofollowingsuchinstructionsand(b)whichcharacteristicsoftheHMIcancontributetotheproblem.Thisisanareaaroundwhichtherehasbeenverylittleresearchtodate.Withrespecttotheformerquestion,Forbes(2009)employeddetailedfollow-updiarystudieswith30navigationsystemusersandusedthedatatohypothesisethat,forcertaindriversinspecificsituations,atrustexplanationcouldbegiven.Specifically,therewasevidenceforover-trust(orcomplacency);thatis,driverssawtherelevantroadsign/cue,butchosetoignoreitandfavourthenavigationinstruction.Inothercontexts,therewasevidenceforanattention-basedexplanation,sincedriversdidnotbelievetheysaworprocessedtherelevantroadsign/cue.Inthesecases,itispossiblethatcharacteristicsofthesystemuser-interfacedisrupteddrivers’normalallocationofattention.MorerecentworkconductedbyLargeandBurnett(2013,inpress)consideredtheseissuesinadrivingsimulatorcontext
usingeyetrackingandconfirmedobjectivelythattwodistinctivemechanismsareinvolvedinthisproblem.Forsystemacceptance,eachofthemechanismsislikelytoaffectwheredriversplacetheblamefortheirroutingerrors(agency)–eitherwiththemselves,thesystemorthesurroundingroadinfrastructure.
Reliance
Afurtherissueconcernsdrivers’long-termdependencyonnavigationsystems,anoutcomeexplicitlylinkedtooverlyhighlevelsofsystemacceptance(Burnett2009).Specifically,ithasbeennotedthatcurrenttechnologyautomatescoreaspectsofthenavigationtask,includingtripplanning(wheretheuser’sroleisessentiallytoconfirmcomputer-generatedroutes)androutefollowing(whereusersrespondtocomputer-generatedfilteredinstructions)(Adler2001,BurnettandLee2005,ReaganandBaldwin2006).Asaresult,driversarelargelypassiveinthenavigationtaskandconsequently,failtodevelopastrongmentalrepresentationofthespaceinwhichtheyaretravelling,commonlyreferredtoasacognitivemap.Severalempiricalstudieshavedemonstratedthiseffectfordrivers(Jackson1998,BurnettandLee2005).
Severalauthorshaveprovidedconvincingargumentsastowhythisissueisofconcern(BurnettandLee2005,Jackson1998).Specifically,itisnotedthatthefollowingadvantagesexistforindividualswhopossessawell-formedcognitivemapofanenvironment:
•Enhancednavigationalability–suchpeopleareabletoaccomplishnavigationtaskswithfewcognitivedemandsbasedontheirowninternalknowledge.Indeed,itshouldbepossibleincertainenvironments(e.g.,one’shometown)tonavigateusingautomaticprocessing,thatis,withnoconsciousattention.
•Increasedflexibilityinnavigationbehaviour–informedindividualshavethecapacitytochooseandthennavigatenumerousalternativeroutestosuitparticularpreferences(e.g.,forascenicversusefficientroute)orinresponsetounanticipatedsituations(e.g.,heavytraffic,poorweather,systemfailureorabsence).
•Socialresponsibility–awell-formedcognitivemapprovidesawidertransportefficiencyandsocialfunction,sinceitempowersapersontonavigateforothers,forexample,byprovidingverbaldirectionsasapassenger,pedestrianoroverthephone,sketchingmapstosendinthepostandsoon(Hill1987).
Thisisessentiallyacomplextrade-offproblem.Notably,thereisaconflictbetweentheneedtodesignnavigationHMIswhichenableanindividualtoacquirespatialknowledge(activenavigation)andthosewhichminimisethedemands(orworkload)ofnavigating(passivenavigation).Inthisrespect,authorshavenotedthepotentialforactive,learning-oriented,HMIsforvehiclenavigationsystems,asanalternativetothecurrentpassivestyles(BurnettandLee2005).Suchinterfaceswouldaimtoprovidenavigationinformationinaformthatensuresthatthedemandsofthenavigationtaskinwhollyunfamiliarareasareatanacceptable,lowlevel,whilstaimingtosupportdriversinthecognitivemappingprocess.Inessence,theseinterfaceswouldaspiretomovepeopleonwardsthroughthevariousstagesofcognitivemapdevelopment,ultimatelytoalevelinwhichtheyareabletonavigateeffectivelyforthemselvesandothers,independentofanyexternalinformation.SomeinitialprogresswasmadeonthistopicinasimulatorstudyconductedbyOliverandBurnett(2008).
AdaptiveCruiseControl(ACC)
AdaptiveCruiseControl(ACC)isanexampleofadriversupport(assistance)systemwhichhasbeeninproductionforseveralyears.Todatehowever,ACCisonlyofferedasanoptionalfeatureintheluxuryvehiclesegmentandthepenetrationrateislowasaconsequence.Functionally,ACCwillmaintainasetspeedasperconventionalCruiseControlsystems,whenthereisnotrafficimmediatelyaheadofthedriver.Insituationswheretrafficisaheadinthedriver’slane,ACCusesradartomaintainaconstanttimeheadwaytothevehicleahead.Thisheadwayiskeptconstantbythesystemadjustingthespeedofthevehicletopreventexceedingapre-definedtimegap.First-generationACCsrequireaminimumdrivingspeedoftypically30kph,belowwhichthesystemisdeactivated,requiringthedrivertotakeovercontrolbelowthisspeed.Similarly,manualcontrolisregainedwhenthedriverdeactivatesthesystembypressingthebrakepedal.Second-generationACCshavebeendevelopedthatextendtheutilityofACCs–bynotonlyexpandingthespeedrangetovelocitiesbelow30kphbutalsobringingthevehicletoacompletestopandacceleratingagainiftheprecedingvehicledoesso;aso-calledStopandGofunction.Notwithstandingthesesignificantsystemenhancements,ACCshavealimiteddecelerationlevel.Hence,undercriticaldrivingconditions,suchasemergencybrakingsituations,thedriverisstillrequiredtoregaincontrolofthevehicle.ItisforthisprimaryreasonthatACCsaremarketedascomfortsystemsratherthansafetysystems.
ACCispredictedtohaveanumberofpositiveeffects.Fromthedriver’s
perspective,ithasalreadybeenshownthatACCcanreduceworkloadandincreaseperceptionsofcomfort(e.g.,Stanton,YoungandMcCaulder1997).Furthermore,deploymentofACCisexpectedtoleadtoimprovedtrafficsafety,roadwaycapacityandenvironmentaltrafficimpact(VahidiandEskandarian2003).Thatis,shortertimeheadwaysaswellassmootheraccelerationanddecelerationprofileshelptoincreaseroadcapacityandtrafficflowwhereastheminimumtimeheadwayadoptedbyACCsystemseradicateshort,unsafefollowingdistances.However,theextenttowhichthesepotentialadvantagesmaterialisewillbelargelydependentonpenetrationrateswhich,atleastforEurope,arepredictedtobelowintheforeseeablefuture–around10percentin2020(Wilminketal.2008).Amajorfactorinfuturedeploymentwillbedrivers’acceptanceandwillingnesstoengagewithACCsystems.
UseracceptanceofACChasbeenstudiedusingawiderangeofmethodsincludinginterviews,questionnairesurveys,simulatorexperimentsandfieldoperationaltests(FOTs).AspartofthePROMETHEUSproject,oneoftheearliestACCacceptancestudieswasconductedbyBeckeretal.(1994)inwhichparticipantsdrovearoundinrealtrafficwithprototypeequippedvehicles.ResultsshowedthatACCwasperceivedasacomfort-orientedandsafety-enhancingdriverassistancesystem.Overall,ACCwaswellreceivedbyparticipantsandconsideredacceptable,comfortable,safeandrelaxing.SimilarresultswereobtainedinadrivingsimulatorstudybyNilsson(1995)inwhichACCwasfelttoaddcomfortandconveniencetothedrivingexperience.Fancheretal.(1995)conductedafieldtrialwhichshowedthatincomparisontoconventionalcruisecontrol,ACCwasperceivedasmorecomfortableasitrequiredfewerinterventions.Indensetrafficconditions,however,userstendedtoturnofftheACCasthesystem-definedheadwayswereperceivedtobetoolargeresultinginothertrafficcuttingin.
Althoughtheseearlystudiessuggestahighlevelofsystemacceptance,itisworthnotingthatacceptancemaynotbeuniformacrossallusersandmayalsodependonusers’needsandmotivations.Forexample,HoedemakerandBrookhuis(1998)investigatedACCuseracceptanceasafunctionofusers’drivingstyleandfoundthat,whereasACCwasperceivedpositivelyintermsofworkload,comfortandusefulness,participantswholikedtodrivefast,asassessedusingadrivingstylequestionnaire,werelesspositiveaboutit.
In2005,theNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA)intheUnitedStatesreportedtheresultsoftheAutomotiveCollisionAvoidanceSystemfieldoperationaltest(ACASFOT)program(NHTSA2005).TheFOTinvolveda12-monthperiodinwhich11carsequippedwithACCandForward
CollisionWarning(FCW)weredrivenundernaturalconditionsbyatotalof96participants.Eachparticipantdroveanequippedcarforseveralweeksafterwhichsystemacceptancewasassessedusingacombinationofquestionnaires,interviewsandfocusgroups.Again,systemacceptancewashighwith75percentofparticipantsintendingtopurchaseanACCsystemiftheywerebuyinganewcar.Whenconsideringindividualdrivercharacteristicsincludingage,gender,educationandincome,itwasfoundthatagewasthebestpredictivefactor,witholderdriversreportinghighestsystemacceptance.Notwithstandingthehighacceptancelevels,anumberofACCdesigncharacteristicswerethoughttobenefitfromfutureimprovements.Inparticular,themaximumACCspeedandshortestavailablegapsettingwereconsideredtoolow.Someparticipantsalsomentionedtheneedtomanuallyinterfereduetotheslownessforthesystemtodecelerateandconversely,pickupspeedinovertakingmanoeuvres.
SimilartotheACASFOT,Alkim,BootsmaandLooman(2007)reportedtheresultsofaDutchfieldstudywhichinvestigateddrivers’useandacceptanceofACC,LaneDepartureWarning(LDW),HeadwayMonitoringandWarning(HMW)andLaneKeepingAssistance(LKA)systems.Again,ACCenjoyedahighacceptancelevel.Itfurthershowedthattheactiveassistanceorinterventionsystems(i.e.,ACCandLKA)enjoyedahigherlevelofacceptancethanthewarningsystems(i.e.,LDWandHMW).Aspointedoutbytheauthors,thiswasanunexpectedfindinggiventhatdriversusuallyindicateapreferenceforaninformativesystemratherthanasystemthattakesoverpartsofthedrivingtask.Thisdifferenceinacceptancemaybeascribedtothefactthatthebenefitsofwarningsystemswerenotonlyperceivedtobelessapparent,buttherewasalsoalackofsystemtrustduetothehighnumberoffalsealertsthesystemsproduced.Furthermore,Alkimetal.’s(2007)findingsthatusersaremorepositiveafteractualexperiencewithsuchsystemscomparedtoaprioriexpectationsclearlyillustratesthepointthatthemannerinwhichacceptanceisevaluated(i.e.,interview,on-roadstudies)affectusers’perceptionsandattitudes.
Mostrecently,Larsson(2012)conductedaquestionnairesurveyamongst130ACCownersregardingtheirdailyuseandexperience.ThestudywaslimitedinthatitincludedonlyaspecificACCsystem.Theresultsareneverthelessofinterestandpointtowardssomeacceptanceissuesthathavebeenconsistentlyreportedwithintheliterature.Thesecanbecategorisedasbeingeithersystemlimitationsorcommunicationerrors.Regardingthelatter,nearlyaquarterofrespondentsindicatedthattheyhadforgottenatsomepointwhetherACCwasengagedandweresubsequentlysurprisedtofindthevehiclebrakingoraccelerating.This‘modeerror’,wherebythedriverbelievesthesystemtobe
inonemodewhenitisactuallyinanother,maynotonlynegativelyaffectsystemacceptancebutmayalsocompromiseroadsafety,astheunexpectedvehiclebehaviourmayresultininappropriateorill-timeddriverresponses.AspointedoutbyLarsson(2012),theoccurrenceofmodeerrorssuggeststhatfuturesystemswouldbenefitfromimprovedinterfacedesigns.ThemainfactorsaffectingACCacceptance,however,appearedtoberelatedtosystemlimitations.Inparticular,conditionsinwhichradarcontactwaseitherlost(e.g.,steephills,sharpcurves,roundabouts,exitingamotorway)orinwhichlatchesontotrafficinadjacentlanesledthevehicletochangeitsspeedinappropriatelywerefoundtofrustrateusers.Inaddition,arecurrentcomplaintwastheslowsystemresponseinpickingupspeedwhenchanginglanestoovertakeavehicle.
Whereastheabove-mentionedsystemlimitationsareclearlydetrimentalwithregardtouseracceptance,itcanbeconcludedthatoverall,ACCenjoysahighlevelofuseracceptanceandisconsideredtosignificantlyenhancedrivers’comfort.FuturesystemenhancementssuchastheincorporationofGPS,vehicle-to-vehicle,andvehicle-to-infrastructuredata,aswellasinformationonthedriver’sintentions(e.g.,useofindicator)canbeexpectedtoeliminateorminimisecurrentsystems’limitations(e.g.,Sol,vanAremandHagemeier2008),improvinguseracceptanceevenfurther.
PlatoonDriving
PlatoondrivingisanexampleofafuturetechnologywheretheHumanFactorsacceptanceworkismorespeculativeandusuallysimulator-based.Platoondriving,alsoreferredtoasplatooningorroad-training,canbeviewedasalogicalnextstepinroadtransportautomation.Itreferstothegroupingofvehiclesmaintainingashorttimeheadwayachievedbyusingacombinationofwirelesscommunications,lateralandlongitudinalcontrolunits,andsensortechnology.Althoughdifferentfutureplatoonimplementationscanbeenvisaged(e.g.,Martensetal.2007),currentconceptsassumeasystemwherebytheplatoonisledbyatrained,professionaldriverwhilstthefollowingvehiclesaredrivenfullyautomaticallybythesystem(Robinson,ChanandCoelingh2010,Lank,HaberstrohandWille2011).ComparedwithACC,platoondrivingisextendingtheautomationofthedrivingtaskconsiderablybyaddinglateralvehiclecontrolwhich,inessence,leavesthedriverfreetorelaxorengageinnon-drivingtasks.
Platoondrivingispredictedtoprovidearangeofadvantages(seeRobinsonetal.2010Lanketal.2011).First,thesmallheadwaysmaintainedinplatoons
resultnotonlyinareductionindragandassociatedenergyefficiency,butalsoanincreaseinroadnetworkcapacityduetothemerefactthatlessroadspaceisrequired.Aknock-oneffectisthatovertakingmanoeuvresbyotherroaduserscanbeperformedmorequicklyresultinginamorehomogeneoustrafficflow.Safetybenefitsarealsoexpected:unlikedrivers,theautomatedsystemdoesnotsufferfromdistraction;and,secondly,theautomatedreactiontimesofthesystemareonlyafractionofhumanresponsestimes.Finally,thefactthatthedrivingtaskisentirelytakenoverbythesystemisexpectedtoresultinenhanceddrivercomfort.
Regardlessofthealreadyproventechnicalfeasibilityaswellasanticipatedbenefits(Lanketal.2011),thesuccessofplatooningwilldependultimatelyonroadusers’aswellassocietalacceptanceofthesystem.ComparedtoACC,platooningcreatesaconsiderablymorecomplexsituationwherewenotonlyhavetotakeintoconsiderationthedriverwithintheplatoonbutalsoroadusers’drivingintheirvicinity(Gouyetal.2012).Withregardstotheformer,therearesomesignificantHumanFactorschallenges(seeLarburu,SanchezandRodriguez2010;Robinsonetal.2010,Martensetal.2007).Takingthedriveroutoftheloopraisesquestionsabouttheeffectsondrivers’situationalawareness,ortheirknowledgeofthesurroundingtrafficandprevailingconditions.Inparticular,thismaybecomeasafetyissuewhenthedriverisrequiredtoswitchfromautonomousdrivingtonormaldrivingorwhenrespondingtounexpectedeventsduetosystembreakdowns.Withthedrivereffectivelybecomingapassivemonitor,thedesignofthehuman–machineinterfacewillbecomeacriticalaspectforthesuccessofsuchsystems.Inadditiontothesesafetyissues,useracceptanceofplatooningwilldependontheextenttowhichthesystemisperceivedtobeaccurateandreliableanditsusetobeconsideredbothsaferandmorecomfortablecomparedtonormaldriving.
Asmentioned,thepresenceofplatoonsonnormalmotorwaysalsocreatesanentirelynewsetofdrivingconditionsfornon-platoonroadusers.Althoughtheexactconsequenceswillbedependentonthespecificdesignofplatoons(e.g.,whatisthemaximumnumberofvehicles;arevehiclesallowedtoleaveorjoinaplatoonfromtheside;seeRobinsonetal.2010),forplatooningtobeacceptableitisimportantthatthepresenceofplatoonsonnormalmotorwaysdoesnotleadtoactualorperceivednegativeconsequences.Platoonsmayinterferewithotherroadusersinanumberofways.Forexample,enteringandexitingamotorwayandovertakingmaybeperceivedtobelesssafeandmoredemanding.Also,whataretheeffectsoftheshortertimeheadwaysadoptedinplatoons?Couldthisresultinbehaviouraladaptationwherebynon-platoondriversconsciouslyor
unconsciouslyalsoadoptshortertimeheadwayspossiblycompromisingroadsafety?Initialsimulatorstudiesonthistopichaveshownevidenceforsucheffects(Gouyetal.2012).Theseareonlysomeofthetypeofquestionsthatneedtobeansweredtobetterunderstandtheeffectsofplatooninginthecontextofacceptability.
Thefirstfewstudieshavenowbeenundertakentostarttobetterunderstandsomeoftheaboveissues.TheGermannationalprojectKONVOIsetouttoconductsimulatorandon-roadtestingofplatoonsconsistingofcoupledtrucks(Lanketal.2011).Theplatooningconceptrequiredthefirstdriverofaplatoontomanuallycontrolthetruckwiththeothertrucksfollowingtheleadtruckfullyautomatically.Tojoinaplatoon,thedriverwasrequiredtosendarequestviaatouchscreenwhenwithin50metresoftheplatoon.Followingacceptancebytheplatoonleadvehicle,automationwouldsetinandgraduallyclosethegaptoadistanceof10metresfromthetruckattheendoftheplatoon.Similarly,tode-coupleandleavetheplatoon,thedriverwouldbesentarequestand,followingacknowledgementbytheleadvehicle,thetimeheadwaywouldincreaseagainto50metresfollowedbyavisual-auditorycountdownsignaltoindicatetheendoftheautomateddrive.
WithintheKONVOIproject,useracceptancewasevaluatedinthreephases,startingoutwithfocusgroups,followedbysimulatorstudiesandon-roadstudies(Lanketal.2011).Thisallowedforacleardemonstrationoftheeffectthatexperiencewithanewtechnologymighthaveonuseracceptance.Beforeanyactualexperiencewithplatoondriving,theinitialfocusgroupsrevealed80percentofthetruckdriverstohaveanegativeattitudetowardstheconceptofplatooning.However,followingactualexperienceofplatooning,aconsiderableshiftwasobservedwithanultimateapprovalrateof54percent.
Systemacceptanceofnon-platoondriverswasevaluatedinasubsequentdrivingsimulatorstudy.Althoughsomeconcernswereraisedthatplatoondrivingmightleadtoadditionaldrivingdemandsforsome,thevastmajorityofdrivers(80percent)showedapositiveattitudetowardsplatooningandthoughtofitasasensibledevelopment.Platoonswereregardedasreducingdriverworkload,inpartduetothereductioninthenumberofovertakingmanoeuvresrequired,anddriversexpressedapreferenceforovertakingaplatoonasopposedtoindividualtrucks.Ontheotherhand,concernswereraisedregardingtheadditionaldemandandresponsibilityputonthedriveroftheleadvehicle.Systemover-relianceandsubsequentinattentionwasfearedtoresultin‘illusionarysafety’andpossiblyincreasedaccidentrisk.Althoughdriversreportedlittledifficultiesenteringandexitingthemotorwayinthepresenceofplatoons,theadditionalcomplexityofthetrafficconditionswasmentionedasa
platoons,theadditionalcomplexityofthetrafficconditionswasmentionedasapossiblereasonforloweracceptancelevelsbyotherroadusers.Respondentsalsomentionedtheneedforinternationalstandardisationregardingthelegallengthofplatoonsandtheneedforfulldevelopmentandtestingbeforemarketdeployment.
Mostrecently,useracceptanceofplatoondrivinghasbeenevaluatedaspartoftheEuropeanproject,SafeRoadTrainsfortheEnvironment(SARTRE).Larburuetal.(2010)conductedasimulatorstudytoassessdrivers’responsestoplatoondriving.Again,acceptancewasnotonlyassessedfromtheperspectiveoftheplatoondriverbutalsofromdriversencounteringaplatoon.Thestudyevaluatedvariousplatoonconfigurationsthatvariedinlengthandheadways,andalsoincludedaprototypeHMIwhichwasincorporatedtoinformthedriverduringtransitionstagesfrommanualtoautomaticdriving,andviceversa.Fromauseracceptanceperspective,thestudyshowedsomeconsistentgendereffectswithfemaledriversreportingtobelesstolerantofshortertimeheadwayswhendrivingwithintheplatoonsthanmen.Itwasalsofoundthattheinter-vehicledistanceatwhichparticipantsreportedtofeeluncomfortable(16metres)waswellabovethedistanceatwhichplatoonsareconsideredtobecomeenergyefficientandsafe(Larburuetal.2010).Acknowledgingtheinherentlimitationsofthiskindofstudy(i.e.,thelackofparticipants’experienceandfamiliaritywithplatoons),theseresultsillustratetheneedforfuturestudiestobetterunderstandtheacceptabilityofshorttimeheadways.RegardingtheHMIdesign,theprovisionofinformationduringtransitionchangeswasconsideredimperativewithavastmajorityofparticipantsreferringtotheneedtoincludeadriveracknowledgementstepbeforestartingacouplingorde-couplingmanoeuvre.
Whenaskedabouttheirexperiencedrivinginproximitytoaplatoon,platoonlengthwasoneofthekeyparametersthataffectedusers’acceptance.Whereasdrivingnexttoafive-vehicle-longplatoonwasperceivedtobesimilartonormaldriving–safeandnottocauseanydifficultiesperformingmanoeuvres(e.g.,exitingmotorways).Thiswasnolongerthecasewithaplatoonlengthof15vehicles.Platoonsofvehicleslongerthan25weredeemedunacceptableby90percentofparticipants,suggestingthistobeamaximumacceptableplatoonlength.
Insummary,theresultsofthestudiesconductedsofarindicatethatplatoondrivingmaybecomeanearfuturereality.Fromatechnicalperspective,therearenobarriersthatwouldpreventsuchsystemsbeingimplemented.However,thesesamestudiesalsohighlightseveralHumanFactorsandacceptanceissuesthatrequireabetterunderstandingbeforewidespreadintroductionisfeasible.Beyondobviousliabilityissues,systemacceptancewillbedependentonplatoon
Beyondobviousliabilityissues,systemacceptancewillbedependentonplatoonconfigurations,protocolsfortransferringcontrolbetweendriverandvehicle,HMIdesign,systemfailuremanagementprocedures,aswellasnon-platoondrivers’interactionwithandresponsetoplatoons.Thesefundamentalquestionsrequiresignificantresearcheffortstoprovidethenecessaryempiricalsupportbeforeroadauthoritieswillbesufficientlyconfidenttoallowforplatoondriving.
OverallDiscussionandConclusions
Thischapterhasraisedawiderangeofacceptanceissuesforin-vehicletechnologybyconsideringexamplesystemsaccordingtotheirimpactonthedrivingtask,aswellastheircurrentlevelofmaturity.Itisclearthatabroadrangeofautomation-relatedeffectsarecloselyalignedwithacceptanceissues,whetherdealingwithinformationorassistancesystems.Forinstance,issuesconcerningreliability,relianceandtrustwillberichareasforfutureresearch.Whilstitislikelythatthecapabilitiesofthesesystemswillincreasewithcustomerdemand,itisunlikelythattheywilleverbe100percentreliable.Importantly,researchfromotherapplicationdomains(e.g.,processcontrol)indicatesthatpeoplefinditparticularlydifficulttocalibrateobjectivewithsubjectivereliabilitywhensystemsareclosetoperfect(Wickensetal.2004).So,forexample,ifasystemisobjectively99percentreliable,usersarepronetotreatitas100percentreliableandmaywelladoptcomplacency-relatedbehavioursaccordingly.
Moreover,itisworthemphasisingthatdifferentin-vehicletechnologieswillnotbeusedindependently,butincombinationwitheachother.Researchstudiesgenerallyneglectthisfactandconsidertheimpactofdriversinteractingwithsinglesystems.Inreality,formanyreal-worlddrivingsituationstherewillbeconsiderableinteractioneffects.Forinstance,avehicleequippedwithasystemthatautomateslongitudinalandlateralcontrolofthevehicle(suchasplatooning)islikelytohaveasignificanteffectonthetasksthatdriversarewillingtoundertakewithothersystems,forexample,thoseprovidingentertainmentorproductivityservices.Howdriverswilltrade-offthevarioustasksthatoccurinfuturecarswillbecriticalquestionsforresearch.Inparticular,theacceptanceorotherwiseofthedifferentsystemswillhaveaprofoundeffectonhowtheymightbeusedasanintegratedwhole.
Asafinalpoint,itshouldbenotedthatthevehicleoftenincorporatesasocialenvironmentwhenpassengersarepresent,orevenwhencommunicationsareconductedwithpeopleremote/externaltothevehicle(e.g.,viaaphonelink).Previousresearchconcerningacceptanceissueshasfocusedlargelyonthedriversolelyasanoperatorofthevehicle.Inreality,thesocialcontextwillalsohavea
solelyasanoperatorofthevehicle.Inreality,thesocialcontextwillalsohaveaconsiderableimpactonusers’attitudes,behaviourandperformancewithnewtechnologyinmanyhighlydynamicandcomplexdrivingsituations.Asanexample,arecentstudybyLargeandBurnett(2013)notedhowthepresenceofpassengersaffectedadriver’sinteractionswithanavigationsystem,particularlyrelatedtotheacceptanceofvoiceinstructions.
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Chapter11DriverAcceptanceofElectricVehicles:Findingsfrom
theFrenchMINIEStudyElodieLabeyeandCorinneBrusque
InstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),Bron,France
MichaelA.ReganTransportandRoadSafetyResearch,
UniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
Abstract
Theelectricvehicle(EV)hasgreatpotentialtoreducetheimpactoftransportontheenvironmentandisbeingrolledoutinincreasingnumbersbytheautomotiveindustry.Driveracceptanceofthisnewtypeofvehicleisuncertain,however,duetotherelativelylimitedrangeandhigherpriceoftheEVcomparedtoconventionalvehicles.
ToassessdriveracceptabilityofEVs,theMINIEFranceprojectwasundertakenbyIFSTTAR,inFrance,incooperationwiththevehiclemanufacturerBMWGermany.FiftyprivateusersfromParisrespondedtoasetofquestionnaires,focusgroupquestionsandtraveldiaryitemsbeforeandaftersixmonthsofdailyuseofanelectricMINIE.TheresultsshowedthattheperformanceandtheeaseofusewithrespecttotheEVaregenerallywelljudgedbytheparticipants.However,theanalysesofpurchaseintentiondemonstratethatthebarrierstoEVacceptancearestillpresent,evenafteralongperiodofuseofthevehicle.
Introduction
Thestruggleagainstglobalwarmingisoneofthemajorpoliticalissuesofthetwenty-firstcentury.Afront-lineactivityinthisstruggleisthereductionofgreenhousegasemissions.GiventhatthetransportsectorisamajorCO2emitter
(OECD/ITF2010),variousconstraintsarebeingimposedbygovernmentsonmanufacturerssothattheyinvestinresearchanddevelopmentofnewtechnologies,thusallowingfortheconstructionoflesspollutingvehicles.
Amongtherangeofvehiclesproposedbymanufacturers,theelectricvehicle(EV)hasreappeared,moreefficientthanever,positioningitselfasanewandpotentiallyviableeco-friendlymodeoftransport,whentheelectricitythatfuelsitisgeneratedinaneco-friendlymanner.Thisvehicle,whichdoesnotemitCO2
locally,seemstobeabletomeetthemobilityneedsofindividualswithgreaterefficiencythanthoseproposedinthe1990s,whilereducingtheharmfulenvironmentalimpactoftransportation.
ManygovernmentsstimulatedeploymentofthistechnologybyencouragingthecommercialisationofEVs;inFrance,forexample,governmentaidforthepurchaseofanEVisintheorderof€5,000andabulkorderof50,000vehicleswasmadebytheFrenchauthoritiesin2010(Negre2009).Themediacoveragewhichhasaccompaniedthesepolicydirectives,runninginparallelwiththeriseinoilprices,hasgraduallytransformedpublicopinionvis-à-vismobility:theecologicalnecessityofaprofoundchangeinourpatternsofmobilityandinourenergysourceshasbecomearealityforcitizens.
ThereintroductionoftheEVinthemarkethastakenplaceinanunprecedentedtechnologicalcontext,inwhichelectromobilityismadepossiblebysuperiorperformanceofthelithiumbattery,regenerativebrakingandthedeploymentofpublicchargingstations(andinparallel,theintroductionofmobileapplicationswhichcansupportthelocationandreservationofchargingstations).Nevertheless,evenifthetechnologicalandecologicalcircumstancesappearmorefavourablethan20yearsago,anddespitetheobviousinvestmentsofgovernmentandindustry,thepossibilityofwidespreadintroductionofEVsremainsuncertain.
Recentstudiesofdiscretechoiceanalysis,statedpreferencesurveysoftheintentionofpurchasinghybridvehiclesandforecastingmodelsofEVtake-up,showthatfeatureslimitingtheadoptionofthesevehiclesaremainlythepriceandperformanceofvehiclesintermsofrange,chargingtimeandacceleration(EggersandEggers2011,Lievenetal.2011,PotoglouandKanaroglou2007),andthattheselimitingfeatureshavepersistedthroughtimeastheywerealreadyidentifiedinthe1990s(CheronandZins1997,GolobandGould1998,KuraniandTurrentine1996).ForKuraniandTurrentine(1996),thesedifferentlimitationssuggestthattheEVwouldbeparticularlyattractiveasasecondcarinthemulticarhousehold;however,forotherauthors,‘unlessthelimiteddrivingrangeforelectricvehiclesisincreasedsubstantiallythistechnologywillnotbe
fullycompetitiveintheautomobile’(Dagsviketal.2002:383).Finally,itisinterestingtonotethattheimportanceoftheselimitingfeatures
may,however,bemodifiedwithactualuseoftheEV:someresearchshowsthatwhenindividualshavetheopportunitytoexperiencethetechnologydirectly,andtoseeitsimpactontheirmobility,theiropinionsoncertainfeaturesseemtobepositivelyinfluenced(Buehleretal.2011,GouldandGolob1998,Woodjacketal.2012).Otherstudies,however,showthatuseoftheEVdoesnotalterinitialimpressionsofsomefeatures.Regardinglimitedrange,forexample,individualscontinuetoperceivethisasinsufficientdespitetheobservationafterusethattheEVmeetsoveralltheirdailyneedsformobility(GolobandGould1998).
Thereiscurrentlyconsiderableinterestinwhetherlong-termexposuretoEVscanchangetherepresentationthatindividualshaveoftheselimitingfactorsandthusinfluencebehaviouralintentvis-à-visuseoftheconcernedtechnology.
Objectives
Theaimoftheresearchreportedinthischapterwastoevaluate,foraFrenchsampleofpotentialbuyersofEVs,theirbehaviouralintentiontouseelectricvehiclesand,moregenerally,toexaminedriveracceptanceofEVtechnologies.Forthis,werelyontheacceptancetheory,presentedinthenextsection,whichsuggeststhatwhenusersarepresentedwithanewtechnology,anumberofdifferentcognitiveandsocialfactorsinfluencetheirdecisionabouthowandwhentheywilluseit.
Inaddition,thestudyreportedhereexplorestheimpactofrealanddailyuseoftheEVonthemainacceptancefactors.Weareinterestedintheevolutionofparticipants’opinionsconcerningperformanceexpectancy,easeofuseexpectancyandpurchaseintentionswhenusinganelectricvehicleduringasix-monthperiod.Here,theobjectiveistocomparethemainfactorsofacceptanceatT0monthandT6months,andtheirpotentialevolution,andtohighlightfeatureswhichcanhaveasignificantimpactontheadoptionoftheEVinourmobilitychoices.
Finally,weconcludewithadiscussionofthemainbarriersrelatedtoEVuptakeidentifiedbyindividualsofthesampleattheendofthestudy,whichexposestheprincipalissuestoaddressinstimulatingfutureuptakeofEVs.
Acceptance
Modelsofacceptancehaveidentifiedseveralfactorscloselylinkedtowhetherornotanindividualadoptsnewtechnologies.Ingeneral,twomainfactorsare
notanindividualadoptsnewtechnologies.Ingeneral,twomainfactorsarehighlighted.
Asnotedelsewhereinthisbook,thefirstonecorrespondstoperformanceexpectancyproposedbytheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology–UTAUT–whichrefersto‘thedegreetowhichapersonbelievesthatusingaparticularsystemwouldenhancehisorherjobperformance’(Vankateshetal.2003:447;seealsoDavis1989).
PerformanceexpectancyoftheEV,therefore,relatestothemobilityneedsofdrivers,theabilityofEVtosuittheroadtransportenvironmentandalsotoitsabilitytobringnewopportunitiesintermsofmobility:ecologicaladvantages(absenceofCO2locally,possibilityoftravellinginamoreeco-friendlyway)orperceptualadvantages(lackofvehiclenoiseatlowspeed).
Thesecondmainfactoridentifiediseffortexpectancy,definedas‘thedegreeofeaseassociatedwiththeuseofthesystem’(Venkateshetal.2003:450).InthecaseoftheEV,theissueishowpeoplefindtheusabilityofthisnewtypeofvehicle:isiteasytolearntouse,totakeintoaccountthedistanceandthechargingtimeandsoon.
Someotherfactorsarealsohighlightedbyextantmodelsofacceptancetoaccountfortheadoptionofnewtechnologies.Amongtheseisthesocialinfluencefactorthatrepresents‘thedegreetowhichanindividualperceivesthatimportantothersevaluateandusethesystem,andbelieveheorsheshouldusethisnewsystem’(FishbeinandAjzen1975:216;seealsoAjzen1991,VenkateshandDavis2000).
Finally,somemodelsaddafacilitatingconditionsfactorunderlyingacceptance(Thompson,HigginsandHowell1991,Venkateshetal.2003),whichmakesreferencetotheorganisationalandtechnicalinfrastructurethatsupportsuseofthenewsystem.FortheEV,forexample,thisistheinfrastructureforchargingtheEV,orsubsidies,whichmaydrivesocietalacceptanceofelectricvehicles.
TheUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnologystatesthateachofthefactorsmentionedabovealsoappeartobemoderatedbyfactorsincludingthegender,ageandexperienceofindividualswithrespecttothenewtechnology,andthattogetherthesethingsinfluenceoverallacceptanceoftechnology(MooreandBenbasat1991,Venkateshetal.2003).
TestingthesedifferentfactorsofacceptancewillthereforehelptoidentifythebehaviouralintentionofindividualsrelatedtouseoftheEV.However,itisinterestingtonotethatactualuseofEVmayhaveanimpactonsomeofthesefactorsandchangethewaytheyareperceivedandevaluated.Likemanynewproducts,theiradvantagesanddefectscanbeovervaluedorundervaluedbylack
products,theiradvantagesanddefectscanbeovervaluedorundervaluedbylackofrealuserfeedback.Ourstudyaimed,therefore,toidentifypossiblechangesincertainfactorsofacceptancefollowinguseofEV.
StudyContext
ToexaminedriveracceptanceofEVsinFrance,andthechangesinbehaviourandattitudesthatoccurovertimewiththeuseofthistypeofvehicle,anexperiment,alreadyconductedinGermany(Cocronetal.2011a,Cocronetal.2011b),theUnitedStates(Woodjacketal.2012)andEngland(Everettetal.2010)–forthemanufacturerBMW–wasreplicatedinParis,France.
TheoriginalityoftheFrenchstudyrestedonthefactthatdriversrespondedtoasetofquestionnaires(andalsofocusgroups,travelandchargediaries)atthebeginningofthestudy,inthemiddleandaftersixmonthsofEVuse.EachdriverutilisedaMINIEelectriccarfortheirdailytripsduringasix-monthperiod.Twowavesof25driversweretested–fromDecember2010toJune2011forthefirstwave,andfromJulytoDecember2011forthesecondwave.InthischapterwewillfocusonthedatathatspecificallyconcernsacceptanceoftheEVanditsevolutionafterdailyuseoveraperiodofseveralmonths,andonthenegativefeaturesidentifiedbyindividualsofthesampleattheendofthestudywhichservetoexplaintheacceptancehighlighted.
Methodology
ElectricVehicles
Twenty-fiveMINIEprototypesweredeployed.TheMINIEissimilarinexternalappearancetotheMINICooper,butwithonlytwoseatsandequippedwithalithium-ionbattery.TheaveragerangeoftheMINIEis160kmandthecarhasregenerativebrakingthatslowsthevehicle(whileatthesametimeregeneratingenergy)fromthemomentthedriverreleasestheacceleratorpedal.
Tochargethevehicle,eachparticipanthadawallboxof12ampsinstalledinhisorherhomebytheFrenchelectricityproviderÉlectricitédeFrance(EDF).DriverscouldalsochargetheirvehiclesfromParisianpublicchargingstations.Afullchargetookaboutninehourstocomplete.
DataCollection
Datawerecollectedfromasetofquestionnaires,focusgroupsandtravelandchargediaries.TheseresearchtoolsweredesignedoriginallybytheGermanresearchteamwhichworkedonthefirstMINIEstudy(Neumannetal.2010).Datawerecomparedacrossthreetimeintervals:T0,T3monthsandfinallyatT6monthsafterthestartofthestudy.
Theprocedurewasasfollows.AtT0,twoquestionnaireswerecompleted–oneface-to-faceandtheotheronline–measuredonaLikertscaleofsixpoints,rangingfromone‘stronglydisagree’tosix‘stronglyagree’oraone‘veryunimportant’tosix‘veryimportant’.Someofthequestionswereopenquestions.Severalissueswereaddressed:theprospectiveviewsandexpectationsoffutureusersabouttheelectricvehicle,theirconsiderationsoftheecologicalaspectsandtechniquesofEVs,andtheirdrivinghabitsintraditionalcars.
Inparallel,thetraveldiarywasadministered.Itrelatedtodrivers’useoftheirown(private)carduringatypicalweek.Forsevendays,participantsusedittoregisteralltheirtrips,detailingthetripdistance,meansoftransporttaken,purposeofthetripandsoon.
AfterthreemonthsofusingtheEVparticipantswereaskedtocompletetwofurtherquestionnaires–oneface-to-faceandanotheronline–containingitemsthatwereeitheralreadypresentedatT0orwerenew.TheseitemsconcernedtheexperienceandappreciationofparticipantsoftheuseoftheMINIEonadailybasis.Participantswerealsorequiredtocompleteagainatraveldiary,relatingthistimetouseoftheMINIE.Userswerealsorequiredtocompleteachargediarydetailingallchargesmadeduringaweek.Usersreportedplaceofcharge,chargestatusatthebeginningandtheendofthechargingprocess,andthereasonsforthecharge.
Finally,atsixmonths,participantscompletedaquestionnairewhichwasadministeredface-to-face.Themajorityofitemswereidenticaltoitemsfrompreviousquestionnaires.Finally,participantswereaskedtocompleteatraveldiaryandachargediarysimilartothepreviousones.
Inthischapter,wefocusonlyondataforT0andT6months;giventhattheobjectiveistoseeifdailyuseofanEVinfluencesandmodifiespurchaseintent,itisinterestingtoconsiderthemaximumdurationofuse,namelythosedriversevaluatedaftersixmonths(formoredetails,seeLabeyeetal.inpress,andLabeyeetal.2012).
Participants
Morethan900peopleappliedonline(viatheMINI.frsite)toparticipateinthestudy.Afirstselectionwasmadebasedonthefollowingcriteria:beinga
study.Afirstselectionwasmadebasedonthefollowingcriteria:beingaresidentoftheParisarea,havingagarageoradedicatedplacetoparktheMINIE,beingabletoprovidepaymentforleasingthevehicle(€475permonth;insuranceincluded)andhavingaccesstoasuitableelectricalpowersupply.
Fiftysubjectswerechosenbasedonthenumberofkilometrestheyweredrivingeachday,andtheselectionwasaimedatmaximisingthenumberofwomeninthesampleandtohaveamajorityofdriverswhohadnoexperiencewithelectricorhybridvehicles.
Dataforonly40subjectswereanalysedbecauseofthedifficultycausedbythesix-monthdurationoftheexperiment:twosubjectsdroppedoutandeightsubjectsdidnotrespondtothefinalquestionnaire.
Theprofileofthefinalsamplewasasfollows:7womenand33men,withanaverageageof43.9years(SD=8.029).Thenumberofpeopleperhouseholdwasonaverage3.53;78percentofselectedparticipantshadauniversitylevelqualification;25percentweredrivingmorethan70kmperday;30percenthadalreadyhadaMINI;23percenthadexperiencedanelectricvehicle,and20percentahybridvehicle;and,finally,25percentofparticipantsdidnothavemorethanonevehicleathome.
ItshouldbenotedthatthosewhoparticipatedintheMINIEstudypresentedaparticularprofilethatwasnottypicaloftheFrenchpopulation.TheylivedinParisanditssuburbs,theyhadahighlevelofincome,andtheydroveonaveragefor60kmperday(SD=30.108).Moreover,thesamplewasespeciallyrepresentativeofthosethatmighteventuallybuyelectricvehicles.Indeed,individualsselectedwerepotentialearlyadoptersofEV(selectedontheMINIEwebsite),whichexplainstheirhighexperienceofelectricvehicles(nearlyaquarter),andtheirgreatinterestininnovativetechnologyandtheenvironmentalbenefitofEVs.Indeed,participants’motivationtotakepartinthisstudywasmainlyduetotwofactors:theattractivenessoftheEVbeinginnovativeandtheattractivenessoftheenvironmentalbenefitsthattheEVwasconsideredtoinduce(andtoalesserextent,attachmenttothebrandandreducedenergycosts).
Results
AcceptanceatToMonth
ThequestionnairesoftheMINIEstudyaddressedseveraldifferentresearchissues.Onlyitemsrelateddirectlyto,andexemplaryof,theacceptancefactors(definedintheintroduction)arediscussedhere:itemswhichreferto
performanceexpectancyandeaseofuseexpectancyinconnectionwiththeelectricvehicle,itemsrelatedtothesubjectivenormswhichcaninfluenceexpectationsofindividuals,andfinally,participants’overallpurchaseintentionswithrespecttothisnewtypeofvehicle.
Itshouldbenotedthat,becauseofconditionsrelatedtotheconstitutionofthesample(which,asnoted,wasnotbalancedintermsofgenderandage),wedonotinthischapterstudythemoderatingeffectsofgender,ageandexperienceoftheindividuals.
PerformanceExpectancy
Concerningthisacceptancefactor,12itemsarestudiedregardinghowtheMINIEwouldmeetthemobilityneedsofresponders,regardingtheirglobalsatisfactionandthegeneraladdedvaluetheyexpectfromtheMINIE;andspecificallyontheecologically-relatedaddedvaluerelatedtoitsuse.
Table11.1belowpresentsthemeanforeachitemandthestandarddeviation.Foritemspresentedinthequestionnaireinanegativeturn(forexample,‘ThelimitedrangeoftheMINIEwillnotpermitmetodoallofmynormaldriving’),bothpositiveandnegativemeansareindicatedinTable11.1.Thecalculationoftheglobalperformanceexpectancyfactormeanaverageisformedfromthesetofpositivevalues.
Theperformanceexpectancyfactorforacceptanceisgenerallyhigh(M=4.3,SD=0.4).ThissuggeststhatparticipantsconsiderhighlythattheMINIEisexpectedtosatisfytheirdailymobilityneeds(M=5.03,SD=1.00)andissuitableforeverydayuse(M=5.10,SD=0.74),eveniftheyareawareofsomedifficultiescausedbythelimitedrange(M=3.33,SD=1.42).ThisindicatesthatparticipantsexpectthattheEVwouldmeetalargeparttheirmobilityneeds.
Furthermore,itseemsthatparticipantsconsidertheMINIEtobeasafevehicle(M=4.80,SD=0.82)andmoresatisfyingtodrivethanaconventionalcar(M=4.05,SD=1.11).Finally,concerningtheecologicaladdedvalues,themeansshowhowtheparticipantsassociatetheseissueswiththeelectricvehicle.TheyagreehighlythattheEVisagoodsolutiontoreducenoiseandCO2
pollution(M=5.28,SD=0.82;M=5.02,SD=0.73).
Table11.1PerformanceexpectancyitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month
EaseofUseExpectancy
TheeaseofuseexpectancyfactorofEVacceptancewasassessedwithasix-itemscalecorrespondingtothefacilitytolearnexpectedbythesubjectsandthefacilitytousetheEV.
Table11.2belowpresentstheaveragemeanforeachitemandthestandarddeviation.Foritemspresentedinanegativeturninthequestionnaire,bothpositiveandnegativemeansareindicatedinTable11.2.Thecalculationoftheglobaleaseofusefactormeanaverageisformedfromthesetofpositivevalues.
Table11.2EaseofuseexpectancyitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month
Thegeneralmeaneaseofuseexpectancyfactorisalsohigh(M=4.18,SD=0.46).Globally,theresultsshowthatparticipantsconsiderthelearningtodriveanduseoftheEVaseasy(M=4.93,SD=0.94;M=4.53,SD=0.60),eventhoughtheythinktheyshouldalsotakeintoaccounttheirroutelengthandthechargingtimeswhentheyusetheMINIE(M=3.95,SD=1.28).
SubjectiveNorms
TostudytheplaceofthesubjectivenormsintheacceptanceoftheEV,fiveitemswereanalysed.Table11.3belowpresentsthemeansforeachitemandthestandarddeviation.
Table11.3SubjectivenormsitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month
Theanalysisofthesubjectivenormsshowsthisfactorislessimportantthantheprevious(M=3.66,SD=0.63);andmoreover,itemshavevaryingimportanceforparticipants–theythinkpeoplelikethemwouldliketodriveanEV(M=4.45,SD=0.60),buttheyarelesslikelytothinkpeoplewhoareimportanttothemwouldliketobuyanEV(M=3.60,SD=0.98),andnotmanypeopleexpectthemtobuyanEV(M=2.72,SD=1.01).
Table11.4UseandpurchaseintentionitemsmeansandstandarddeviationsatT0month
UseandPurchaseIntentions
Finally,fouritemsrelatedtotheuseandpurchaseintentionsoftheEVwerestudied.Table11.4presentsthemeanforeachitemandthestandarddeviation.Foritemspresentedinanegativeturninthequestionnaire,bothpositiveandnegativemeansareindicatedinTable11.3.Moreover,thecalculationoftheglobaluseandpurchaseintentionfactormeanaverageisformedfromthesetofpositivevalues.
ThemeanoftheuseandpurchaseintentionitemisM=3.79,SD=0.63.Indetail,theresultsshowthattheEVisnotenvisagedintheimmediatetermasamaincar;theMINIEcanonlybeasecondcar(M=4.53,SD=1.36),evenifparticipantsexpecttouseitveryfrequently(M=4.70,SD=0.52).
TheseconsiderationswithrespecttotheEVdemonstratethatsomeparametersofacceptancearesupportedbutthat,overall,theymaynotbesufficienttogivetheEVthefirstplaceinthehousehold’svehiclefleet.
Finally,itcanbearguedthatthesizeofthevehicleorthetwoseatswouldplayaroleinviewingtheEVasasecondratherthanprimaryvehicle.Indeed,itispossiblethatthelackofaseatingplacecouldhavemodifiedmobilitypatternsoftheparticipantsbylimitingthepossibletripsandaddingtotheconstraintsofrange.
AcceptanceafterSixMonthsofUse
ToanalysetheimpactoftheuseoftheEVontheacceptanceofthisnewmodeoftransport,wecomparedusingat-testthemeansobtainedatT0andT6monthsontheprincipalfactorsoftheacceptance.Thefactors’subjectivenormsandecologicalfactorswerenotanalysed,astheyarerelativelyindependentoftherealuseofthecarineverydaylife.
NodifferencewasfoundbetweentheglobalmeansfortheperformanceexpectancyfactoratT0andT6months,andneitherwasonefoundfortheeaseofuseexpectancyfactor.However,resultsshowsomesignificantdifferencesforspecificitems.
PerformanceExpectancy
Concerningtheperformanceexpectancyfactor,meansfortheitem‘ThelimitedrangeoftheMINIEwillnotpermitmetodoallofmynormaldriving’aresignificantlydifferentbetweenthebeginningandtheendoftheexperiment,t(39)=2.06;p<0.05.ThemeansincreasefromM=3.33(SD=0.88)atT0month,toM=3.83(SD=1.15)atT6months,meaningtheimpactofthelimitedrangeoftheEVwasinitiallyunderestimatedbytheparticipants.
TheanalysisofopenquestionsandtraveldairiesatT6monthsshowsthatparticipantsmentionhavingtogetusedtothehandlingofrangebyplanningtheirtripsaccordingtodistance,andtheyusedtheirownprivatecarforlongtrips(M=4.29,SD=1.1).However,wehavetokeepinmindthattheyhighlyestimatedtheMINIEasbeingsatisfying(meanperformedonthesixmonthsbecausethevaluesdonotdiffersignificantly:M=4.90,SD=0.81)andsuitable(meancalculatedonthesixmonths:M=5.20,SD=0.55)fortheirdailymobilityneeds,throughouttheexperiment.Moreover,attheendoftheexperiment,participantsfeltthattheEVhadsatisfiedtheirneedsfordailymobility,M=4.8(SD=1.19).Globally,theseresultsarenotnecessarilycontradictory.Evenifthereremainlongtripsforwhichparticipantsneedtouseanothermodeoftransport,theEVisgenerallymeetingtheirneedsformobility.
Anotheritem,‘TheMINIEwillbemoresatisfyingtodrivethanaconventionalcar’,alsoshowsasignificantdifferencebetweenT0andT6monthsmeans,t(39)=3.90;p<0.05.ThemeansincreasefromM=4.05(SD=1.11)atT0month,toM=4.58(SD=1.11)atT6months.Theresultsindicatetheimportanceofrealuseoftheelectriccarinordertoappreciateitsfeaturesandthusshowthatsomeaspectsofacceptancecanbepositivelymodified.
Finally,thelastitemoftheperformanceexpectancyfactorpresentssignificantlydifferentmeans:t(39)=-2.52;p<0.05.For‘TheMINIEwillbeanaffordabletransportoptionforme’,meansdecreasedfromM=3.88(SD=0.88)atT0month,toM=3.05(SD=1.06)atT6months.Itseemsthat,overtime,thefinancialassetisnotasimportantasexpected.Nevertheless,wemustqualifythisanalysissincetheparticipantsrentedthecarforeachmonthoftheexperiment,andhencethepaymentsovertimecanreducethefinancialbenefitsatthebeginning.
EaseofUseExpectancy
Concerningtheeaseofuseexpectancyfactor,severalitemswereassesseddifferentlyatthebeginningandtheendoftheexperiment.Globally,allofthemshowthatuseoftheEVissimplerthanwasexpectedinitiallybyparticipants,evenifatthebeginningoftheexperimentusers’expecteddifficultieswerealreadyratedaslow.
Fortheitem‘IneededtolearnalotofthingsbeforeIcouldgetgoingwiththeMINIE’,themeansdecreasefromM=2.17(SD=1.04)atT0month,toM=1.48(SD=0.82)atT6months:t(39)=-3.62;p<0.05.Significantdecreaseswerealsoobservedfortheitem‘ThementalworkloadrequiredtodrivetheMINIEwillbegreaterthanthatforaconventionalcar’(M=2.93,SD=0.89atT0month;M=2.42,SD=1.45atT6months:t(39)=-2.11;p<0.05),andfortheitem‘HavingtotakeintoaccountmyroutelengthandchargingtimeswillmakeusingtheMINIEabigchallenge’,(M=3.95,SD=1.28atT0month;M=3.35,SD=1.25atT6months:t(39)=-2.66;p<0.05).Overall,theresultsdemonstratethattheeaseofuseexpectancyfactorismodulatedbyuseoftheEV,inrelationtolearninghowtousethevehicleandindealingwiththerangeissuesofthevehicle.
Finally,theitem‘Iamworriedthatthechargingtimeswillnotsuitmydailyroutine’isalsorateddifferentlyatT0month(M=2.85,SD=1.12)andatT6months(M=3.43,SD=1.45):t(39)=2.23;p<0.05.Thus,theitemconcernstheparticularissueofthechargingtimeandtheFrenchinfrastructureutilisedduringtheexperiment.Indeed,42percentofusersfoundthatthechargeprocesstime–ninehoursonaverage–didn’tfitwiththeirdailyroutine(participantsreportedthatsixhourswouldbemoreacceptableandthreehourswouldbeagoodtime).Thiswasduetothe12ampssocketsthatalluserschargedfrom.Theuseof32ampssocketscoulddividebytwothetimenecessarytochargeandthusmaketheprocessmoresuitableforeverydayuse.
UseandPurchaseIntention
TheanalysisoftheresultscorrespondingtotheuseandpurchaseintentionitemswasnotsignificantbetweenthemeansobtainedatT0andT6months.LikewiseatT0month,theEVisnotenvisaged,evenaftersixmonthsofuse,asamaincar;theMINIEisstillconsideredsuitableasasecondcaronly(meanscalculatedonthesixmonths:M=4.66,SD=1.04).However,itisinterestingtonotethattheparticipantsdeclaredthattheywouldusetheEVveryfrequently(M=4.47,SD=1.04)andconsideredseriouslybuyinganelectricvehicleafterthestudy(meanscalculatedonthesixmonths:M=4.21,SD=0.91).
TheseconsiderationswithrespecttotheEVdemonstratethatsomefactorsofacceptancearevalidatedbut,overall,theymaynotbesufficienttogivetheEVfirst-carstatusinthehousehold.
MainBarrierstoAcceptanceoftheMINIE
Weturnnowtoafinalanalysisofthenegativefeaturesidentifiedbyparticipantsatthebeginningandendofthestudy,whichcanexplainthemitigatedacceptanceoftheEV.ParticipantswereaskedwhatimportantchangesindifferentareaswouldbenecessaryforthemtoconsiderbuyinganEVinthefuture.Theresultswerenotsignificantlydifferentbeforeandafterthesix-monthstudyperiod.Participantswereconcernedmainlyaboutthepotentialrangeoftravel,thedurabilityofthebatteries,thepurchaseprice,thechargingtimeandtheconstructionofpubliccharginginfrastructure.
At-testdidshow,however,asignificantdifferencebetweenthemeansrelatedtothepurchasepriceitematT0monthandatT6months:t(39)=-3.64;p<0.05–themeansincreasefromM=4.95,SD=0.88toM=5.4,SD=0.71.Thislastresultsuggeststhatusingthevehicleforsixmonthsmakesthevehiclemoreconcreteinthelifeofparticipantssuchthattheycanactuallyprojectthemselvesintotheprocessofbuyingthecar.Theyseemtohave,henceforth,amoreaccurateideaofhowmuchtheyarewillingtopaytopurchaseanelectricvehicle.
Finally,wecannotethat,amongthemainbarrierstoEVuse,thechargeinfrastructureissueisofgreatimportancebecausetheactualchargingpointsarenotsufficient,andthechargingtimeseemstoolongtoparticipants.Thus,chargingandpriceissuesstronglyinfluenceEVacceptanceandtheyrepresentthefacilitatingconditionsfactorproposedbyThompsonetal.(1991).Thus,thetechnicalinfrastructurethatsupportsuseoftheEVandthesubsidiesprovided
mustincreaseinordertoenhanceacceptanceanduptakeoftheelectricvehicle.
Discussion
ThestudyanalysedhowthedifferentfactorsofacceptancerelatedtotheelectricvehicleareappreciatedbyapotentialearlyadopterpopulationinParis,France.
Itappearsthatexpectancyconcerningperformanceandeaseofuseoftheelectricvehiclearegenerallywelljudgedbytheparticipantsofthestudy.Indeed,theyexpectthatthelearninganduseoftheEVwillbesimpleandthattheEVwillrespondwelltotheirdailymobilityneeds,whileprovidingmoreecologicalvalue.Thisnewtypeofvehicleseemstoyieldmanypositiveaspectsandthuscouldpassforaveryacceptabletechnology.
However,theanalysesofintentiontouseandpurchaseintentiondemonstratethatthebarrierstoEVacceptancearestillpresent.Evenafteralongperiodofuseofthevehicle,thebarriersarestillthesameandconcernthepurchaseprice,thechargingandbatteriesissuesandfinallythelimitedrangeofthevehicle.
Onthislastfactor,theinabilityofthecartosupportlongtripspreventstheEVfrombeingperceivedasapotentialmainusecarinthehousehold,despitethesuitabilityoftheEVtosatisfytherestofthemobilityneedsofparticipants.Concerningthechargingtime,theresultsshowedthattherewasnochangeinparticipants’apprehensionofthisconstraint.ItistruethatthechargingtimeinFranceisverylong(ninehoursonaverage)comparedwithothercountries(e.g.,Germany,wherethechargingtimeisaroundfourhours)andthisdoesnotfacilitateuseofthevehicle(Labeyeetal.2012).
TheideathateverydayuseoftheEVmodifiestheperceptionofrangeandchargeissuesisnotshown;however,wemustkeepinmindthatthetestedsampleisnotrepresentativeoftheFrenchpopulation.Theywerepeoplewhoalreadyhaveafavourableopinionvis-à-viselectrictechnologyandwhowerecuriousabouttheproduct(23percenthadexperiencedanEVbeforethestudy).UseofamoreheterogeneouspopulationwouldprobablyhaveshownaneffectofEVuseontheacceptanceofEVs.Inthiscase,thedailyuseoftheEVcouldbemoreinfluentialandmodifytherepresentationtheywouldhave.
Intheend,toseetheEVfeaturemoreprominentlyinourmobilitychoices,EVtechnologyandcharginginfrastructurehavetoberefinedandacceptedbypotentialowners.ItisreasonabletoassumethatEVtechnologywillcontinuetobecomeincreasinglyinnovativeinordertoovercometheproblemofrange;andfinally,thegeneralisationoftheinfrastructurewouldpotentiallyreducepurchasecost,whichremainsundeniablyamajorproblem.
Acknowledgements
WearegratefultoBMWGermanyandBMWFranceforprovidinguswiththeopportunitytoconductthisstudy.Inparticular,wethankMichaelaLuehr,RomanVilimek,MichaelHajesch,MaximillianSchwalmandJean-MichelCavretandhiscolleaguesfortheirsupport,andfortheirinputtotheproject.WethankalsocolleaguesfromCEESAR,fortheirimportantroleinrecruitingparticipantsandcollectingthedataforthisstudy;inparticular,JulienAdrian,AnnieLangloisandReakkaKrishnakumar.Finally,wethankJulienDelaitre,MagaliePierre(EDF)andJulienAugerat(Veolia)fortheirsupport.
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Chapter12User-CentredDesignandEvaluationasaPrerequisitefortheSuccessofDisruptiveInnovations:AnElectric
VehicleCaseStudyRomanVilimekandAndreasKeinath
BMWGroup,Germany
Abstract
Introducingelectromobilityandtransportationtocustomerscanbeapotentiallydisruptiveinnovation.TomakethisinnovationsuccessfulandtodesigntheBMWi3,theBMWGroup’sfirstpurpose-builtelectricvehicle,weappliedacustomer-centreddevelopmentandevaluationcycletobridgethegapbetweenearlyadoptersandlateadopters.Inthispaper,theresultsoffundamentalfieldtrialstodefineandverifybasiccustomerrequirementsarereportedwheretheBMWGroupgatheredalotofinformationaboutusageofelectricvehiclesinareal-worldsetting.Theseresultshavebeenincorporatedindevelopmentandhavebeencontinuouslytestedandevaluatedbycustomers.Webelievethattheresultsofthiscustomer-orienteddevelopmentprocesswillcontributesignificantlytomakethepotentiallydisruptiveinnovationofelectromobilityasuccessintermsofdriveracceptance.
Customer-CentredDevelopmentasaMeanstoEnsureDriverAcceptance
In1908whenthefirstFordModelTvehicleswereproduced,theinternalcombustionenginevehiclecouldnotgenerallybedescribedasadisruptiveinnovationasithadbeenaroundwellbeforethisdate.Bydefinition,disruptiveinnovationsdefineanewmarket,arerevolutionary,butnotevolutionary,andtypicallycomeupwithnewcustomersegments(Christensen2012).However,whatisdescribedasadisruptiveinnovationwasthattheFordModelTmadetheinternalcombustionenginevehicleaffordable,andthereforecompletelychanged
individualtransportation(ChristensenandRaynor2003).EvenbeforetheFordModelT,therewereelectricvehicles;evenelectriccabshadbeenseenonthestreetsofNewYorkandBostonandothercitiesaround1896(Kirsch1997).However,theprinciplebehindthecompletelynewapproachofBMWi,thenewsub-brandoftheBMWGroup,isadisruptiveinnovationwithpotentialtochangethewholemarket.BMWiwillnotonlyintroducenewvehicleconceptsliketheall-electricpurpose-designedBMWi3.Itwillalsoputamajorfocusonsustainablemobilitybyfocussingnotonlyonthevehicleitselfbutalsobyredesigningtheentirevaluechain.AdditionallyBMWiwillintroduceinnovativemobilityservicesanddeveloptechnologicalinnovationslikefastchargingtoensurethesuitabilityofelectricvehiclesforthecustomer’severydayneeds.
Whilethereexistsawholebodyofliteratureonhowtoinnovateandhowtogenerateideasforproductinnovations,thereismuchlessinformationonhowtoaccompanythedevelopmentofadisruptiveinnovationtoachievemaximumuseracceptanceandcustomersatisfaction.Inotherwords,wewillfocusinthispaperonhowtocarryoutuser-centredproductevaluationevenifitisaboutaradicaltechnologicalinnovationthatwillchangeagooddealofacustomer’severydaybehaviour.Standardtheoriesandmodelsoftechnologyacceptanceareonlyoflimitedusehere,astheydonotgiveadescriptiveapproachastohowtodouser-centreddevelopment.Hence,oneofthebest-knownmodelsfortechnologyacceptancebyDavis(1993)onlystatesthatperceivedusefulnessandperceivedeaseofusearecrucialfortechnologyacceptanceintermsofactualuseoftheproduct.However,themodeldoesnotdescribehowtoachieveusefulnessandeaseofusefromadeveloper’spointofview,especiallywhenitcomestosuchacomplexsystemastransportationanduseofelectricvehicles(EVs).Inhisbook,TheInvisibleComputer,DonaldNorman(1998)combinesinsightsfromhowdisruptiveinnovationschangewholemarketswiththetheoryabouthowearlyadoptersleadmarketacceptancebeforelateadoptersjoinin.Itiscrucialforinnovationstobridgethegapbetweenearlyadoptersandlateadopterstobecomeasuccess(Moore1991).Normanstatesthatthisgapcanonlybebridgedbyproductsthatarecustomer-drivenorhuman-centredandprovidegoodvaluewithagooduserexperience.Figure12.1,takenfromNorman(1998),showsthechangefromtechnology-drivenhightechnologythatattractsearlyadopterstocustomer-drivenusercentredtechnologythatattractslateadopterswhoareresponsibleforthesuccessofaproductinnovation.Inemphasisingtheimportanceofuserexperienceandusabilityofaproducttobecomeasuccess,NormancomesclosetothebasicnotionsofDavis’s(1993)acceptancemodelthatstatesthesesamefactorsasbeingcrucialfortechnology
acceptance.However,thecombinationofbothmodelsgivesclearadviceforanybody
workingonhowtomakeadisruptiveinnovationsuccessfulbysuggestingtheapplicationofauser-centreddesignandevaluationapproach,eveniftheinnovationathandissomethingasbigaselectricvehiclesinamaturetransportationsystem.Thespecialchallengewithdisruptivetechnologiesiscreatingsolutionsthatareactuallyoptimisedforeverydayusage:becausethereisno‘everyday’contextyetestablishedduringsystemsdesign,aprocessisneededthatallowsintegrationofuserfeedbackinearlyphasesofthedesignbydeployingpilotusecaseswithtargetusers.Theuser-centreddesignprocessproposesexactlythisapproach.Inthefollowingwewilldescribehowweappliedthebasicuser-centreddesignprocesstoaccompanythedevelopmentofsomeaspectsoftheBMWGroup’sfirstseries-builtelectricvehicle.
Figure12.1Thetransitionfromearlyadopterstolateadoptersinrelationtotechnologydevelopment(reproducedfromDonaldA.Norman,TheInvisibleComputer:WhyGoodProductsCanFail,thePersonalComputerIsSoComplex,andInformationAppliancesAretheSolution,figure2.4,©1998MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,bypermissionofMITPress)
ApplicationoftheUser-CentredDesignFrameworkwithinthe
BMWGroupDevelopmentofElectricVehicles
User-centreddesignrequiresaboveallaverygoodunderstandingofuserrequirements.Inanearlypublicationonthissubject,Norman(1986)statesthat‘theneedsoftheusershoulddominatethedesignoftheinterface,andtheneedoftheinterfaceshoulddominatethedesignoftherestofthesystem’.Theaspect‘restofthesystem’cannotbeoveremphasisedasinmanycasesuserresearchfocusestoomuchontheproductitselfandnotenoughontheecosystemtheproductwillexistin.
InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)standard9241-210(2010),human-centreddesignforinteractivesystems,specifiesgeneralrequirementsforanyuser-centreddesignprocess.Theprocessframeworkoftheinternationalstandardcanberegardedasthecommonfoundationofmostusabilityengineeringanduserexperienceprocessmodels.Accordingtothisstandard,fourmainactivitiesmusttakeplaceduringsystemdevelopment:(1)understandandspecifythecontextofuse,(2)specifytheuserandorganisationalrequirements,(3)producedesignsolutionsthatfulfiltheserequirements,and(4)evaluatedesignsagainstrequirementsfromauser’sperspective.Iterationloopsmayapplyinanystageoftheprocess.
Onthisbasis,weappliedthewholecycleofiterativedesignandevaluationseveraltimeswithdifferentlevelsofgranularity:usercontextwasanalysedbyliteratureresearchaswellasdoinginterviewswithexpertsfromtransportation.Thehuman–machineinterface(HMI)wasevaluatedwithprototypesindrivingsimulatorsaswellasusingroadtrials.However,themostfundamentalstepwasconductinginternationalfieldtrialswithelectricvehicleswithcustomerstoanalysewhatdesigndecisionsarenecessarytomeettherequirementsofearlyadoptersaswellaslateadoptersandtomakethisinnovationsuccessful.WewillfocusinthischapteronthegroundbreakinginternationalfieldtrialsonelectricvehicleusagethatwereundertakentodefineuserrequirementsfortheBMWGroup’snewelectricvehicleBMWi3.
TheBMWGrouplaunchedtwokeylearningprojectsinpreparationfortheBMWi3.ThefirststepinthisprojectwastheMINIEwhichwasspecificallydevelopedforfieldtrialswithcustomersanddeployedinseveraltestsitesworldwide.ThesecondstepwastheintroductionoftheBMWActiveEthatservesprimarilytodoresearchonEV-relatedtechnology,infrastructure,chargingsolutionsandserviceprocesses.ItalsoplayedasignificantrolebyprovidingthebasisforevaluationiterationsinuserresearchonEVspecificfunctions.
Figure12.2Thecustomer-centreddevelopmentprocessasimplementedbytheBMWGroup’sconceptqualitydepartment
AnalysingUserRequirements:TheMINIEFieldTrials
TheMINIEisaconversionoftheMINIcooperandfocusesongainingcustomerexperienceandcustomers’requirements.Thevehiclefeaturesa204hpelectricmotor,atorqueof220Nmanda35kWhlithium-ionbattery(28kWhavailable).Inrealterms,anddependingonthedrivingstyle,theMINIE’srangeisroughly160km(100miles).Chargingwitha32Amperewallboxtakesabout3.8hours.Withaconventionalplug,using12Ampereand240volts,about10.1hoursareneededforafullcharge(from0to100percent).
UnderstandinghowEVsareusedinreal-worldscenarioshassubstantiallyadvancedduringthesefieldtrials.Thestudywasplannedtoprovideanswerstokeytopics,liketheprofileofcustomerscurrentlyinterestedindrivingEVsaswellastheirexpectationsandmotives.Objectivelong-termEVusagepatternsonaday-to-daybasiswereanalysedincombinationwiththeusers’subjectivejudgementsonlikesanddislikesaboute-mobility1ingeneral,andonspecificvehiclecharacteristicoftheMINIEindetail.
TheMINIEtrials,involvingmorethan600vehiclessince2009,havebeencarefullyplannedandexecutedbytheBMWGroupincooperationwithpublic,
privateanduniversityaffiliates.ThestudywasconductedintheUnitedStates,Germany,theUnitedKingdom,France(seealsoChapter11inthisvolume),JapanandChina.Atthebeginningof2012,morethan15,000peoplehaveappliedworldwidetobetestcustomerssincethebeginningofthetrials.Morethan16millionkilometres(10millionmiles)drivenbyrealcustomershavebeenlogged.AsubsetoftheMINIEcustomers,430privateusers,tookpartinin-depthinterviewsandresearchactivities.Togetherwithnumeroususersof14fleetcompanies,theseprivatehouseholdcustomersweresurveyedbyatotalof15researchinstitutionsintheparticipatingsixcountries.TheinternationalMINIEfieldtrialsendedinearly2012.UntilOctober2013,theMINIEisstillontheroadinseverallocalprojectsinGermanytoaddressspecialresearchtopicsidentifiedduringthefieldtrialsandishelpingtoshedlightone-mobilityinruralregions,togainafirst-handinsightintocustomergroupsbeyondearlyadopters,andtoanalyseindetailcustomers’drivingandenergyefficiencypatternswhenusingEVsandcombustionenginevehiclesindirectcomparison.
ThecompilationofdatafromtheMINIEfieldtrialshasyieldedarguablythemostextensiveresultsregardingeverydayusageofelectricvehiclesworldwide.Theseresultsformthebasisofearly-phaseuserinputonthecontextofuse.Inthefollowingparagraphs,ashortdescriptionofthemethodsusedinthestudywillbegiven,aswellasselectedresults.Theexampleswilldepicthowearlycustomerfeedbackfounditswayintothedevelopmentcycle.
Methods
ThefirststepsinthefieldtrialoccurredinJune2009intheUnitedStatesandinGermany.CustomersinNewYorkandtheNewJerseyregionaswellascustomersinLosAngelesrentedtheMINIEforatleastoneyear.With240vehiclesinfleetusageand246privatecustomers,theUSstudyformedthelargestsample.TheUniversityofCaliforniaatDaviscarriedoutthescientificresearchwiththehouseholdcustomersandindetailwith54ofthose.Oftheremainingprivatehouseholds,72customerstookpartinasurveythatallowedforinternationalcomparisonswiththeothermarketsinvolved.CustomersintheEuropeanandAsianfieldtrialsheldtheirEVtypicallyforsixmonths.InBerlin,Germany,atotalof110privatecustomerstookpartintwoseparatetestphasesthatwerescientificallymonitoredbytheChemnitzUniversityofTechnology.AnadditionalfieldtrialinMunichinvolved26privatecustomers.Moreover,52vehiclesweredeployedinfleetsduringtheGermantrials.France(Paris)andtheUK(Oxford,London)werefurthertestsitesinEuropewith50privateusers/25fleetvehiclesand40privateusers/20fleetvehicles,respectively.Research
fleetvehiclesand40privateusers/20fleetvehicles,respectively.ResearchpartnersweretheFrenchInstituteofScienceandTechnologyforTransport,DevelopmentandNetworks(IFSTTAR)andtheOxfordBrookesUniversity.TheAsiantrialsstartedlastinearly2011inChina(Beijing,Shenzhen)with50privateusers/25fleetvehiclesand28privatecustomers/sixfleetvehiclesinJapan(Tokyo,Osaka).ResearchcooperationpartnersincludedtheChineseAutomotiveTechnologyandResearchCenter(CATARC),themarketresearchcompanyINSinBeijing,theWasedaUniversityinTokyo,Japan,andtheJapanesemarketresearchcompanyIIDInc.Followingtheexplicitwishofcustomers,thestudywascontinuedafterashortinterruptionfollowingtheGreatEastJapanEarthquakeinMarch2011.
TheBerlinprojectscanberegardedastheblueprintfortheMINIEtrialsintermsofmethodology.TheInstituteofCognitiveandEngineeringPsychologyattheChemnitzUniversityofTechnologyhascontributedtheirexpertiseinhuman-machineinteractionanduserresearchforin-vehiclesystems.TheInstituteofTransportationStudiesattheUniversityofCaliforniaatDavishasalongtraditioninexploringalternativefuelvehiclesandplug-inhybridelectricvehicles.TogetherwiththesepartnersamethodstoolsetwasestablishedthatwasusedinsimilarforminallfollowingMINIEprojects.ThisbasicsetofmethodsisdescribedindetailinKremsetal.(2010),Bühleretal.(2011)andCocronetal.(2011).
Potentialcustomersinterestedinparticipatinginthetrialappliedviaanonlineapplicationformandhadtosupplyinformationaboutrelevantaspectsofsocio-demographicandpsychographicbackground.Certaincriteriawereaprerequisitetobeincluded(e.g.,tobewillingtoactuallyusethecaronaregularbasisandtobewillingtopayamonthlyleasingfee).Afterbeingselectedforthestudy,participantstookpartintelephoneinterviewsaskingabouttheirmotivationandattitudes.Interviewswerehelddirectlybeforethecustomersreceivedthevehicle,afterthreemonthsofusageandattheendoftheleasingperiod.Theinterviewswereface-to-facewheneverpossible;orifnotpossible,bytelephoneandsupplementedwithonlinequestionnaires.Travelandchargingdiarieshelpedustogainadeeperunderstandingaboutmobilityneedsandcharginghabits.Objectiveusagedatawasgatheredwithonboarddata-loggersthatrecordedvariablesliketriplength,speed,acceleration,frequencyanddurationofchargingandbatterystatus.Dataonthevehicle’sGPSpositionwerenotcollected.InGermany,France,theUnitedKingdomandChinaalargeproportionoftheMINIEswereequippedwiththesedataloggers.IntheUnitedStatesdataondrivingdistanceswerereadfromACPropulsionchips,whichatleastallowderivationofbasicaveragevalues.Thedrivingdatawerecompared
withacontrolgroupofprivatelyowned,conventionallypowered,vehicleswhichparticipatedinaBMWGroupresearchprogram.
Inafieldstudyofthismagnitudeandtimeframeitisnotpossibletokeepallconditionsconstant,likeinacontrolledexperiment.Thefieldofe-mobilityhasundergonemajorchangesduringthelastthreeyearsthatmadeitnecessarytoaddperpetuallynewquestionstotheinterviews.Itprovedtobeextremelydifficulttotranslateallquestionsinaninterculturallyprecisewayintothedifferentcontexts.Therefore,itwasnotrealistictoapproachallcountrieswithexactlythesamesetofinterviewitems.Additionally,importanteventsandmajorincidentsduringthefieldtrialscanbepresumedtodirectlyinfluencelivesofthefieldtrialparticipantsliketheearthquakeandnucleardisasterinJapan,thepublicdebatesonfuelshortage,sustainablemobility,CO2andrenewableenergyaswellasongoingchangesintransportandenvironmentalpolicy.Althoughallcarewasexercisedtotaketheseeffectsintoaccountinthedesignandinterpretationofthestudy,acertainimprecisionisinherentinthefieldtrialmethod.Thus,numericalvalues(percentageagreement)shouldbeinterpretedastendenciesand,hence,onlydescriptivestatisticsarepresented.PercentagevaluesrefertoanswersonaLikertscalefromone(donotagreeatall)tosix(fullyagree).Thetopthreevaluesaregroupedas‘agreement’,thebottomthreevaluesas‘disagreement’.
UserMotivationsandExpectations
Thehighnumberofapplicants(500–3,500percountryperphase)providinginformationabouttheirbackground,allowsavalidrepresentationoftheEVearlyadopterprofile:typicalapplicantsweremale(approximately80percent),around40yearsold(exceptforChina:meanage33),andwelleducatedwithabove-averageincomeandhighself-reportedaffinityfornewtechnology.
Themostimportantmotivationforparticipationwastoexperienceanewcleanandsustainabletechnology.Bothfactorswereequallyimportant.Thistightcombinationofmotivationalinfluencesisbestreflectedintheterm‘sustainabilitymeetstechnology’.EspeciallyintheUnitedStatesitwasalsoimportanttogainindependencefrompetroleumandtofocusonthereductionoflocalemissions.DetailsontheUScustomers’motivationsaredescribedinTurrentineetal.(2011).
BeforeactuallydrivingtheMINIE,themajorityofusersexpectedtobeconstrainedbytherangeandthemissingcargoandback-seatpassengerspace.Between19–60percentofusersassumedthattheywouldhavetoadapttheirmobilitybehaviour.However,theywerelargelyconvincedthattheywereableto
mobilitybehaviour.However,theywerelargelyconvincedthattheywereabletosatisfytheirdailymobilityneeds(between88–100percentagreementrates).
DrivingExperiences
UsagepatternsineverydaymobilitybehaviourdonotdifferconsiderablybetweentheMINIEandcombustionenginevehiclesinthesamevehiclesegment.ComparingtheMINIEdrivingdatatoBMW116iandMINICooperdailydrivingdistances,thedifferencesfoundarerathersmallwithMINIEdriversinmostlocationsusingtheircarforevenlargerdistances.Thedailydrivingdistanceinthecontrolgroupaddsupto43.4km/27.0miles(MINICooper)and42.0km/26.1miles(BMW116i).TheMINIEdriversinFranceusedtheirEVonaverage44.2km(27.5miles)perday,intheUK47.8km(29.7miles),inGermany38.6km(24.0miles)andinChina49.0km(30.4miles).Forthesemarkets,detailsonthedailydrivingdistancewereavailablefromthedatalogger.IntheUnitedStatessimilarpatternsarosewith50.9km(31.6miles)onWestCoasttestsitesand46.7km(29.0miles)ontheEastCoast.ItisworthwhilecomparingthesedatatomobilitystudiesliketheMiDstudythatanalysedthemobilityneedsincludingallmeansoftransportationinGermany.Accordingtotheseresults,theoverallmobilityneedforanaveragecitizensumsupto39km(24.2miles)perday(Follmeretal.2010).TheUSNationalHouseholdTravelSurveyreportsthatanaveragepersontravels58.1km(36.1miles)perday(Santosetal.2009).BothstatisticsareremarkablyclosetotheusagepatternoftheMINIE.
DetailedinformationaboutdailydrivingdistancefromdataloggersaredepictedinFigure12.3.Clearly,thedifferencesbetweentheMINIEsandtheconventionallypoweredvehiclesfromthesamesegmentareverysmall.Moreimportantly,thedrivingpatternsofthe1SeriesBMWandtheMINICooperliewellwithintherangetypicalEVscanprovide.Ofcourse,therearealsousecasesthatcannotbefulfilledusingapurebatteryelectricvehicle.Forinstance,thedrivingdistancesofa5SeriesDiesel,whichwasalsopartofthestudyofBMWGroup’sdataloggerteam,clearlycannotbecoveredwitharangelikethatoftheMINIE.Therefore,itcanbeexpectedthatusagepatternsforcustomersbuyingfullEVswillresembletheusescenariosofthe(quitevoluminous)ownergroupofcompactcars.
BasedontheMINIEdrivers’subjectiveestimations,andvalidatedwithtraveldiarydata,thecustomerswereabletoundertakeabout80percentofintendedtripswiththeMINIE.Thesatisfactionofmobilityneedsrangesbetweena77percentminimum(China)andan84percentmaximum(France),
withanaveragevalueoverallcountriesof82percent.Thiscanbeincreasedonaveragetoupto91percentoverallcountriesiftheMINIEdidnothavetheconversionvehicledrawbacksofbeingonlyatwo-seaterwithoutanadequatecargoorluggagecompartmentintheboot.Ontheonehand,theseresultsimplythatOriginalEquipmentManufacturers(OEMs)willneedtooffertheircustomersaccesstoinnovativemobilitysolutionsiftheywanttousetheirEVastheonlymeansofindividualtransportintheirhouseholds.Ontheotherhand,itclearlydemonstratesthatapurpose-builtEVwiththerangeoftheMINIEwillbesufficientfornolessthan90percentofmobilityneeds,whichisanextraordinaryresultconsideringthearticulatedscepticismabouttherangeofEVsforeverydayusage.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatespeciallyinwintertheMINIE’srangewasnotalwaysavailable.Ifthebatteriesgottoocold,rangewassignificantlyreducedorthevehiclewasnotabletooperateasdemandedinfreezingtemperaturesduringwinter.Thereasonforthisdrawback,whichthecustomersalsocriticised,wasthethermalmanagementoftheMINIE’sconversionvehiclebatterysystemrelyingonaircoolingonly.
Figure12.3AccumulatedMINIEandcombustionenginevehicledailydrivingdistances
WhenaskedfordesiredrangeoptionsforfutureEVs,customerstypicallydemandrangeslike200–250km(125–155miles).Itisinterestingtoseethatthisis,ofcourse,muchlessthantherangeofacombustionenginevehicle.ExperiencedEVcustomerstakeintoaccountthathigherrangescomewithhigherprices.Thismayhavemoderatedtheirdemand.Evenmoreinterestingisthat,evenwiththisadditionalrange,theywouldnotbeabletocoverthe
remaining10percentofmobilityneeds.Sothedemandformorerangeseemstoreflectinsomewaysthewishforakindofsafetybufferinrange,asmostcustomersrechargetheirbatteryevidentlybeforethestateofchargeapproachesverylowvalues.Frankeetal.(2011)addaveryinterestingperspectivetothis.TheyanalysedhowcustomersexperiencethelimitedrangeinanEVandhowthisisrelatedtoothervariables,notablystress.Theywereabletoshowthatuserscanindeedadapttolimitedrange,butthattheyutilisetheavailablerangesub-optimally.Certainpersonalitytraitsandcopingskillsmoderatedtheexperienceofcomfortablerange.Frankeetal.(2011)concludethatitmaybepossibletochangethepersonalfeelingstowardsrangebyprovidingknowledgebackground,trainingandsuitabledriverinformationsystems.Inconsequence,thismayallowallEVdriverstousetheavailablerangetoitsfullextent.
OnelessonlearntintheMINIEfieldtrialswasalsothatcustomersneedasimpleandverydirectwayofextendingtheavailablerangeinunforeseensituations.Manydriversreportedthattheyoftentriedtoreduceenergyconsumptionwhenbatterystategotlowbydrivingmorecarefullyandbyswitchingoffenergy-consumingcomfortfunctionslikeheating,ventilationortheradio.However,theydidnotknowforsurewhichactionintermsofswitchingoffdeviceshadwhicheffectandhowoptimallytheyperformedindrivingefficientlyoriftheystilldrovetoofastormaybeevenunnecessarilyslowly.ThissituationisalreadyaddressedintheBMWActiveE.TheECOPROmodeassistsdriversinreducingenergyconsumption.Theaccelerationbehaviourischanged,energysupplyforauxiliarysystemsisflattenedandthedriverisprovidedwithhintsifaccelerationorvelocityistoohigh.ResultingusagepatternsandcustomerfeedbackwillbesubjecttoanalysisintheBMWActiveEuserstudies.
TheavailablerangeofanEV,inrealterms,incomparisonwithacombustionenginevehicle,ismuchmoredependentondrivingstyleandontheabilityofthedrivertouseadvancedefficiencyfeatureslikeregenerativebraking.Regenerativebrakingreferstousingtheelectricmotorasagenerator,thusrecapturingenergyotherwiselostduringbraking,coastingordownhilldriving.ThefunctionisintegratedintheacceleratorpedalintheMINIE.Liftingthefootquicklyfromthepedalleadstoquitestrongdecelerationof-2.25m/s2,whichalsotriggersthebrakinglightstowarnfollowingtraffic.Thisdiffersfrommostelectricorhybridvehiclesandallowsthecartobedriven,basically,withonlyonepedal,activatingthebrakesonlyincasesofverystrongoremergencybrakingevents.FordetailsonlongitudinaldynamicsrefertoEberletal.(2012).Regenerativebrakingcanbeapowerfultoolextendingtheavailablerange,butit
waslargelyunclearwhethercustomerswouldaccepttheimplementationintheacceleratorpedalandiftheywouldbewillingtouseitortrytoavoidit.Therefore,thelong-termevaluationofregenerativebrakingwasoneofthemostimportantfieldstudygoals.Thecustomerfeedbackwasastonishing.Between92percent(China,Japan)andnearly100percent(Germany,UnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,France)ofcustomersstatedthattheylikedtobeabletocontrolthevehiclewithjustonepedal.Theyestimatedusingregenerativebrakingin78percentto92percentofallbrakingevents,whichmirrorsalmostexactlytheobjectivedataderivedfromdataloggers.Indetail,thecustomerfeedbackpointedoutthattheMINIE’shighdrivingperformancecombinedwithregenerativebrakingprovidedanewformofsportydrivingandallowed,atthesametime,theabilitytoexperienceefficientdrivingandenergysavinginaveryimmediateway.‘Single-pedaldriving’became,formostcustomers,almostgame-like.Tryingtostopateveryredtrafficlightwithouttouchingthebrakeswasaverycommonpattern.Usingregenerativebrakingthiswaymayevenincreasetrafficsafetyasitisnecessarytoexerciseanticipatorydrivingtobeabletomastersingle-pedaldriving.Turrentineetal.(2011)discussthesebehaviouralpatternsandpotentialfactorstobeadjustedinregenerativebrakingtoenhancetheexperience.
Fromtheusers’pointofview,thelackofenginenoiseis–besidesregenerativebraking–oneofthemoststrikingfeaturesindrivingEVs.DriversstateunanimouslythattheylikedthequietoperationoftheMINIE(agreementinquestionnaireitemswasbetween95percentand100percent).EspeciallycustomersinFrance(57percent)andChina(65percent)ratedthequietinteriortobeahighlyrelevantcomfortfactorthatwouldevenjustifyasomewhathighervehiclepriceifpushedtothemaximum,whileintheothercountriesthelevelofquietnessalreadyachievedseemstobesatisficing(loweragreementratesforthedemandofanevenquieterinteriorrangefrom19percentto32percent).However,whenitcomestothelowoutsidenoiselevelsduetomissingenginesounds,concernsaboutthepotentialdangerofsilentdrivingareoftenexpressedinpublicdiscussion.Askedfortheiropinion,MINIEdriversindifferentcountriesreportdifferentexperiences.Generally,lowerconcernsareexpressedinEurope.WhilehalfoftheGermandrivers(50percent)atthebeginningofthefieldtrialsseeapotentialdangerinnotbeingheardatlowspeeds,thereisasubstantialreductionwithgrowingexperience,to16percentattheendofthetrial.InFrance,thefiguresaresomewhathigherbutthereisstillareductionfrom62percentto50percent.ThesituationisdifferentinAsia.Chinesecustomersstartwithaverylowestimationofpotentialdifficultiesassociatedwithsilentdriving(27percent)thatincreasesoverthetrialto69percent.InJapan,theestimationisalreadyveryhighatthebeginning,with74percent,and
Japan,theestimationisalreadyveryhighatthebeginning,with74percent,anddecreasesonlymarginallytothesamelevelasinChina,69percent.ItisquitelikelythatthetrafficsituationsintheAsianmega-citiesaccountfortheseriskestimations.AlsoinEurope,thetrafficdensityinParisismuchhigherthaninMunichorBerlin.
ChargingExperiences
Generally,thereisasteeplearningcurveduringthefirstonetotwoweeksofEVusage.WhilethereisnoproblematallwithusingthevehicletogetfromAtoB,usersdevelopexpertiseinsomeareasofEVdriving,likeusingregenerativebraking.Thisexpertiseismoststronglyreflectedinchargingbehaviour.MostinexperiencedEVdriverstendtochargetheirvehicleeverytimetheygetthechancetowithoutreflectingtheirrealrangeandchargingneeds.Atthesametime,mostdriversofconventionalvehiclesdonotthinkmuchabouttheirdailymobilityneeds.WhenusinganEVanddealingwiththelimitedrange,theMINIEdriverstypicallyrealisedthattheydonotneedthefullrangeofthebatteryeveryday.Ofcoursetherearealotofcustomerswhomakechargingeverynightwhentheyreturnhometotheirgarageahabit.Butonaverage,thedataloggersintheMINIEshowthatmostusersswitchfromdailychargingtoonlychargingonceeverytwoorthreedaysascanbeseeninFigure12.4(meanchargingeventsperweek:Germany:1.9,UK:2.9,China:2.5).ThisphenomenonisalsofoundinotherEVstudiesliketheUltraLowCarbonVehicleDemonstratorProgrammeintheUKthatalsoreportedachargingfrequencyoflessthanonceineverytwodays(Everett,Walsh,Smith,BurgessandHarris2010).Fortechnicalreasons,thedataloggerresultsfromFrancecannotbecompareddirectlytotheothermarketsreportedbelow.AstheMINIEcustomersinFrancedidnotchargeat32ampsliketheothermarkets,theirchargingdurationsweremuchlongerandtheyneededtorelyonchargingeverynight.Astheythusdidnothavethechancetoestablishadifferentchargingpattern,itisnotsurprisingtofindthatLabeyeetal.(2011)reportanaveragechargingfrequencyof5.2perweekforFrenchEVusers(seealsoChapter11inthisvolume).
ImprovingUsability:TheBMWActiveEFieldTrials
AlthoughtheBMWActiveEisalsoaconversionvehicle,basedona1SeriesCoupéandliketheMINIEproducedinsmallnumberforfieldtrials,itsarchitecturebringsimprovementsforeverydayusagewithanunaltered
passenger-compartmentspacegivingaccesstofourfullyfledgedseatsandwitha200-litreluggagecompartment.Thecarisabletoacceleratefrom0to100km/hinninesecondswithapoweroutputof170hpandatorqueof250Nm.RangeandchargingdurationarecomparabletotheMINIE.However,asthenewlyconceivedlithium-ionenergystorageunits,likethedrivetrainapre-productionversionoftheBMWi3,haveacooling/heatingsystemthattemperstheliquidinthestoragehousingunit,thebatterycanbeheldingoodoperatingtemperaturesincoldaswellasinhotenvironments.ThisenablestheBMWActiveEbatterysystemtocompensateforloworhighoutsidetemperaturesmuchbetterthantheMINIEdid.
Figure12.4Chargingfrequencyperweekinmarketswith32ampswallbox
Atestfleetofmorethan1,000BMWActiveEvehiclesservestodeepentheknowledgegainedintheMINIEstudy.Researchfocusinthesefieldtrialsisshiftedtowardstechnologicalinnovationsandtechnicalcomponents.Ofcourse,allstandarddevelopmenttestprocedureswereperformedbeforehandingoverthevehicletocustomers,butvaliddataonlong-termperformanceofEVcomponentscanonlybegatheredwhenanalysingallpossibleeverydaysituations.TheinvolvementofpilotcustomersensuresthatusagescenariosarealsocoveredthatarecurrentlyunknowntoengineersbecauseofthestilltoosmallknowledgeonEVcustomerbehaviour.Furthermore,theBMWActiveEcanbeseenasaniterationstepincustomercentreddesignofelectricvehicles.
canbeseenasaniterationstepincustomercentreddesignofelectricvehicles.InnovativefunctionsspecificallydesignedforEVsareimplementedforthefirsttimeinaBMW.WhereastheMINIEstudiesaimedatlearningaboutfundamentalaspectsofeverydaylifewithEVs,userstudiesconductedwiththeBMWActiveEwillbeorientedtowardsausabilitytestingapproachofthesenewfeatures.Forinstance,preconditioningallowscustomerstocoolorheatthebatteriesandthevehicleinteriorbeforestartingatrip,reducingenergyconsumptionsignificantlywhiledriving.SpecialmenusintheCentralInformationDisplayallowcontrolofadvancedEVfunctionslikeprogrammingachargetimer.Newlydesignedinformationdisplaysareavailablethatschematicallyrepresentvehicleenergyflowsinordertomaketheelectricdrivingexperiencebetterperceptibleandcomprehensible.ThealreadymentionedECOPROmodecanbeactivatedbyasimplebuttonpressinthecentreconsoleandisintendedtomakeenergysavingeasierifnecessary:theacceleratorpedalcharacteristicischanged,deliveringlesspower,andsystemslikeairconditioningareturneddown.SeveralEV-relatedfunctionsarealsoavailableremotelyviasmartphoneappslikemonitoringthechargingprogressoractivatingpreconditioning.BMWConnectedDrivefunctionsdonotonlyallowintegrationofsmartphoneappsandInternet-basedfunctionslikeachargingstationlocatorinthevehicle,italsoservesasafeedbackchannelfordatarecordedduringthefieldtrials.Ofcourse,onlydevelopment-relateddatalikethedistancetravelledormaximumvehiclerangeafterchargingarecollectedandanonymityofrecordeddataisguaranteedatalltimes.
FieldtrialswiththeBMWActiveEstartedattheendof2011inGermanywith15privateand15corporatecustomers.Additionalvehiclesarepartofgovernmentallyfundedresearchprojectsfrom2013onwards.Attheendofthetrials,about190vehicleswillhavecontributedtoprojectsinGermany.Withthebeginningof2012,about700BMWActiveEvehiclesformthelargesttestfleetintheUnitedStateswheretheywillnotonlyprovideinsightsinuserexperiencebutalsoinsalesandhandlingprocessesandserviceinfrastructuredemandsforhighernumbersofelectricvehicles.About100BMWActiveEcarswillbegintheirdutyin2013inChina.AdditionalvehiclesareontheroadinFrance,theUnitedKingdom,theNetherlands,Italy,Switzerland,SouthKoreaandJapan.
ResearchprojectswithdirectcustomerfeedbackaremainlycarriedoutintheUS,GermanyandChina.TheearlystudyinBerlinusedamorequalitativeapproachtopreparesurveyswithastrongerquantitativecomponentintheUnitedStatesandinChina.WithdatafromGermanyandthefirstpreliminarydatafromtheUS,wewillshowthroughtheexemplaroftheECOPROmodehowtheresultsofthesestudiesaretransferredtoseriesdevelopment.
BMWActiveEQualitativePilotStudy
ThefirstBMWActiveEuserstudywith15privatecustomers(14male,1female,averageage46)wasundertakenbetweenDecember2011andMarch2012.TenofthesecustomerswereformerMINIEdrivers.ScientificcooperationpartnersweretheChemnitzUniversityofTechnologyandthepsychologicallyorientedmarketresearchagencySpiegelInstitutMannheim.DuetothenoveltyofseveralfeaturesoftheBMWActiveE,itwasimportanttogetverydirect,unbiasedfeedbackoftheassociateduserexperience.Therefore,thestudydesignprovidedthecustomerswithseveralopportunitiestosharetheiropinions.Athree-phaseresearchprocedurebeganwithopentelephoneinterviewsfourweeksafterhavingthevehicleshandedovertotheusers.Inthisearlystageofvehicleexperience,customersfreelystatedtheirimpressions,whatexcitedthem,whatbotheredthem.Topicsforfocusgroupdiscussionsasasecondresearchstepweredefinedpartiallyfollowingthecustomerfeedbackfromthetelephoneinterviews.Thefocusgroupstookplaceapproximatelyaftereightweeksofvehicleusage.ThemaintopicswereEVwinterusageandpreconditioninginonegroupandgeneralsystemusabilityandefficientEVdrivingintheothergroup.Attheendofthetrial,usersfinallyparticipatedinanonlinesurveywhichtooktheresultsfromboththetelephoneinterviewsandthefocusgroupdiscussionsintoaccount.
ConcerningthecaseexampleECOPROmode,itwasveryinterestingtoseethatitwasnotusedinauniformwayatall.CustomersalreadystatedinthefocusgroupsthattheirmotivesforusingECOPROweredifferent.Someofthecustomersuseditalmostalwayseitherbecausetheyneededtoastheyweredrivinglongerdistancesregularlyorsimplybecausetheywereintrinsicallymotivatedtosaveenergy.Othercustomersstatedthattheyonlyneededakindofemergencyoptioniftheyseemtoberunningoutofchargewhiledriving.Consideringtheseresults,itisnotsurprisingtofindthattheECOPROusagevariedfrom5percentto95percentshareoftotaldistancedriven.Bothextremepositionssawoptimisationpotentialforthefunctions.Onepositionwasthatthelossofcomfort(e.g.,thedeactivationofseatheating)wasratedtobetoostrong.Theotherpositionexpectedastrongereffectondrivingdynamicsandcomfortfunctionswhentheusageintentionwastomaximallyexploitaverylowbatteryrange.ThelayoutoftheECOPROmodeintheBMWActiveEwasmorestronglyorientedtowardsthelattersituation.IfusersprefertodrivewithapermanentlyactivatedECOPROmodewhileatthesametimetheoptionforan‘emergency’rangesituationmustbeavailable,twodifferentlevelsofthismodemaybettersuittherangeofusecases.Duetothesmallnumberofcasesinthe
BerlinBMWActiveEstudy,furtherevidencewasgatheredintheUSfieldtrial.
BMWActiveEQuantitativeValidationStudy
BasedonthefinalsurveythatwasshapedduringtheBMWActiveEfieldtrialinBerlinandextendedwithinsightsfromsocialmediaanalysisconductedsincethebeginningofthefieldtrials,anonlinesurveywasimplementedatthebeginningof2013addressingcustomersintheUnitedStates.
FocussingagainontheexampleofECOPROmode,firstdatabasedonN=79participantsreplicatedtheresultsfromtheBerlinfieldtrial.Figure12.5demonstratesagaintheexistenceoftwoextremeusergroupsprovidingfurthersupportfortheideatooffertwodifferentECOPROmodes:enhancedenergyefficiencyversusmaximumenergysaving.ThedistinctionbetweenthesetwomodetypesintoanECOPROandanECOPRO+modeispartoftheBMWi3developmentplan,whichwasconfirmedonthebasisofthesefieldtrialresults.
Figure12.5UsageofECOPROmodeaspercentageofdailydriving
Conclusions
Disruptiveinnovationswillonlybeasuccessiftheyareconvenientandeasytouseandmeetthecustomerrequirementsofearlyadoptersaswellasthoseoflateadopters.Researchonhowinnovationsgainmarketacceptancesuggeststhatespeciallydisruptiveinnovationsshouldbedesignedaccordingtoauser-centreddesignandevaluationapproach(Norman1998).InthispaperwedescribedhowthisapproachwasappliedtothedevelopmentoftheBMWi3electricvehicle.Theresultsfromfundamentalfieldtrialsofelectricvehicleusagehelpedindefiningcustomerrequirementsaswellasinsettingthebenchmarksforlaterandmorespecificusertesting(e.g.,testingofHMIfunctionalities).Inaddition,specificEVrelatedfunctionsliketheECOPROmode,preconditioning,remotechargingcontrolandsoonwerepioneeredintheBMWActiveEfieldtrialsinanapproachsimilartolong-termusabilitytesting,deliveringadditionalinsightsintocustomerdemandsforfutureEVs.TheserequirementswerenotonlyfedintothedevelopmentcycleasdepictedinFigure12.2,theanalysisresultswerealsotranslatedintorecommendationsforfurtheractionsanddistributedtorelevantdepartmentsinmarketingandsales,strategyandcommunication.
Severalkeydeductionscanbemadefromtheresultsreportedhere.ItbecameclearthattheavailablerangeoftheMINIEisanexcellentbasisforfutureEVsregardingthenecessarytrade-offsbetweenrequiredrangeforeverydaymobilityandcosts.However,inordertobeabletouseanEVastheonlyvehicleinthehousehold,theremaining10percentgapneedstobeclosed.Thiswillbedone,forinstance,byofferingmobilityservicesaswellasenablingtheBMWi3forfastcharging(DCcharging)toincreaseflexibility.Detailsonmobilityservices,parkingandchargingsolutionsorassistanceservicesaredescribedonhttp://www.bmw-i.com.
Thecompletelynewfeature‘single-pedaldriving’aspartoftheregenerativebrakingconceptwasidentifiedasbeingveryimportantforEVcustomers.Althoughmainlyratedasveryunusual,customersquicklydevelopednotonlyanacceptanceintermsofdrivingefficiency,theystronglylikedtheassociatedefficiencyexperienceandtheexclusivenessoftheemergingnewdrivingstyleopportunities.Therefore,ithasbeendecidedtomaintainsingle-pedaldrivingfortheseriesvehicle.
Similarlysurprising,especiallyforlong-termcombustionenginevehicleengineers,weretheresultsonEVacoustics.Thepilotcustomersdidnotmissthesoundofaconventionalengineatall.ThenewsilenceinsidetheMINIEwasoneofthemostprominentpositiveexperiences–althoughtheMINIEasaconversionvehiclewasnotyetabletoplayoutalladvantagesofasilentEVinterior.Whereasmostcustomersalsolikedthatthevehicledidnotemitanynoiseatall,somecustomersdemandedthatthereshouldbeawayofmakingan
noiseatall,somecustomersdemandedthatthereshouldbeawayofmakinganEVacousticallyperceivabletootherroadusers.Inordertokeeptheadvantagesofsilentdrivingandtofollowtherequestsofthemajorityofusers,customerswillbeabletocontroltheactiveacousticexteriorvehiclesoundifallowedbylegislationofthecountryinwhichtheEVisregistered.
AdditionalresearchwillbecarriedouttocomplementthefindingsofthesefieldtrialsalongthecustomerdevelopmentcycleasdepictedinFigure12.2.Webelievethatwiththeinformationandknowledgegatheredinthisdevelopmentcycle,wewillbeabletobridgethegapbetweenearlyadoptersandlateadoptersandmakethedisruptiveinnovationofelectromobilityasuccess.
Acknowledgements
TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgetheprojectiteamattheBMWGroup(especiallyJulianWeber,MichaelHajesch,SørenMohrandJensRamsbrock)formakingthesestudiespossible,thedata-loggerteamaroundTobiasKarspeckandKatjaGabler,theMINIEuserresearchteamaswellasAndreasKleinfromSpiegelInstitutMannheimandPeterDempsteroftheBMWGroupTechnologyOfficeUSAespeciallyfortheirvaluablecontributionstotheBMWActiveEprojects.Wewouldliketothankourinternationalresearchpartnersforbringingintheirexpertiseandforconductingtheresearchwithextraordinarycommitmentandoutstandingefforts.PartsoftheresearchreportedherewerefundedinGermanybytheFederalMinistryfortheEnvironment,NatureConservationandNuclearSafetyandbytheFederalMinistryofTransport,BuildingandUrbanDevelopment.TheMINIEUKtrialwasfundedbytheTechnologyStrategyBoard.Mostofall,onbehalfofeverybodyinvolvedintheBMWGroup’se-mobilityprojects,wewouldliketothankourpilotcustomersintheMINIEandBMWActiveEfieldtrialsfortheiroutstandingsupportofourresearchandtheirinspiringfeedback.
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Chapter13MotorcycleRiders’AcceptanceofAdvancedRider
AssistanceSystemsVéroniqueHuth
InstitutFrançaisdesSciencesetTechnologiesdesTransport,del’aménagementetdesRéseaux(IFSTTAR),Bron,France
Abstract
Motorcycleridershaveapronouncedvulnerabilityandcrashriskwithahighprevalenceofhumanerrorasacontributoryfactorincrashes.SothereappearstobesubstantialpotentialforAdvancedRiderAssistancesystemstoimprovetheirsafety.However,thebenefitofthesesystemsforridingsafetydependsonriders’responsestothem.ThischapterpresentsresearchontheacceptabilityandacceptanceofAdvancedRiderAssistanceSystems.Factorsthatinfluenceriders’acceptanceareidentifiedanddiscussed.Indicatorsoftheneedforassistancetechnologiestoenhancesafetyarecontrastedwithriders’viewsofdifferenttypesofsystems.
Introduction
Ridingamotorcycleischallenginganditcarriesparticularrisk.Ridersareclearlyover-representedamongcrashvictimsallovertheworld(Pedenetal.2004).InEurope,thedecreaseof30percentinthetotalnumberoftrafficfatalitiesfrom1999–2008contrastswithariseinmotorcyclefatalitiesby7percent(EuropeanCommission2010).Ontheotherhand,thepopularityofmotorcycleridinghasincreasedinrecentyears,mirroredbyanincreasingnumberofregisteredmotorcycles(Haworth2012).Giventheelevatedcrashriskandvulnerabilityofriders,ridingsafetyisarelevantmatterofconcern.Theprevalenceofhumanerrorasaprimarycrash-contributingfactorinmotorcyclecrashesofalmost90percent(MotorcycleAccidentsIn-DepthStudy[MAIDS]2004)suggestsfocusingmeasuresespeciallyontheridersandtheirinteractionwithotherroadusers.Accordingly,ithasbeenadvisedtoinvestigatewaysof
effectivelytargetingthehumanfactorinordertosuccessfullyimproveridingsafety(Elliott,BaughanandSexton2007).Inadditiontoadequateriderlicensing,educationandtraining,AdvancedRiderAssistanceSystems(ARAS)couldhelppreventcrashesthatinvolveorarecausedbyhumanerror.Althoughadvancedassistancesystemshavebeendevelopedmainlytoenhancecarsafety,theyhaveconsiderablepotentialformotorcyclistsaswell(Ambak,AtiqandIsmail2009),withcrashreductionestimatesreaching40percentbasedonwidespreaduseofARAS(RakotonirainyandHaworth2006).
Thefollowingsectionsprovidemoredetailedinsightsintothecrashriskandvulnerabilityofmotorcycleriders,theroleofthehumanfactorinmotorcyclecrashesandthewaysinwhichadvancedriderassistancesystemscouldcontributetotheenhancementofridingsafety.
CrashRiskandVulnerabilityofRiders
Ridersaredramaticallyover-representedinroadcrashes(e.g.,Pedenetal.2004,Haworth2012)andtherisingnumberofmotorcyclefatalitiesinmanyEuropeancountries,andworldwide,contrastswiththeoverallreductionoftrafficfatalitiesoverthelastdecade(InternationalRoadTrafficandAccidentDatabase[IRTAD]2010).Thetypicalcrashscenariosthatinvolvemotorcyclesresultfromthecharacteristicsofthevehicleandthewaytheridersuseit(e.g.,Clarkeetal.2004).Themostcommononeisthesingle-vehiclecrash,wheretheriderslosecontroloftheirvehicleinacurve(Hurt,OuelletandThom1981,MAIDS2004,TrafficAccidentCausationinEurope[TRACE]2008).Therelevanceofthiscrashscenarioissubstantiatedbyitsfrequencyandbytheparticularinjuryriskitcarries.Itholdsadoubledfatalityriskandasimilarlyincreasedprobabilityofseriousinjuriescomparedwithothermotorcyclecrashes(Clarkeetal.2004).Front-sidecrashesatintersectionsrepresentthesecondmostprominentcrashtypeformotorcyclists(Hurtetal.1981,MAIDS2004,TRACE2008).Furthertypicalaccidenttypesarerear-endcrashesandside-sidecrashes,althoughthesearenotwellrepresentedinmotorcyclecrashdatabases(TRACE2008).
Comparedwithcars,motorcyclesarefarlessstableandridersarefarlessprotectedbytheirvehiclethancardrivers.Inacrash,theriderscaneasilybethrownofftheirmotorcycleandtheirinjuryriskfarexceedstheriskcardriversfaceinacollision(Elliotetal.2007,MayouandBryant2003,Pai2011).Hence,theavoidanceofanycrashisbothvitalandchallengingformotorcyclists.Giventhatridingishighlysensitivetounfavourableconditions,thenecessarycrashpreventionmeasuresshouldnotinterferenegativelywiththecontrolofthe
motorcycle.
HumanErrorinMotorcycleAccidents
Ridingamotorcyclerequiresnotonlyahighlevelofmotor-skills,physicalcoordinationandbalance(ManneringandGrodsky1995)butalsoinvolvesaconstanthazard-monitoringtask(Haworthetal.2005).Ridersneedtobeabletoanticipateandrecogniserisk-encumberedsituationsandtochooseadequatecrashavoidancebehaviour(DEKRA2010,DiStasietal.2009).Suchhighdemandsmaketheridingtaskparticularlysusceptibletohumanerror,whichhasbeenidentifiedastheprimarycrash-contributingfactorin87.5percentofallcrashesinvolvingamotorcycle(MAIDS2004).In37.1percentofthosecrashestheriderscommittederrors,includinginappropriatespeedchoice,shortsafetyheadwaysandfailureswhenovertaking(DEKRA2010).Theremaining50.4percentconsistedofotherroad-users’errors,causedoramplifiedbythelowsensoryorcognitiveconspicuityofthemotorcycle(Brenacetal.2006,Crundalletal.2012).Althoughnotcausingthecrash,ridersmightbecontributingtotheseaccidentswiththeirridingstyleortheymightnotbeabletocarryoutsuccessfulcrashavoidancemanoeuvres(Phanetal.2010).Thisshortcominghasbeendetectedinalmost30percentofallmulti-vehiclecrashes(MAIDS2004)andmaybeinfluencedbyoverconfidenceintheriders’ownanticipatorycapacities,andbyspeed(Phanetal.2010).
ThehighprevalenceofhumanfailureinaccidentsinvolvingamotorcyclecreatesagreatpotentialforARASthatmaybedevelopedtoassistridersinmonitoringtheroadsituationforcertainhazardsandinpreventinghumanerror–relatedmotorcyclecrashes.
ThePurposeofAdvancedRiderAssistanceSystems
Assistancesystemscanbeclassifiedintoactiveandpassivesystems.Thefirstcategoryappliestotechnologiesthatinfluencecrashriskbyaimingtoavoidcrashes;thesecondcategoryreferstosystemsthatmitigatetheconsequencesofacrash(i.e.,primaryandsecondarysafetysystems,respectively).Thischapteraddressesonlyactiveassistancesystemsforriders,suchasaCurveWarningsystemorIntelligentSpeedAssistance.
Afurtherdistinctioncanbemaderegardingthewaythesesystemsinteractwiththerider.Theycaninformtherideraboutarisk-encumberedsituationbytransmittingawarningortheycanintervenedirectlyintheridingactivityinsuchsituations.
suchsituations.ARASassisttheridersinspecificsituationsthatmayrepresentathreatand
leadtoacrashintheabsenceofanappropriateadjustmentofridingbehaviour.ARAScanreduceerrorscommittedbytheridersorincreasetheriders’alertnesstopossibleerrorsofotherroadusersaswellastheirpreparednesstocompensateforthoseerrors.ThepurposeofARASistoincreasetheriders’safetymarginbyprovokingcautiousbehaviourandbyreducingreactiontimesinresponsetoapotentiallycriticalsituation.Thesesystemscaneitherbefactory-fittedbythemanufactureroravailableasafter-marketdevices.Beyondthetechnicalchallengeoffittingsuchsystemsontothemotorcycle,theuseoftheARASbytheridersisacrucialissue.Riders’acceptanceofanARASwillcontributetothesafetypotentialofthesystem,sinceitwillonlytakeeffectifridersacquirethesystem,installitontheirvehicleandactivateitduringtheirrides.Furthermore,theridersmustbewillingtouseitinthemannerintendedbythedesignersandfollowtheARASsuggestions.Asaconsequence,successfulimplementationofARAS,wheretechnicalbenefitsareeffectivelytranslatedintosafetybenefits,requiresinvestigationoftheacceptabilityandacceptancebytheridersandtheintegrationofauser-centredevaluationofthesupportsystemintothesystemdevelopmentprocessatanearlystage(cf.Bayly,HoskingandRegan2007).Furthermore,theidentificationofinfluencingfactorsonacceptanceshouldhelptoimproveARASandtocreateconditionsthatarefavourabletowidespreadsystemuse.
RiderNeeds
Theimportanceofknowledgeabouttheacceptabilityandacceptanceofassistancesystemshasbeenwidelyrecognisedandexploredintheautomotivecontext(e.g.,Vlassenrootetal.2010andelsewhereinthisbook).However,theparticularcharacteristicsofmotorcycleridingpreventitfrombeingdirectlycomparabletoothermodesoftransport;roadsafetymeasuresthatmightworkforcardriversarenotnecessarilyequallyapplicabletomotorcycleriders.Thismayalsoholdtruefortheacceptanceoftechnologiesthatrelatetotheridingactivity.ItthereforemakessensetoconsiderthenatureofridinganditspossibleimplicationsfortheacceptanceofARAS.Correspondingly,theFederationofEuropeanMotorcyclists’Associations(FEMA)adoptedapositiveattitudetowardsassistancesystemsforridersupontheconditionthatthedevelopmentofsuchasystemisdrivenbyriders’needsandconsiderstheparticularitiesoftheirvehicle(FEMA2011).
TheNatureofRiding
Themainpsychologicaldifferencesbetweenridinganddrivingconsistoftheunderlyingmotivations,theexperienceoftheactivity,theroleofriskandsocialaspects.Ridingamotorcyclehasbeendescribedasaleisureactivitythatisdrivenbyintrinsicmotivationssuchasridingsensationsratherthanextrinsicmotivationsrelatedtomobilityneeds(Broughton2008).Emotionslikethrillandfeelingsoffreedompromotetheenjoymentoftheride(BroughtonandStradling2005,Broughton2007,Haworth2012)andintensesensationsofdynamicsandcontrolcanbeachievedbytheexpressiveridingstylethatthehighmanoeuvrabilityofthevehicleallows(e.g.,Broughton2005,ManneringandGrodsky1995).Notsurprisingly,passionformotorcyclesandperformancearecommonridingmotivations(Christmasetal.2009).
Ontheotherhand,ridinginanexpressivemannerandathighspeedtoincreaseridingsensationimpliesanoteworthyriskoflosingcontrolofthebike(Broughtonetal.2009,MollerandGregerson2008).Usingtheframeworkoftheconceptsofoptimaltaskdifficulty(Fuller2005,Wilde1982)orflow(Csikszentmihalyi1997),riskcanbeunderstoodaspartoftheridingperformanceandtheridersmaytrytoadapttheriskleveloftheridingactivitytotheirownskilllevel.Fewridershavebeenidentifiedasactiverisk-seekersbutalmost50percenthavebeenidentifiedasrisk-acceptorswhoenjoyriskuptoacertainthreshold;thatis,asfarasithelpsthemtomatchtheirskillstothechallengeofriding(BroughtonandStradling2005).
Finally,ridingamotorcycleservesasamodeofself-presentationandexpression(Broughton2007).Ridingingroupsispopularandmayleadtothecreationofstrongrelationshipsamongtheriders(Tunnicliffetal.2011).Asaconsequence,specificgroupidentitiesareoftenbuiltandtheirnormsofbelief,expectationandbehaviourmayhaveaconsiderableinfluenceonthemembersofthegroup(Tunnicliffetal.2012).Thisinfluencecanbereinforcedinthosecontextswhererelevantpeoplearepresent(Parkeretal.1992).
ThesepsychologicalcharacteristicsofridingshouldbetakenintoaccountwhendevelopingARAS.Theirprobableimplicationsarepresentedinthefollowingsection.
ImplicationsforAdvancedRiderAssistanceSystems
Inviewofthemostcommonmotivationsforriding,andespeciallythesignificanceoftheridingexperience,itseemsessentialthatanassistancesystemdoesnotalterthesatisfactionofridingmotives.Theridersshouldnotbe
doesnotalterthesatisfactionofridingmotives.TheridersshouldnotbeannoyedbyunnecessaryorredundantwarningsoftheARAS,butratherbealertedinspecificsituationsthatarerelevanttoindividualridingsafety.Regardinginterferencewithridingsensations,thewarningdesignmustplayadecisiverole;theridersshouldfeelassistedratherthandisturbed.Besides,thestrongemotionalcomponentofridingmayinfluencetheridersreasoninganddecision-making.Thishasbeenshownfortheriders’intentiontospeed(Elliott2010)andmayapplytotheriders’intentiontouseanARAS.Thatiswhyparticularvalueshouldbeattachedtotheassessmentofriders’opinionsinadditiontoobjectiveindicatorsofsystemeffectiveness.
Underestimationsofthecrashriskincreasethechancesofgettingintoacriticalsituation(BellabyandLawrenson2001,ManneringandGrodsky1995),especiallyifcombinedwithanexpressiveuseofthemotorcycle.Byadjustingabiasedriskperceptioninspecificsituations,ARAScanavoidorrectifyriskyridingbehavioursthatwouldbecarriedoutwhenridingwithoutsupport.Yet,ifthethresholdsemployedbythesystemdifferexcessivelyfromtheriders’acceptedlevelsofrisk,theymayfeelannoyedanddisapproveoftheARAS.Hence,theacceptanceofanARASmightdependontheriders’awarenessofthecrashriskrelatedtothesituationthesupportfunctionhasbeendesignedfor.Nevertheless,ridersmightrejectanyARASiftheyfeelthesystemisinterveningtoomuchintheridingactivity,beitrelatedtothesensationofcedingcontroltothesystemortothepossibleriskoflosingstabilityduetosystemintervention.
Theidentitiesofridergroupsmaygiverisetoaconsiderablesocialinfluenceontheriders’choicesandopinions.Suchaneffectofthereferencegroup,‘fellowriders’,hasalreadybeenfoundinriders’intentiontospeed(Elliott2010)andcouldbefoundinothertypesofsafety-relatedbehaviour,includingtheusageofnovelARAS.
Theseimplicationsneedtobetakenintoaccountwhenanalysingriders’acceptanceofARAS,soastodeterminehowtodesignandimplementsystemsthatarecompatiblewithriderneeds.ThefollowingresultsontheacceptabilityandacceptanceofARASrepresentfirststepstowardsacquiringknowledgethatwillhelptooptimisethepotentialofARASandguideitssuccessfulimplementationasaroadsafetymeasure.
AcceptabilityofAssistiveTechnologies
BeforeintroducingordevelopingARAS,riders’attitudestowardsthepotentialassistancefunctioncanbegauged.Asseenelsewhereinthisbook,thisprocedurecanpermitconsiderationofuserneedsatanearlystage.
procedurecanpermitconsiderationofuserneedsatanearlystage.SchadeandSchlag(2003)distinguish‘acceptability’from‘acceptance’by
relatingbothconceptstotheexperienceofthesystemormeasure.Whileacceptancereferstotheusers’reactionaftertheintroductionofthemeasure,acceptabilitydenotesaprospectivejudgementofameasurethathasnotyetbeenexperienced(Vlassenrootetal.2010;seealsoChapter7inthisvolume).Thus,acceptabilityisanattitudinalconceptthatexcludesanybehaviouralorreactiveaspect.
Sincesuchmeasuresofacceptabilityrefertoaphasewheretheridershavenotyethadthechancetointeractwiththesystem,opinionsgivenbytheridersaremorehypotheticalincharacter.Giventheimportanceofacceptabilityandacceptanceofatechnologyforitsfutureimplementation(Vlassenrootetal.2010),itisneverthelessinterestingtoexploreriders’acceptabilityofARAS,andtocompareitlaterwiththeiracceptancemeasures.
AvailableResultsontheAcceptabilityofARAS
Inthissection,theresultsofthefollowingfourstudiesontheacceptabilityofARASarepresented:
1.Simpkinetal.(2007)includedriderratingsbeforesystemuseintheirtesttrialsonIntelligentSpeedAdaptation.
2.CairneyandRitzinger(2008)analysedriderviewsonIntelligentSpeedAdaptationthroughfocusgroupinterviews.
3.Afocusgroupinterviewcollectedexpertriders’opinionsonseveralARASproposedbytheEuropeanCommission’sSAFERIDERproject(Baldanzini2008).
4.WithintheEuropeanCommission’s2BESAFEproject,focusgroupinterviewsandaquestionnairesurveyonavarietyofassistanceandinformationfunctions,includingARAS,wereconductedwithriders(Lennéetal.2011,Oberladeretal.2012).
Thelasttwocoverarangeofsystems,whereasthefirsttwodealwithaspecificARAS,thatis,IntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA).Thissystemassiststheridersinkeepingtheprevailinglegalspeedlimitbyindicatingitonadisplayandemittinganalert(advisory)orapplyingacounterforceonthethrottle(intervening)whenthespeedlimitisexceeded.
ThestudyonISA(Simpkinetal.2007)revealedthatriderswerehesitantinjudgingthepotentialusefulnessofsuchsystemsbeforehavingtestedthem.
Furthermore,theyweremorereluctantindoingsoforaninterveningversionofISAthanforanadvisoryone.CairneyandRitzinger(2008)alsofoundthatriderswereratherscepticalregardingtheeffectivenessofISAinimprovingridingsafety.TheywereconcernedwiththereliabilityofthesystemandwereinthisrespectfarmorereluctanttoembraceactivespeedcontrolbytheISAthananadvisoryversionofthesystem.TheridersshowedapotentiallyhigherinterestforasystemthatwouldcombineISAwithothersupportfunctions,suchasnavigation.
ConcernsaboutthetechnicalfeasibilityofreliableARASwerealsoexpressedintheSAFERIDERfocusgroup(Baldanzini2008).AlthoughconsiderablebenefitswereexpectedespeciallyfromFrontalCollisionWarningandIntersectionSupport,theexpertswantedtotestthedevicebeforepassingtheirjudgement.Ingeneral,theyrequiredadaptivesystems,whichcanbepersonalisedaccordingtoindividualpreferencesandridingstyles,andtheyaskedfordeactivationoptionsandsimpleinterfacesinordertoavoidoverloadingtherider.
The2BESAFEstudies(Lennéetal.2011,Oberladeretal.2012)revealedthatacceptabilitymaybehigherforthosesystemsthatareperceivedasbeingmoreobviouslyuseful,especiallythosethatassisttheridersinemergencysituations.Acceptabilitywaslowerforsystemsthatinterferewithridingactivity.Specifically,AdaptiveCruiseControl,IntelligentSpeedAdaptationandLaneKeepingAssistancereceivedthelowestacceptabilityratings.Theridersexpressedconcernsaboutcedingtheresponsibilityforapartofthevehiclecontroltoasystem.Inaddition,theriderswerenotconvincedaboutthefeasibilityoffittingreliableARASonamotorcycleandtheyexpectedthecostoftechnicallyadvancedsystemswouldbetoohigh.Bycomparison,acceptabilitywashigherforsystemsthatarealreadyestablishedandtrustedastechnologicallymaturebytheriderpopulation;forexample,theAnti-lockBrakingSystem(ABS).Moreover,theriderspointedouttheirdoubtsaboutthegenuineinterestoftheindustryinenhancingridersafety;rather,theyfeltthatprovisionofsuchsystemswouldbedrivenpurelybycommercialmotivations.
Oberladeretal.(2012)concludedfromtheirstudiesthattheacceptabilityofriderassistancesystemswasratherlowcomparedwithsystemsthatareavailableforpassengercars.RiderswerescepticalaboutthesafetypotentialofARAS,sinceridersafetyoftendependsonotherroadusers’behaviourandtheirinteractionwiththeriders.Itseemedtobefar-fetchedfortheriderstoacceptthatARAScouldbebeneficialinthatcontext,andeveninscenarioswhereridersneedtoavoidorresolvecriticalinteractionsituations,theytendedtoprefernot
torelyonasystemandexpressedmoreinterestinalternativemeasures,suchasridertraining.Beyondtheconcernsaboutreliabilityofthesystem,theyfeltthesystemcouldinduceover-relianceanditsusagecouldresultinadeteriorationoftheirowncompetencestosafelymanageasituation.
Insummary,thesestudiesofacceptabilitysuggestthatridersaregenerallyreluctanttoacceptARAS,anattitudethatmaybeincontrastwithexpertopinion.Theyhesitatetoputtrustintheireffectivenessandaremorelikelytorejectsystemsthattakeoverpartoftheridingtask.TheopinionsexpressedbytheridersfavouredridertrainingratherthanassistancebyARAS.
FactorsThatInfluencetheAcceptabilityofARAS
The2BESAFEsurveyidentifiedsomefactorsthathelpedtodistinguishbetweenriderswhoexpressedlowerandhigheracceptabilityofassistancesystems.AswastobeexpectedaccordingtoSchlag’s(1997)assumptionofproblemawarenessasanecessaryconditionfortheacceptanceofcorrespondingsafetymeasures,riderswhoperceivedriskasadownsideofridingweremorelikelytobelongtothehigheracceptabilitygroup.Likewise,riderswhoseprincipalridingmotivewasfunshowedlessacceptabilityofassistancesystems.Interestingly,ahigheracceptabilityofassistancesystemswasfoundforriderswhoreportedmorerisk-takingbehaviourandattitudes.Itseemsthattheseridersrecognisetheirhigherneedforassistance.However,self-reporteddatacaneasilybebiasedandriderswhorejectassistancecouldunderstatetheirriskbehaviourinordertoavoidcognitivedissonancethatwouldresultfromadmittingriskybehaviourwhilerejectingsafety-enhancingmeasures.
Thesurveyrevealedthatdirectexperiencewithassistancesystemswasveryrareamongtheriders.Exposuretothesystemsmaywellleadtochangesintheirattitudeanditisnecessarytoassessacceptanceoncetheridershavetestedthem.
AcceptanceofAdvancedRiderAssistanceSystems
Theapproachtoresearchontheacceptanceofnewtechnologiesisunderpinnedbyarangeoftheoriesandconcepts,resultinginavarietyofmeasurementprocedures(Schade2005,Adell2009,andelsewhereinthisbook).
SchadeandSchlag(2003)defineacceptanceasusers’attitudesandbehaviouralreactionsaftertheintroductionofameasure.However,acceptanceneedstobemeasuredduringthedevelopmentprocessofasystem,soastobenefitfromtheusers’feedbackforsystemimprovement.Althoughusage
behaviouristhennotyetmeasurable,theriderscantestthesystemandexpresstheirusageintention.ThedirectrelationshipbetweenbehaviouralintentionandactualbehaviourhasbeenpostulatedintheTheoryofPlannedBehaviour(Ajzen1991)andconfirmedbyanumberofstudieswithdiversebackgrounds(e.g.,MontadaandKals2000).FornovelARAS,acceptancehasthusbeendefinedastherider’sintentiontousethesystemifitwasinstalledonthemotorcycle(HuthandGelau2013)andismeasuredoncetheriderhasexperiencedtheARAS.ThisisinlinewiththeviewsofAussererandRisser(2005),whoconsideredacceptanceastheextentoftheusers’preparednesstouseasysteminthefieldofITS,andwithAdell(2009),whoregardedacceptanceasthedriver’sintentiontouseasystemwhendrivingacar.FurtherrelevantconceptsthatallowfororhindertheactualusageoftheARASbytheriderarethewillingnesstoacquirethesystemandtospendmoneyonit.Thesetwoconditionsforsystemusageareconsideredintheautomotivedomain(e.g.,ArndtandEngeln2008)andtheirmeasurementshouldalsobeincludedintheassessmentoftheacceptanceofARAS.Finally,acceptancecanalsoberegardedasapositivebehaviouralresponsetothesystem.Forinstance,severalstudiesonISAmeasuredacceptanceintermsofbehaviouralchangeswhenusingthesystemascomparedtodrivingwithoutthesystem(cf.Vlassenrootetal.2010).ThisalsomakessenseinthecontextofARAS,giventhatthesystemsprovidesupporttotheridersinadaptingtheirbehaviourtotheridingsituationsoastostaywithinsafetymargins.Thisaspectoftheriders’acceptanceiscrucialforthesafetybenefitthatcanbeachievedbyusingtheARASandcanbeseenasanindicatorofacceptance,althoughitmaynotnecessarilyengendertheusageintentionthatwillleadtoactualusagebehaviour.
AvailableResultsontheAcceptanceofARAS
ThissectionreviewstheresultsontheacceptanceofthreeARASthathavebeentestedwithusers:
1.Simpkinetal.(2007)ratedriders’acceptanceofanadvisoryandanassistingISAandanalysedthechangesintheridingbehaviourwhenusingthesystemversionsonatesttrack.
2.WithintheSAFERIDERproject,aCurveWarningsystemwastestedinasimulator,comparingtworiderinterfaces–aforcefeedbackthrottleandahapticglove(Huthetal.2012a).
3.AnIntersectionSupportsystemwasevaluatedinafurthersimulatorstudy
withinSAFERIDER,againwiththetworiderinterfaces(Huthetal.2012b).
Thesystemversionsarereferredtohenceforthas‘advisory’and‘intervening’.Herein,thehapticgloveisadvisory,whereastheforcefeedbackthrottleandtheassistingISAareintervening.Inallofthethreestudies,theoutputoftheinterveningsystemversionwaseasilyoverruledbytheriders,leavingthemobjectivelyincontrolofthevehicle.
RegardingacceptanceaspositivebehaviouraladaptationinresponsetotheARAS,theclearestresultswereachievedbytheCurveWarning(CW)system.Ridersrespondedtothewarningsbyadaptingtheirbehaviourearlierandbettertothecurveandincreasingtheirsafetymargins.WiththeadvisoryCW,theridersevenrodemorecautiouslythroughcurves,provokinglesswarningsituations.ThisfindinggiveshintstothepossibilitythatsomeARAScanhaveaneducationaleffect.Theridersmightrespondpositivelytothesystembyusingitasaguidancetoresettheirpersonalthresholdforsaferidinginthetargetsituation.Thiseffectcouldnotbefound,however,fortheIntersectionSupport(IS).Rather,theridersreliedonthesystemtodetectahazardoussituationandthenrespondedtothewarningbyreducingtheirapproachspeedtotheintersection;andeventhen,theconductedsimulatortestscouldonlyconfirmsuchabehaviouralresponseinright-of-waysituationsinhigherspeedenvironments,notinatypicalurbansetting.TheridingbehaviourwithISAdidnotchangeforcautiousriders,sincetheyalreadykepttothespeedlimitswhenridingwithoutthesystem.Ridersclassifiedasaggressivebasedontheirtendencytoexceedthespeedlimit,however,adaptedtheirbehaviourtotheassistingISAbyreducingspeedviolationsandspeedvariations–aneffectthatwasalsodetectabletoaslighterextentfortheadvisoryISA.
Riders’subjectiveratingsrevealeddistinctpreferencesthatarerelatedtothesystemversions.WhiletheinterveningCWwasratednegativelyregardingitshelpfulnesstomanagecriticalcurveevents,theadvisoryversionreceivedapositiveevaluationinthisrespect.TheappreciationoftheCWasawholeandtheridewiththesystemwasalsofoundtobeverysensitivetotheinterfaceused.ThisfindingwasconfirmedbythetestsontheIS.SeveralsubjectivemeasuresrevealedthatthepositiveratingsoftheARASturnintoneutralornegativeratingsfortheinterveningversioncomparedtotheadvisoryversion.Riders’commentsindicatedthatthisrejectionwasmainlyattributabletotheinvasivenessofthewarningstrategyoftheforcefeedbackthrottle.Thisresultisinlinewiththeoutcomeoftheriders’evaluationoftheISA:Theadvisoryversionwasassessedasmoreusefulthantheinterveningone,whichalso
versionwasassessedasmoreusefulthantheinterveningone,whichalsoreceivednegativesatisfactionratings.Evenso,itisnoteworthythat,contrastingwiththepooracceptabilityratingsofISA,improvedusefulnessratingswerefoundafterpracticalexperiencefortheinterveningISAandfortheadvisoryversionasatendency.Althoughtheridersnowacknowledgedthatthesystemscouldenhanceridingsafety,theywereconcernedwithapossibleincreaseinriderirritations,feelingsofbeingcontrolledandnegativeeffectsonridingpleasure–especiallywhenusingtheinterveningISA.
Riders’interestinhavingARASinstalledontheirmotorcycleequallydependedontheinterfaceused.WhilehighratesofwillingnesstohaveanARAShavebeenfoundfortheadvisoryversions,thesamesystemsweremostlyrejectedifimplementedwithaninterveninginterface.PercentagesofrejectionandacceptancearecomparedinTable13.1.
Regardlessofthesystemversion,ridersshowedalimitedwillingnesstopayforasysteminanyofthethreestudies.Abouthalfoftheparticipantswerenotwillingtopaymorethan€100fortheCWorIS.ForISA,thegreatmajorityoftheriderswouldnotspendmorethan£100(i.e.,approximately€120).ThetoprangeanyriderwaswillingtospendfortheCWortheISwaslimitedto€500,andfortheISAto£200(i.e.,approximately€240).
Table13.1AcceptanceofthreetypesofARAS:comparisonofparticipants’interesttohaveadvisoryandinterveningsystemversions
Finally,theusageintentionfoundfortheCWandISwassatisfactory.NoneoftheparticipantsexpressedtheintentionnottoactivatetheadvisoryCWatallifitwasinstalledonthemotorcycle,while15percentoftheridersstatedthisfortheadvisoryIS.Therateofcompleterejectionregardingtheusageintentionwas30percentforboththeinterveningCWandtheinterveningIS.ThemajorityoftheparticipantschosetheoptiontoactivatetheadvisoryorinterveningCWonlyincertainsituations(characterisedbyconstraintsregardingtheenvironmentalconditionsortheriderstate),andalmost50percentoftheridersintendedtoactivatetheadvisoryCWallthetime(only25percentfortheinterveningCW).ApermanentactivationoftheadvisoryorinterveningIS,inturn,wasonlyintendedbyafewriders,witharound50percentoftheriderspreferringaselectiveactivationdependingontheirfamiliaritywiththeenvironmentandthevisibilityconditions.ThetestsontheISArevealedareluctanceoftheriderstousethesysteminmostofthetrafficsituations.Overall,theusageintentionwasmorepositivefortheadvisorythanfortheinterveningISA.
interveningISA.
InfluencingFactors
Onewayofobtaininginsightintopossiblereasonsforlimitedacceptanceandtodeterminerelevantstartingpointsforitsimprovementistoincludethefactorsthatmightinfluenceriders’acceptanceofanARASintoitsevaluation.PredictorsoftheacceptanceofARAShavebeenidentifiedandbroughttogetherinamodel,whichhasbeenvalidatedwithdatafromusertestsonfourARAS,includingadvisoryandinterveningsystemversions(HuthandGelau2013).Hereafter,theinsightsobtainedinthisstudyarecombinedwiththeresultsfromtheevaluationofthethreeARASpresentedabove.
Asafirstpredictor,themodelforacceptanceofARASincludesthesafetyfeelingwhenridingwithoutassistance,whichcorrespondstothepotentialforexperiencingbenefitsbyusingthesystem.Inaccordancewiththerelevanceofproblemawareness(Schlag1997,StegandVleg1997)andtheperceivedusefulnessoftechnologies(e.g.,VanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard1997,VenkateshandDavis2000)foracceptance,thispredictorwasexpectedtobeespeciallyimportantinviewofpossibleself-efficacyconflictsbetweentheconceptionofridingasaperformanceandbeingassistedbyasystem(cf.Bandura1982).ThepredictorcouldnotbeconfirmedbytheempiricaldatafromtheSAFERIDERproject,butsincethisresultislikelytobebecauseofthelimitationsofthestudy(duetoaceilingeffectinthedata;thisfactormightneedtobemeasuredmoreprecisely)itisworthbeingfurtherinvestigated.
Warningsystemsthatrequireonlyverylimitedinteractionwiththeridermaynotbeappraisableintermsofpleasantnessasenvisagedbysometheoriesonacceptanceoftechnologies(e.g.,VanderLaanetal.1997).Still,thepossibleinterferenceofthesystemoutputwithpositiveridingsensationsortherider’sfeelingofautonomyandcontrollendsparticularimportancetointerfacedesignintheevaluationofARASfunctions.InlinewiththedifferencesintheacceptancefoundbetweenadvisoryandinterveningversionsofthethreeARASreportedinthischapter,validationoftheacceptancemodelconfirmedthejudgementthattheinterfaceisapowerfulpredictorofriders’acceptanceoftheARAS(HuthandGelau2013).Inparticular,resultsonacceptanceofthethreeARASreportedhererevealthedisadvantagesofARASthatarecombinedwithanintrusiveinterface.Ontheonehand,ridersdeemitpotentiallydangeroussinceitcouldincreasetheinstabilityofthemotorcycleandleadtoaconflictwhenriderintentiondiffersfromtheinterveningsystembehaviour(Huthetal.2012b).Bythesametoken,ridersfeelthattheirresponsibilityandcontrolis
takenawaybytheARAS.Inaddition,theinterferenceoftheinterfacewithridingoperationsmayberelatedtoahigherprobabilityofdistractionandincreasedirritationoftherider(e.g.,Huthetal.2012a).AlthoughinterveningversionsofARAShaveshowntobeatleastaseffectiveinimprovingtheridingbehaviourastheadvisoryversions,theytendtoberejectedbyridersduetotheannoyancetheyprovoke(Huth2012,Simpkinetal.2007).Regardingthemodalityofthewarningtransmission,vibrationsignalshaveproventobeeffectiveandwellaccepted(Huth2012),buttheystillneedtobeadjustedforrealtrafficenvironments.Incontrast,visualmessagesarelessrecommendableowingtopotentialvisualdistractionandirritationoftherider(Simpkinetal.2007).
Sincemotorcycleridinghasapronouncedsocialaspect,thesocialnormshouldbeconsideredasapredictorofbehaviouralintentions(Ajzen1991).Thesocialnormcouldbeconfirmedasarelevantpredictorofroaduserbehaviourmoregenerally(Tunnicliffetal.2011)andofriders’intentiontospeedinparticular(Elliott2010).InthevalidationoftheacceptancemodelforARAS(HuthandGelau2013),theexpectedopinionoffellowridersabouttheARASwasastrongpredictoroftheriders’ownacceptanceofthesystem.ThisfindingalsocorrespondswiththeinfluenceofsocialnormsonacceptanceofADASintheautomotivecontext(e.g.,Adell2010,andelsewhereinthisbook).
Acomparisonofriders’responsestotheCWandISallowsinitialconclusionstobedrawnabouttherelevanceofthetypeofsupportfunction.Curvesarerelatedtoperformanceandpositiveridingsensations,whereasintersectionsarelessrelatedtoridingpleasureandtheriderislikelytobeputatriskbyothers.However,theavailabletestresultsaremorepositivefortheCWthanfortheIS.Thisfindingsuggeststhat,ratherthanthetargetscenario,anappropriatechoiceofwarningthresholdsaswellascompatibilityofsystemoutputwithridingintentionsmaybedecisivefactorsfortheacceptanceofARAS(Huth2012).
Inviewoftheexistingdiversityofriders(Haworth2012),itisworthanalysingthepossibleinfluenceofridercharacteristicsontheacceptanceofARAS.ThethreestudiesonspecificARASreportedinthischapterdidnotallowforsuchananalysisduetotheirlimitedsamplesize,butthestudyontheARASacceptancemodel(HuthandGelauinpress)usedtheavailabledatasettodetecttheeffectsofage,annualmileage,ridingfrequencyandridingmotivation.However,noneofthesefactorsprovedtohaveanyinfluenceontheintentiontouseanARAS.Furtherstudiesarethusneededtocapturepossibleimpactsofdifferentridercharacteristicsonacceptance.Apromisingstartingpointwouldbethecomparisonbetweennoviceandexperiencedriders.Thesegroupsmaydiffer
thecomparisonbetweennoviceandexperiencedriders.Thesegroupsmaydifferintheirabilitiestodealwithhazardsandtheirself-assessmentoftheirownridingabilities(Liu,HoskingandLenné2009),whichinturnmayaffecttheiracceptanceofassistance.
Conclusions
AsaresultofconcernsthataremainlyrelatedtotheeffectivenessofARASandsurrenderofcontroltothesystem,acceptabilitystudieswithARASshowconsiderablesignsofreluctancebytheriders.Bycontrast,acceptancestudiespointtowardsgoodpotentialofARAS.Theridershadsomereservationsagainstthesystemsbutithastobeconsideredthatthestudieswereconductedwithfirstprototypesthatstillneedtobefurtherimproved.Adaptiveassistancefunctionsthatwarnriderswhenevertheirbehaviourdeviatesfromasafereferencemanoeuvrebasicallyseemtobecompatiblewithriding.Giventhatthesystemsaimatassistingtheridersinsituationswherethetheyunderestimatetheirrisk,permanentactivationshouldbetargeted.Thecurrentresultssuggestthatusageintentionstillliesbelowthistarget.Possibly,theusageintentionwouldincreaseoncetheridersgotmoreusedtothesystem(Huth2012)–anevolutionfoundwithcardrivers’acceptanceofISA(Lai,ChorltonandCarsten2007).ThelowwillingnesstopayforARASfunctionscallsforthedevelopmentofaffordabletechnicalsolutions,especiallythosefittedbymanufacturers.
Consistentwiththerelevanceofcurvecrashes,theCurveWarningsystemhasproventobewellacceptedbyriders.Riders’awarenessoftheriskinmisjudgingtheapproachspeedincurves(Clarkeetal.2004)maycontributetothisacceptance.Ontheotherhand,thethresholdssetbytheARASmayhavebeencongruentwiththeriders’personalthresholdsforenjoymentofrisk.Accordingtocrashstatistics,assistanceatintersectionshasasimilarrelevanceforriders.However,resultsofacceptanceoftheIntersectionSupportarelessconclusive.ThismaybeattributabletothefactthatridersarenotresponsibleforcrashesinmostofthecasesorthattheconfigurationoftheARAShastobebetteradaptedtotheneedsofridersinthissetting.IntelligentSpeedAdaptationobtainedthemostnegativeevaluationofthethreeARAStestedforrideracceptance.Thisisinlinewiththeobjectiveneedderivedfromcrashstatistics,sinceitisnotspeedingpersebutridingtoofastfortheprevailingconditionsthatmainlycontributestomotorcyclecrashes(e.g.,Clarkeetal.2004).Thus,ARASshouldnottakeoverthecontrolfromtheriders,butassistthemincorrectlyadaptingtheirbehaviourtoridingsituationswheretheydeviatefromsafereferencemanoeuvres.
Giventhatthebehaviouralresponsetoasystemcandivergefromtheattitude
GiventhatthebehaviouralresponsetoasystemcandivergefromtheattitudetowardstheARASortheintentiontouseit,itisimportanttoconductbothobjectiveandsubjectiveevaluationsofARAS.Inthepresentedstudies,systemversionsthatwereobjectivelyeffectivereceivedconsiderablydifferentsubjectiveratingsdependingontheinterfaceused.
Interveningdevicesshouldbeavoided,eventhoughtheirlowsignalpowermaynotdestabilisethevehicle.Ridersdislikeanyinterferencewithvehiclecontrol,consideringitadisturbancetotheirfeelingsofautonomy,comfortandridingpleasure,andasasourceofconflictwiththeirridingintention.
Customisablesystemshavebeenpromotedintheautomotivecontext(e.g.,Jiménez,LiangandAparicio2012)andhavebeenrequestedforridersbyFEMA(2011).TheadaptabilityofwarningthresholdsandsignalstoindividualneedscouldenhancetheacceptanceofARASandimprovetheireffectonridingsafetybyhigherratesofsystemactivation(Huthetal.2012b).
ApartfromdevelopingimprovedARASinordertoenhanceriders’acceptance,theissueofacceptabilityshouldnotbeneglected.DuringthefirstyearsoftheintroductionofanARAS,manyridersmightnothavethechancetotestit.Takingintoaccounttherelevanceofthesocialnorm,itisimportanttocreateafavourableattitudetowardsARASamongridercircles,aswellastoavoidprejudicesandmisunderstandingsofthesystemfunction.Finally,itcouldbebeneficialtocreateawarenessofridingrisksandthecorrespondingsafetybenefitsprovidedbyARAS,aspromptedbytheresultsoftheacceptanceofCurveWarning(Huthetal.2012a)andontheacceptabilityofARASmoreingeneral(Oberladeretal.2012).
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Chapter14DriverAcceptanceofTechnologiesDeployedWithin
theRoadInfrastructureAlanStevensandNickReed
TransportResearchLaboratory,UK1
Abstract
Inthischapter,wereviewstudiesthathaveinvestigatedaspectsofdrivers’acceptanceofarangeofroadinfrastructure-basedtechnologiesthathavebeenproposedorintroducedtosupportsafeandefficientdrivingbehaviour.Welookatdrivingsimulatorstudiesof‘ActiveTrafficManagement’and‘activelyilluminatedroadstuds’thathavetriedtogaugelikelyacceptanceofthetechnologyontheroadbyobservingbehaviourinthesimulatorandassessingdrivers’confidenceinthetechnologyandunderstandingofhowtheyareexpectedtorespondtoit.Wealsoreviewrealroadexperienceofdrivers’responsestoroadworksdelineatedusingflashingcones,andofspeedmonitoringandenforcementtechnology.Inbothcasesweinferacceptanceofthetechnologyfromdrivers’behaviour.
Introduction
Roadinfrastructureisdesignedtoprovideanenvironmentthatsupportsefficientroutingandengenderssaferoaduserbehaviour.Itincludesthefollowing:
•Roadsurfaces,furnitureandroadmarkingssuchasbarriers,speedbumps,lanedelineationsandroadstuds;
•Lightingandfixedsignagesuchasspeedlimits,informationandprohibitionsigns,high-visibilitywarningsandparkingrestrictions;
•Systemsprovidingdynamicinformationorinstructionsuchastrafficlights,andvariablemessagesigns;and
•Systemsthatmonitordrivingbehavioursuchasspeedcamerasand/orprovidereal-timeandspecificfeedback.
Ashasbeenshowninmanyotherchapters,therearechallengesfacedbydesignersofin-vehicletechnologiesingainingdrivers’acceptanceofsystems.Inachievingtheobjectivesofsupportingefficientroutingandencouragingsafebehaviour,theroadinfrastructuredesignerisfacedwithasimilarsetofchallenges.Aswithin-vehiclesystems,basicergonomicprinciplesmustbeadheredtobutunlikein-vehiclesystems,theinformationprovidedcannotbespecificallydirectedtowardsanindividualdriver.Thedesignofroadinfrastructureshouldprovideinformationtoroadusersthatis
•conspicuous–itiseasyforroaduserstodetecttheinformationpresentedtotheminallenvironmentalconditions;
•clear–thereisnoambiguityorconflictintheinformationpresented;•intuitive–itiseasyforroaduserstounderstandhowtorespondtothepresentedinformation;
•compatiblewiththedrivingtask–attendingtothepresentedinformationdoesnotcauseunduedistractiontoroadusers;and
•non-specific–whichcomprisesfeaturesthatarerelevantforthebroadestspectrumofroadusers,regardlessofage,gender,experienceorvehicletype.
Roadinfrastructuredesignisalsolikelytobeconstrainedbyregulatoryandaestheticconsiderations.Theacceptanceofroadinfrastructureisdependentuponhowwellthesechallengeshavebeenaddressed.
Theuseoflinesandsignstoprovideinformationandguidancewillbefamiliartomostroadusers.Anexampleoftheuseoftechnologytoenhancethisguidanceisdynamicroadmarkings(DRM)formanagingroadlayoutsthathavebeentestedintheNetherlandsandGermany.Suchschemeshavethepotentialtoincreaseroadcapacitybyenablingdynamicchangesinlanedirectionoravailabilitytomeetdemandcharacteristics;oftenreferredtoas‘tidal’flowschemes.Figure14.1showsdynamicroadmarkingswhilstFigure14.2givesanoutlineofhowtheroadmarkingschangeinaproposedtidalflowschemebasedonDRM.
Whilstdesignoftheroadinfrastructurecaninfluenceindividualdriverbehaviour(positivelyornegativelywithrespecttosafety),itcannot,ultimately,control;drivingisacomplexformofsocialinteractionandindividualbehaviourdependsonawiderangeoffactorsthatvarywithtimeandcircumstance.Compliancereliesondriversnotonlyunderstandingbutacceptingthe‘normsofbehaviour’impliedorrequiredbytheinfrastructuresuchassignage(e.g.,‘LaneClosed’or‘50mph’)andondriversacceptingthattheymaybemonitored,
Closed’or‘50mph’)andondriversacceptingthattheymaybemonitored,recordedand,wherebehaviourisdeemedunacceptable,penalised.
Inthischapter,wereviewstudiesthathaveinvestigateddriveracceptancetowardsarangeofroadinfrastructuretechnologicalinterventionsthathavebeenproposedorintroducedtosupportsafeandefficientdriving.Weexclude,however,acceptanceofreal-timesourcesofinformationsuchasrouteguidance,congestionandlocation-specifictrafficnewsthataretransmittedfromtheinfrastructuretobepresentedwithinthevehicle(issuesarounddriveracceptanceofsuchsourceshavebeenconsideredinpreviouschapters).Nevertheless,theavailabilityofsuchadditionalsourcesisincreasinglylikelytoaffectdrivers’acceptanceofexternallypresentedinformationorinstructions.Wealsoexcludeaconsiderationofroadpricingtechnology,chieflybecausedriveracceptanceofsuchschemesisacomplexsubjectandheavilydeterminedbytheacceptabilityofroadpricingbysocietymoregenerally.Weexaminedrivers’acceptanceoftechnologydeployedwithinroadinfrastructureintwoareas.Firstly,theuseofadrivingsimulatortocreateanevidencebaseuponwhichtomakedecisionsaboutinfrastructureand,secondly,drivers’acceptanceofmonitoringfromtheroadside,particularlyofspeed(vehicle-activatedsigns,fixedcamerasandaveragespeedcameras).
Figure14.1DynamicroadmarkingsintheNetherlands(USDepartmentofTransportation2004)
Figure14.2AnexampleofadynamictidalflowschemethathasbeenproposedintheNetherlands(reproducedfromFafieanieandSambell2008,withpermission)
UsingaDrivingSimulatortoAssessBehaviourinResponsetoHighwayTechnology
Drivingisacomplex,multifaceted,informationprocessingtaskthathumansundertakeinroutinesituationswithrelativeease.However,mistakes,violationsormisjudgementsatinappropriatetimescanresultintragicconsequencesforthedriver,passengers,otherroadusersand/orbystanders.
driver,passengers,otherroadusersand/orbystanders.Theintroductionofnewtechnologiesintothehighwayenvironmentpresents
anopportunitytoimprovethequalityofserviceexperiencedbyroadusers.Testingsuchtechnologiestoinvestigateexpectedandunexpectedeffectsondriverbehaviourpriortoimplementationisdesirable,giventhesafetyriskandpotentialcostsshouldanewsystembefoundtobeineffective,detrimentaltodrivingpracticesorfailtoreachstandardsofacceptabilitytotheuser.
Althoughanalysisofdriverbehaviourthroughobservationofperformanceintherealworldproducesdatawiththegreatestvalidity,itisdifficulttoexertcontrolovereitherthenumberorthetypesofvehiclesorthedemographicsofthedrivingpopulationinvolvedinsuchatrial.Whenthecontextofabusytrafficenvironmentisnotrequired,testscanbeconductedusingadedicatedtesttrack.Thissignificantlyincreasesexperimentalcontrolandallowsdetailedbehaviouralassessmentwithoutplacingdriversatriskofconflictwithothervehicles.AnexampleofsuchastudyisdescribedinCaseStudy1.
Whenoneisinterestedindrivers’responsestonewroadinfrastructurefeaturesinthecontextofabusytrafficenvironment,testtrackstudiesbecomeunfeasibleaschoreographinglargenumbersofothervehiclesbecomesunworkableandthesafetyofparticipantsmustbeconsidered.Interactivedrivingsimulationaddressestheselimitations.Asimulatorcanprovidedetailedinformationaboutthebehaviourofthedrivenvehicle,inrelationtothetestenvironmentandtoothervehicleswhilstresultscanbesupplementedbyphysiological(e.g.,heartrate)andsubjective(e.g.,NASA-TLXworkloadquestionnaire)measures.Scenariosarerepeatableandcanbetightlychoreographed,bothofwhichfacilitatestatisticalanalysisandefficiency,andparticipantsinvolvedareatnoriskofrealharm.
Asasimulatorpresentsasimulationoftherealworld,acceptanceofon-roadorvehicletechnologyinasimulatordoesnotnecessarilymeanacceptanceofthattechnologyintherealworld.Theconvergenceofsimulatoracceptanceandreal-worldacceptanceobviouslydependsonthefidelitywithwhichasimulatorreproducestherealworldbut,formally,simulatorstudiesthatshowacceptanceoftechnologiescanreallyonlyclaim‘potential’foracceptanceintherealworld.Therefore,itisperhapsmorecorrecttoclaimthatpositivedrivingsimulatorstudiesillustratetheacceptabilityoftechnologies(inprinciple)ratherthan(actual)acceptanceasdemonstratedbyreal-worldusage.Thus,simulatorstudiesclaimingtomeasureacceptanceoftechnologiesdependonaparticipantsufficientlyperceivingtherelevantfeaturesofthetestenvironmentsothattheyproducebehaviourthatisrepresentativeofthatwhichwouldbeobservedduringrealdrivingintheequivalentenvironment.Drivingsimulatorvalidationstudies
(e.g.,Törnros1998,Diels,RobbinsandReed2011)suggestthatthisisindeedthecase.
Figure14.3TRLCarSimulatorduring‘RedX’trial
TransportResearchLaboratory(TRL)hassuccessfullyoperatedadrivingsimulatorformorethan20years.Thelatest(validatedinDielsetal.2011)usesastandardfamilyhatchback,alimitedmotionplatformandrealisticgraphicsandsound(Figure14.3).Thissystemwasusedinthethreecasestudiesdescribedbelow.
CaseStudy1:ActiveTrafficManagement
Congestionbringsmanyvehiclesintocloseproximity,raisingtheprobabilityofcollisionssuchasrear-endshuntsorsideswipes(Webb1995).Aswellasreducingcongestion,thereiscontinuingpressuretomakebetteruseofinfrastructureandreducevehicleemissions(Stern2006).Onesuchscheme,aspartof‘ActiveTrafficManagement’(ATM),wasrequiredtoimplementVariableSpeedLimits(VSLs)underconditionsofcongestionanddirectingtraffictousethehardshoulderasanactivetrafficlaneunderconditionsofheavycongestion(4-laneVSL).Theacceptabilityofsuchadditionalcontrolwashithertountested,soitwasimportanttoassesspotentialdriveracceptability(as
demonstratedbybehaviourincludingacceptanceinadrivingsimulator)beforeimplementation.
ATMinvolvesgantriesat500mintervalswithAdvancedMotorwayIndicator(AMI)signsaboveeachlane(includingthehardshoulder),toprovidelane-specificinformationandaVariableMessageSign(VMS)fortheprovisionofgeneralsafetyguidanceaswellasinformationaboutaccidents,delaysandweatherconditions.OneoptionwastouseablankAMIabovethehardshoulder(whilstallotherAMIsdisplaytheVSL),indicatingtotrafficthatnormalmotorwayrulesapplytothehardshoulder;thatis,itshouldbeusedforemergenciesonly.Alternatively,ithadbeenproposedthataredXsymbolshouldbeusedtogiveadefinitesignaltomotoriststhatthehardshoulderisunavailabletotraffic.
Priortotheimplementationofhardshoulderrunningontherealmotorway,itwaspossibletoinvestigatethebehaviourofdriversinresponsetothesedifferentsignsusingTRL’sdrivingsimulator(Thornton,ReedandGordon2005).Seventy-twoparticipantswererecruitedandwereassessedacrossexperimentalfactorsofSign(BlankAMIvs.RedXAMI–tosignalhardshoulderclosure),Information(informedvs.uninformedaboutATM)andAge(youngervs.olderdrivers).
Duringtheirdrive,participantswereinstructedtohurrybutthenencounteredclustersofsimulatedcongestion.Thiswastoencourageparticipantstomakebestprogressalongtheroute,usingwhateverroadcapacitytheyfeltwasopentothemalongtheroute.Analysiswouldthenfocusonthelevelofcontraventionandinappropriateuseofthemotorway.Inonesectionoftheroute,therewasnomeansbywhichaparticipantcouldovertakethecongestionclusterunlesstheyusedthehardshoulderwhilstitwasclosedtonormaltraffic.Inanothersection,thehardshoulderwasopenedtotrafficandtheparticipantwasthusabletoovertakethesimulatedcongestiontrafficbytravellinginthehardshoulder.
Aftercompletionofthetrial,aquestionnaireallowedassessmentofthefactorsthatweredeterminantsinthedecisionbyparticipantstousethehardshoulder,bothattimeswhenitwasopenandtimeswhenitwasclosed.
TomaximisethebenefitsofATM,driversmustaccepttheadoptionofanunfamiliardrivingpractice(usingthehardshoulderasanormalrunninglane).ParticipantswhowereawareoftheoperationoftheATMbeforetakingpartinthetrialusedtheschememoreeffectivelythanthosewhowereuninformed.ResultsshowedthatinformedparticipantshadgreateracceptanceoftheATMmeasuresasshownbythem
•usingthehardshouldermoreoftenwhenitwasappropriatetodoso;
•usingthehardshouldermoreoftenwhenitwasappropriatetodoso;•usingthehardshouldersoonerandforlonger;•beingsignificantlymoreconfidentaboutusingATMingeneral;and•beingsignificantlymorepositiveabouttheeffectitwillhaveonmotorwaytravelandsafety.
Oncetheyhadreadtheinformationleafletpost-trial,uninformedparticipantsrecognisedhowusefulitwouldhavebeeninraisingtheirawarenessoftheoperationalregimesofATMbeforeenteringthescheme.TheseresultswereusedtohighlightthattheinformationstrategytopubliciseATMmustbecomprehensivetoraisedriveracceptanceofthescheme,therebymaximisingcorrectuseandensuringthatthepotentialbenefitsforATMarefullyachieved.
Sincecompletionofthesimulatorstudy,theM42ATMschemehasbeensuccessfullyrolledoutandhasenjoyedremarkablesuccess,deliveringimprovedtrafficflowandtraveltimes,whilehavingnodetrimentaleffectonsafety(DepartmentforTransport2008).WiderimplementationoftheATMmeasuresisnowbeingplannedanditssuccessisowed,inpart,tothesimulatortestingpriortocommencementofthescheme.
CaseStudy2:ActivelyIlluminatedRoadStuds
Thisstudyexaminedthepotentialimprovementtoroadsafetyatnightthatmaybeachievedbyilluminatedroadstuds(‘Active’studs,Figure14.4)inplaceofstandard(‘Passive’)retroreflectivestudsandtogaininsightintodrivers’acceptanceofthistechnology(Reed2006).
Figure14.4Activeroadstuds
TRL’sdrivingsimulatorwasusedtocreatea37.1kmruralroadwithinwhichabasictestsectionwasrepeatedsixtimes.Thissectionwasusedtocomparebehaviouracrossthestudconditions,containingsixcriticalcornersinthebasicsectionwherethecurveradiusfellbelow150mandthesewereusedformoredetailedanalyses.
Thirty-sixparticipantswererecruitedfromthreeagegroups:Younger(17–25years),Middle(26–54years)andOlder(55+years),andeachparticipantdrovethetrialroutetwice.Ineachdrive,theparticipantexperiencedasimulatednight-timeenvironmentandtheroadhadsectionswithnostudsandsectionswithstuds.Inoneoftheirdrives,thestuddedsectionhadactivestuds;intheotherdriveithadpassivestuds.Thestudswereplacedatvaryingintervals(basedontheroadcharacteristics)alongthecentrelineoftheroad.Additionalredstuds(inboththeactivestudandpassivestudversions)wereplacedonthenearsideofthefoursharpestbendsintherepeatsectionusedtocreatethetrialroute.Thedrivenvehicleuseddippedheadlightsthroughoutandnoothertrafficwaspresentinthesimulation.
Participantscompletedapost-drivequestionnairethataskedthemtoindicatetheirfeelingsofsafetyandconfidenceineachdrivingcondition.Picturecue
theirfeelingsofsafetyandconfidenceineachdrivingcondition.Picturecuecardswereusedtoremindparticipantsoftheenvironmentsthattheyhadseen.Positiveresponsesintermsofsafetyandconfidencewereinterpretedasrepresentingacceptanceinthesimulatorstudyandthusdemonstrated(potential)acceptabilityinrealroadconditions.
Resultsfromthesimulatordemonstratedthat,ineachagegroup,participants’averagespeedwhendrivingwassignificantlyhigher(byaround5kph)inbothstuddedconditions,relativetothenostudcondition(Reed2006).However,therewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweentheactiveandpassivestudconditionsacrosstheagegroupsintermsofoverallspeed.Assessmentofhowparticipantscontrolledtheirlateralpositionrevealedthatolderparticipantsspentsignificantlylesstimewiththerightedgeacrossthecentrelineoftheroadwithactivestudsthantheydidwithpassivestuds.
Moredetailedanalysisofbrakingresultsinthecriticalcornerssuggeststhatparticipantswerebetterinformedabouthowtheyneededtocontrolthevehicleinordertonegotiatethebendswhentheactivestudswerepresent.Similarly,analysisofdrivers’lateralpositioninthecornersrevealedamarkeddifferencebetweenthepassiveandactivestudconditionsinrightturnsandsuggeststhatenhanceddelineationoftheoffsideroadedgemaypromoteimprovementsindrivers’lateralcontroloftheirvehicle.
BroughtonandBuckle(2006)reportedthatlossofcontrolwastheonlyprecipitatingfactorinthecausationofaccidents(ofallseverities)thathadshownasignificantincreasesince1999.Theresultsfromthistrialsuggestthattheactivestudinstallationimproveddrivers’control,particularlyinrightturnsandforolderdrivers.Itis,therefore,possiblethattheintroductionofactiveroadstudsmayhelptoreversethistrend.
Participantsreportedthatactivestudsencouragedthemtodrivefasterthantheywouldnormally.However,thisiscontradictedbythesimulatordata,whichshowedthattherewereonlyveryslightincreasesinspeedwithactivestuds.Thisdiscrepancybetweendrivers’opinionandobservedbehaviourhighlightsthebenefitthatsimulationcanbringinallowingschemestobetestedbyrealdriversinanaturalisticenvironment.Participantsalsoreportedthattheybelievedactivestudswouldbehighlybeneficialtoroadtransportandroadsafety.
Weinterpretedthislevelofunderstandingandconfidenceasindicativeofhighacceptabilityofthetechnologyand,overall,itwasconcludedthatactivestudsarelikelytobehighlyacceptabletodriversandofferasignificantsafetyadvantageoverstandardpassiveretro-reflectivestudssincetheyappeartoimprovelaneguidanceinrightturnswithoutcausingdriverstoproceedathigherspeeds.
LessonsLearnedConcerningtheRoleofSimulatorsinAssessingAcceptability
Basedonthesimulatorwork(andsubsequentvalidation),anumberoflessonscanbedrawnconcerningaspectsofroaddesignforefficiency,safetyandacceptability.
Thestudyof‘ActiveTrafficManagement’showsthatsystemsdesignedtoeasecongestioncanalsohaveimplicationsforsafety.However,anypotentialsafetyproblemscanbemitigatedbyinformingdriversandhelpingthemtounderstandthenewdesigns;forexample,throughappropriatesignage.Theinformationstrategyneedstobecomprehensive,toensurethatdriversbothapproachtheschemeinthemostpositiveframeofmindand,whenusingschemes,dosoassafelyandascomfortablyaspossible.Equally,thestudyofnon-physicalmotorwaysegregationdemonstratedthattheanticipatedbenefitsofaschememaynotberealisedifdriversdonotbehaveintheexpectedmanner.
Studiesofinterventionsdesignedforruralroadsspecificallytoimprovesafetyshowthattheymayalsohaveunanticipatedconsequences.Forexample,comparedwithstandardpassiveretro-reflectivestuds,delineationofaroadatnightby‘activelyilluminatedroadstuds’offersasignificantoverallsafetyadvantagethatappearstooutweightheslightincreaseindrivers’speedchoice.
Thesestudiesdemonstratethatsimulationcanplayausefulroleinunderstandingchangesindriverbehaviour,anticipatedsafetyoutcomesanduseracceptanceinresponsetoroadinfrastructuremodifications.Theyallowtestingunderawiderangeofconditionswhilstensuringparticipantsafetyandenableevidence-baseddecisionstobemadebeforeinfrastructureisinplace.
AssessingBehaviouralResponsestoHighwayTechnologiesintheRealWorld
Oncethedesignofanewtechnologyschemehasbeendecidedupon,itcanbeimplementedintherealworld.However,itisimportanttoevaluatethesysteminsitutoconfirmthattheexpectedbenefitsareachieved.Real-worldevaluationscanbedifficulttoconductasitmaybedifficulttoidentifysuitablecontrolsitesforcomparisonorhaveconfidencethatanychangesobservedinabefore-afterevaluationareaconsequenceoftheinstalledinterventionorsomeotherfactor.Furthermore,acceptancecanonlybeinferredfrombehavioursinceitisdifficultandimpracticaltointerrogatedriverswhohaverecentlyexperiencedanintervention.Inthissection,weconsiderdriveracceptanceintwocasestudiesof
real-worldevaluationsofhighwaytechnology.
CaseStudy1:RoadworkDelineation(FlashingCones)
Whenmotorwayroadworksareinforce,trafficisusuallyrequiredtodeviatefromnormaltrafficlanestoaccommodatetheworkssite.Thischangefromtheusualsituationcancreaterisk,especiallywhentrafficlanesarerequiredtomerge.Lanemergingistypicallyachievedbyapplyingstandardconfigurationsoftrafficconesthat(inconjunctionwithtemporarysigns)indicatetodriversthenewgeometryoftheroadahead.Alongrowofconesguidingtrafficoutofanexistinglaneandintoanewtemporarylaneormergingwithanadjacentlaneistermeda‘conetaper’(Figure14.5).Thisrepresentsasiteofrisksinceitiswhereadrivermustdeviatefromtheirroutinebehaviourinresponsetothepresenceoftheconetaper.In2001and2002,theUKHighwaysAgencyfoundthataround50percentofnearmissincidentsinArea4oftheUK’strunkroadnetwork(comprisingatotalroutelengthof451kmacrossthesouthandsouth-eastofEngland)wereconetaperstrikes(HighwayAgencyTrialsTeam2005)creatingriskforthedriver,otherroadusersandroadworkerswithintheworksregion.
In2002,theHighwaysAgencyTrialsTeambeganevaluatingsequentialflashingconelamps(SFCLs)asanimprovedmeansbywhichtocommunicateupcomingroadlayouttodrivers.In2005,followingoff-roadevaluationandconfirmationthatSFCLsweresuitableforuseonUKroads(forevaluationpurposes),anon-roadtrialwasconductedtoassessdrivers’useandacceptanceofSFCLs.
Atestsite(withpre-existingtemporarytrafficmanagementmeasures)waschosenontheM42ActiveTrafficManagement(ATM)section(priortoactivationofanyATMfeaturessuchasgantrysigning)sincethiswasequippedwithinductiveloopsevery100m,enablingdetailedinterrogationoflaneoccupancythroughtheworksregion.Theconetaperwasdemarcatedduringclosureperiods(22:00–03:00)bystaticconelampsforthreedaysandwithSFCLsforthreedays,alternatingdailybetweenthetwoconfigurationsoveraperiodofsixdays.
Resultsindicatedthat,from600mupstreamoftheconetaper,significantlyfewervehicleswerepresentintheclosing/merginglanewhendemarcatedbySFCLsthanbystaticconelamps.ThisindicatesthatdriversunderstoodandrespondedtothemessagecommunicatedtothembythepresenceoftheSFCLsbychoosingtoleavetheclosinglaneearlierthanwiththestaticconelamps.
Therefore,inferredfrombehaviour,theconetaperwasjudgedasacceptedbydriversinthesimulatorand,hence,likelytobeacceptabletodriversinrealroadconditions.Inaddition,itwasconcludedthattheuseofSFCLswould,intheshorttermatleast,increasethesafetymarginbetweentrafficandthetemporarytrafficmanagementsite,therebydecreasingriskattemporarytrafficmanagementsites.
Figure14.5AnexampleofaconetaperusedfortemporarytrafficmanagementintheUK(closingtherightlaneofthecarriagewayintheleftofthepicture)
CaseStudy2:DriverAcceptanceofSpeedMonitoring
Speedisakeydeterminantofboththenumberofroadcrashesandcrashseverity,soitisunsurprisingthatroadauthoritiesseektoinfluencedrivers’
severity,soitisunsurprisingthatroadauthoritiesseektoinfluencedrivers’speed.Traditionallythisinvolvesfixedsignsshowingthemaximumpermittedspeedonasectionorroadbutitiswellknownthatlimitsarewidelyexceeded.IntheNetherlands,forexample,20–40percentofvehiclesexceedthepostedlimitonmostroadtypes(SWOV2010a).Speedmanagementhas,morerecently,employedarangeoftechnologytomeasurespeedofspecificvehiclesandthisinformationcanbeusedinanumberofwaystoinfluencedrivers’speedchoice.
Hereweexamineusingimmediatefeedbacktodrivers,withoutenforcementorsurveillance,usingspeedcamerasthatrecordvehicleidentity.
SpeedIndicatingDevices
Speedindicatingdevices(SIDs)aretemporaryvehicle-activatedsignsthatdetectanddisplayvehiclespeedsprovidingdirectreal-timefeedbacktodrivers(Figure14.6).Theyarearelativelycheapmethodofspeedmanagementthataimtochangedrivers’speedbehaviourandareincreasinglybeinginstalled.
SIDshavebeenfoundtobeeffectiveatreducingvehiclespeedsinurbanareaswhendeployedforperiodsofafewweeksbutthattheireffectivenessdecreasesovertime(WalterandKnowles2008).Also,theireffectivenesshasbeenreportedtolastonlyashortdistancebeyondthesignalthoughthisvariesdependingonsitecharacteristics.
WhilsttheeffectivenessofSIDsintermsofspeedmanagementislimited,theytendtoberegardedasacceptable(orharmless)becausetheyarenotcovertanddonotpermanentlyrecordvehicleidentity.Issuesofacceptanceandacceptabilitybecomemuchmoreacutefortypesofsurveillancethatrecordvehicleidentityandlocation,asexploredbelow.
SurveillanceandSpeedEnforcement
Itisoftenclaimedthatweliveinasurveillancesociety(Wood2006).CCTVsurveillance,however,isrelativelyacceptableinmanycountriesasitiswidelyseenasprotectingthepublicfromtheminorityofcriminalsactinginavisiblydeviantmanner(WellsandWills2009).
SpeedcamerasareaspecificformofsurveillanceandhavebeenusedextensivelyinEurope,particularlyGreatBritain,GermanyandtheNetherlands–andnowincreasinglyinFrance;andinjurisdictionssuchasVictoria,Australia,andmuchlessoftenintheUnitedStatesandCanada.Whereverused,therehasbeencontroversy–butresistancetospeedcamerasseemstobe
characterisednotbycomplaintsaboutcivillibertiesbutintermsofunfairnessorinjustice.
Figure14.6Examplesofaspeedindicatingdevice
Ithasbeenargued(Wells2007)thatwhilstspeedcameraswereintroducedasamethodofriskreduction,thecontroversyaroundthemcanusefullybeunderstoodinrisktermswheredriversviewthemselvesasvictimsexposedtoriskratherthanprotectedfromriskbythespeedenforcementtechnology.Withthisview,theriskofpunishmentismoreprominentthantheriskofdeathorinjury(WellsandWills2009).Partoftheunacceptabilityseemstoarisefromthelegalprinciplethatthespeedingoffencedoesnotdistinguishbetweenintentionalandunintentionalbehaviour.
Driverswilloftenportraythemselvesasmakingintelligentjudgementsabouttheappropriatespeedforaparticularsetofcircumstancesandcontrastthiswiththefixedlegalspeedlimitsenforcedbyan‘oppressivestate’throughtechnology.Tocounteractthisview,effortsarebeingmade,intheNetherlandsforexample,tobettermatchlegalspeedlimitstoroadcharacteristicsandperceptionsinanattempttomakethespeedlimitsmorecredible(SWOV2010b).
AtypologyofdrivershasbeendevelopedbasedontheirresponsetospeedcamerasbyCorbett(1995)andCorbettandSimon(1999):
•Conformers(thosewhoreporttheyneverexceedlimits);•Deterreddrivers(thoseputoffspeedingbythepresenceofcameras);•Manipulators(thosewhoslowonlyatcameralocations);and•Defiers(thosewhoexceedlimitsregardlessofcameras).
ItcouldbeinferredfromtheirbehaviourthatConformersandDeterreddriversacceptspeedcamerasbutManipulatorsandDefiersdonot.
Blincoeetal.(2006)interviewedasampleofroaduserswhohadbeenprosecutedforexceedingthespeedlimitintheruralcountyofNorfolkEnglandandcategorisedthemusingthesamegroupingsasCorbettandSimon.Inasampleof433,shefound31percentConformers,27percentDeterreddrivers,33percentManipulatorsand9percentDefiers.Inhersample,speedingwasperceivedaswidespreadandnormal,withmanyofthedriversresentingcameraenforcement.Formany,theprosecutionexperienceresultedindistress,angerandanti-camerasentiments,predominantlybecausetheyexpressedthebeliefthattheyweremoreskilledthanotherdrivers.TheDeterreddriversweremostlikelytoexpressintentionstoavoidfurtherspeedingandtheirspeedingincidentwasfoundtobemostlikelytobeaccidental.ManipulatorsandDefierstendedtoreportthattheyhaddeliberatelychosentoinfringethespeedlimits.
Astrongbodyofresearchshowsthatspeedcamerasimprovethebehaviourofroadusersandreducesspeedingandroadcrashes.Forexample,afour-yearevaluationreport(Gaines2005)lookedat2,000urbanandruralsitesintheUKwherespeedmeasurementsweretakenbothbeforeandaftercameradeployment.Analysisshowedthatoncethecameraswereoperationaltherewas
•asubstantialimprovementincompliancewithspeedlimits;•aparticularreductioninextremespeeding;and•amarkedreductioninaveragespeedatfixedsites.
Inacomprehensivereview(Allsop2010),itwasconcludedthatdeploymentofspeedcamerasleadstoappreciablereductionsinspeedinthevicinityofthecamerasandsubstantialreductionsincollisionsandcasualties.
Nevertheless,oppositiontospeedcamerasremains,asdoessomescepticismtowardsthescientificexpertisedrawnonbygovernmentsinsettingtheirpolicy.
SpeedcameraswerefirstusedforenforcementinGreatBritainin1992andtheirrolloutwasacceleratedbetween2001and2005inanationalsafetycameraprogram.TheAutomobileAssociation(AA)hasbeenmonitoringthepublicacceptanceofcamerasintheUKfor10yearsandthelevelofacceptancehasbeenaround70percent.Thislatestpoll(AA2010)showsthehighestlevelsof
beenaround70percent.Thislatestpoll(AA2010)showsthehighestlevelsofsupportever.
IntheNetherlandstheannualperceptionstudyshowswhichtypesofspeedenforcementDutchdriversfindmoreandlessacceptable.Theyclearlyfindspeedcamerasatfixedpositionsmoreacceptablethanmethodsthatarenotclearlyvisible(Table14.1).
Table14.1Percentageofrespondentswhofindcertaintypesofspeedenforcement(very)acceptable
InVictoria,Australia,thespeedcameraprogramhasbeensubjecttopersistentnegativepublicperceptionsand,ina2010survey,69percentofrespondentsagreedthatspeedcamerasaremoreaboutraisingrevenuethanroadsafety(Pearson2011).Publicconfidenceinthereliabilityandaccuracyofthetechnologyhasalsobeenunderminedbymediareporting.Pearsonlists(andrefutes)anumberofcommonmisperceptionsbasedonexaminationofmediaarticles,publicsurveysandindividualsubmissions:
•Thepurposeoftheroadsafetycameraprogramistoraiserevenue;•Lowlevelspeedingissafe;•Roadsafetycamerasdon’treduceroadtrauma;•Speedcamerasshouldnotbeplacedonfreewaysbecausefreewaysare
•Speedcamerasshouldnotbeplacedonfreewaysbecausefreewaysaresafe;and
•Thecamerasarefaulty.
Point-BasedandAverageSpeedEnforcementCameras
Drivers’understandingofthetechnologycanhaveaneffectonbehaviourandthiscanbetakenasonedeterminantofacceptance.Fixedsingle-pointcamerashaveazoneofinfluenceintheimmediatevicinitybutthereisnothingtostopdriversslowingdownandthenspeedingupafterpassingacamera.Inonesurveyof2,400drivers(Swiftcover2007),53percentbelievedthatfixedpointcamerasencouragepeopletodrivemoreerraticallyandafurther56percentadmittedto‘yo-yodriving’(speedingupbetweencameras)themselves.
Averagespeedcamerasdetectvehiclesalongaroadandcalculateaveragespeed.Initially,acceleration/decelerationbehaviourwasalsoobservedataveragespeedcamerainstallations(Charlesworth2008)butbettersignageandgeneralawarenessofhowthesystemworkshasincreasedrecognitionandimproveddriverbehaviourandcompliance.Inthesurveycitedabove,74percentofdriverssaidthattheyusuallydrivethroughentire‘averagespeedcamera’areas,atthecorrectspeedlimit.
InAustria,positiveeffectsofaveragespeedenforcementwerefoundintermsofspeedreductionandinthenumberofcrashesintunnels(Stefan2006).
AccordingtoThornton(2010)whilstsomedriversclaimthatdrivingthroughanaveragespeedenforcementschemeisstressful,andthattheycannotmaintainasteadyspeedwithoutconstantlylookingattheirspeedometer,themajorityofdriversfeelthatthesystemmakestheroadlessstressful,asotherdriversarelesspronetotailgatingand‘bullying’andthatthereislessbrakingandlane-changing.
SummaryConcerningAcceptabilityofSpeedCameras
Thereisastrongbodyofresearchshowingthatspeedcamerasimprovethebehaviourofroadusersandreducespeedingandroadcrashes.Nevertheless,asubstantialminorityofdriversstillfindsuchcamerasunacceptable.Thisseemstobeasaresultofsomemisperceptionsconcerningthetechnologyanditspurpose,andalsotoaperceivedunfairnessaroundwho‘getscaught’.Interestingly,thereappeartobedifferencesinacceptanceratesbetweencountries,suggestingthatpolicyandpublicawarenesscanpotentiallybedevelopedinawaytoimproveacceptance.
Intermsofspecificroadsidetechnologies,vehicle-activatedSpeed
Intermsofspecificroadsidetechnologies,vehicle-activatedSpeedIndicatingDevicesarerelativelyinexpensivebuthavelimitedeffectivenessandareprobablyregardedasharmlessandacceptablebyamajorityofdrivers.Hiddenspeedcamerasappeartobetheleastacceptedformofspeedenforcement.Camerasoperatingatfixedpointsaremoreacceptablebutthemostacceptableareaveragespeedcameras.Theirrelativepopularityseemstoresultfromtherobustandvisibletechnologycausingspeedlimitstobewidelyobserved.
Conclusions
Interactionbetweendriversontheroaddependsonawiderangeoffactorsthatvarywithtimeandcircumstance,withsafeinteractionrelyingondriversnotonlyunderstandingbutacceptingthe‘normsofbehaviour’impliedorrequiredbytheroadlayoutandtheinformationandothertechnologydeployedwithintheinfrastructure.
Inthischapterwehaveillustratedhowdriverbehaviourandacceptancecandependontheinformationprovided,andthattherecanbeunintendedconsequencesfromnewsystemdeployment.Adrivingsimulatortoinvestigatedriverresponsestonewtechnologywithintheinfrastructurecanbeveryuseful.Wehaveshownthatdriverbehaviourisaffectedbymonitoringandfeedback,althoughboththeimplementationapproachandwidersocialfactorsinfluencetheacceptabilityofthatmonitoringandtheuseoftechnologytoimplementit.
Acknowledgements
Thecontentofthispaperistheresponsibilityoftheauthorsandshouldnotbeconstruedtoreflecttheopinionsorpoliciesofanyorganisation.
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1©TransportResearchLaboratory,2013
Chapter15OperatorAcceptanceofNewTechnologyfor
IndustrialMobileEquipmentTimHorberry
MineralsIndustrySafetyandHealthCentre,UniversityofQueensland,Australia
EngineeringDesignCentre,UniversityofCambridge,UK
TristanCookeMineralsIndustrySafetyandHealthCentre,UniversityofQueensland,
Australia
Abstract
Usingexamplesfromminingandthewidermineralsindustry,thischapterfocusesonoperatoracceptanceofnewtechnologyforindustrialmobileequipment.Itinitiallytakesabroadapproachbyintroducingthemining/mineralsindustryandbrieflydescribingthekeyelementsintheminingsystem.Thereafter,itexaminesthedevelopmentanddeploymentofnewminingtechnologies,includingtheneedforthemandthetypestypicallybeingintroducedatminesites.Operatoracceptanceofminingtechnologies,especiallyforminingvehicles,isthenintroduced:particularlyconsideringhowbothdesignanddeploymentcanassistinimprovingacceptanceofsuchtechnology.Acasestudyofrecentlyundertakenresearchthatconsidersoperatoracceptanceofproximitywarningsystemsforminingvehiclesisthenpresented.Finally,thechapterconcludesbystressingtheimportanceofauser-centreddesignanddeploymentprocessfortechnologyusedinminingandelsewhere.
IntroductiontoMiningandtheMineralsIndustry
Giventhatthemainfocusofthischapterisnotroadtransport,ashortintroductiontothedomainbeingdiscussedhere–miningandthemineralsindustry–isfirstgiven.The‘mineralsindustry’isanoveralltermforagroupofactivitiesrelatedtomining(theextractionofminerals),ore/mineralsprocessing
activitiesrelatedtomining(theextractionofminerals),ore/mineralsprocessingandthetransportationofminerals.Ofcourse,suchmineralsincludethemore‘traditional’ones,suchascoal,iron,goldandcopper,plusthosethathavenotbeensystematicallyexploitedonawidescaleuntilquiterecently(suchascoalseamgasoroilsands).
Theindustryisbothasignificantworldwideemployerandmajorrevenuegenerator;forexample,inrecentyearsinAustraliaitwasresponsibleforapproximatelyhalfofthetotalexportsofthecountry(AustralianBureauofStatistics2010).Itispresentacrossvirtuallythewholeglobe,withsomeofthemajorminingareasbeinginAfrica,Australia,NorthandSouthAmerica,theformerSovietStates,IndiaandChina.Theworldwideinjuryandfatalityratesfortheindustryvarygreatly,rangingfromusuallysingle-figuredeathsperannuminAustraliaandCanada,throughtomanyhundredsbeingkilledindevelopingcountries(Simpson,HorberryandJoy2009).Similarly,ill-healthlinkedtohighnoiselevels,hazardousmanualtasksandrespirabledustarestillprevalentinsomecountries.
ElementsintheMiningSystem
Aswithothercomplexsocio-technicalsystems,suchasroadtransportoraviation,thereneedstobesafeinteractionsbetweenpeople,procedures,environmentsandequipmentinthemineralsindustry.Focusingpurelyonmining,asnotedbyHorberry,Burgess-LimerickandFuller(2013),themainelementsinclude
•avariedgroupofpeopleemployedorcontracted;•awiderangeofdifferentminingjobs,tasksandroles;•aspecialisedarrayofdiverseminingequipment;•manydifferentminingequipmentmanufacturers,dealersandsuppliers;•asteadyincreaseinthenumberofnewtechnologiesbeingdesignedanddeployed;
•differentworldwideminingcompanies;•varyingprocedures,rules,practicesandculturesatindividualminesites;•adiverserangeofnationallaws,regulationsandguidelines;•differencesinthebuiltenvironmentandpreciseminingmethodused;and•uncertaintiesinthenaturalenvironmentbeingmined.
Thefocusinthischapterisuponseveralelementsintheabovelist:namely,theinteractionofthehumanelementwiththenewtechnologiesbeingdeployed.
interactionofthehumanelementwiththenewtechnologiesbeingdeployed.Beforespecificoperatoracceptanceissuesareexamined,someofthenewtechnologiesinthemineralsindustryarediscussed.
DevelopmentandDeploymentofNewMiningTechnologiesandAutomation
TheNeedforNewTechnologiesinMining
Theongoingimperativebyminingcompaniesandregulatorsforsafeandhealthyworkplaceshasbeenoneofthemajordriversfortheintroductionofnewtechnologiesintomining(Burgess-Limerick2011).Theoretically,suchnewtechnologiescanoffergreatpotentialtoimproveoperatorsafetyandhealth;forexample,theycouldformanotherlayerofprotectiontoaddtoanyphysicalandorganisationalmeasuresalreadyemployed.Inadditiontopotentiallyremovingoperatorsfromhazardousminingsituations(especiallyunderground),theycouldalsopresentnewwaysofaddressinglong-standingsafetyissues,suchaslesseningtheseveritypost-injurybymeansofbetterincidentdetectionandresponsesystems(Horberry,Burgess-LimerickandSteiner2010).
Safetyandhealthconcernsare,ofcourse,nottheonlyreasontointroducenewtechnologies.AspreviouslynotedbyHorberryetal.(2010),otherfactorsincludethefollowing:
•Lowercostofmineralproduction.Examplesincludemoreoretransported,ormoreefficientprocesscontroloperations.
•Enhancedprecision.Asimpleexampleisautomatedblast-holedrillinginhard-rockmining–wherenotonlyisthereapotentialsafetybenefitbyremovingtheoperator,butthecorrectlocationoftheblastholescantheoreticallybemoreaccuratelyachievedthroughautomatedsystems.
•Lessenvironmentalimpact.Intheory,newtechnologiescanminimisetheneedforlandreclamation(e.g.,byusingkeyholeminingmethods,ratherthanmoredisruptiveapproaches)andrequirelessenergytoextractandprocessthecommodity.
•Beingabletomineareaspreviouslyinaccessible.Thismightincludebeingabletomineinhard-to-reachlocationsthatpreviouslycouldnotbeminedeconomically.
•Reducedmanning.Althoughitisamyththatautomationfullyremovestheneedforallhumaninvolvementinmining(SandersandPeay1998),insomecasesitmayreducetheneedforhumans,atleastthoseonthefront
somecasesitmayreducetheneedforhumans,atleastthoseonthefrontline(e.g.,remotelycontrolledtrucksnotrequiringanoperatortodrivethemfromwithinthevehicle’scabin).
•Moredata/information.Thecapacitytocollectmoredata,ofteninrealtime,ontheperformanceandstateofminingequipmentcanbeofconsiderableadvantageforissuessuchasmaintenanceschedulingorappropriateresponsesinemergencysituations.
TheScopeofNewMiningTechnologies
Intensiveresearchanddevelopmentworkinautomationandnewminingtechnologiesiscurrentlybeingundertakenbymanymajorminingcompanies,equipmentmanufacturersanduniversities(Burgess-Limerick2011).Someofthemainminingequipmenttypesbeingparticularlyinvestigatedincludehaultrucks,blast-holedrills,rockcrushersandoretrains.Infuture,itseemslikelythatautomationornewtechnologiesinsomeformwillbefurtherappliedacrossvirtuallyallminingequipment(e.g.,shovelsandexcavators)andminingmethods(LynasandHorberry2011).
Similartomanyotherindustrialandtransportdomainsthathavenotyetfullyembracedtheneedtosystematicallyintegratethehumanelement,therapiddevelopmentandgrowthinnewsystemshasoftenseenthembeingdeployedastheprototypetechnologybecomesavailable,withoutthembeingsystematicallydesigned,integratedintoworkenvironmentsandevaluatedfromauser-centredperspective.Forexample,newsystemsmustmeettherequirementsofthejob/task,workinemergency/abnormaloperationalstates,supportoperatorsandbeacceptabletotheeventualend-users.Assuch,devicesinmininghavegenerallybeendesignedfromatechnology-centredperspective,ratherthanfirstseeingwhataretheneedsandwhatsafetyorperformancebenefitstheymightbring(Li,PowellandMcKeague2012).Sadly,withtheexceptionofthestudyreportedlaterinthischapter,littleresearchhasbeenundertakenintooperatoracceptanceofnewtechnologiesintheminingdomain.Ifoperatorrequirementsandpreferencesarenotwellunderstoodbeforenewsystemsareintroduced,thesystemsmaybeunacceptablewhendeployed.Inmining,orindeedinotherindustrialdomainswheretheuseofthedeployedtechnologyisoftenmandatory,thosetechnologiesthatarenotacceptedbyoperatorsarelesslikelytobeusedproperlyandaremorelikelytobesabotagedormisused;thus,anyinherentpotentialforincreasingsafetyorefficiencymaynotbefullyachieved(HorberryandLynas2012).
OverviewofTypesofNewTechnologiesUsedatMineSites
Adatabaseofcurrentandemergingtechnologiesinmining,andthelikelyhumanelementimplicationsofsuchtechnologies,wasrecentlyproduced(HorberryandLynas2012).Miningisalreadyhighlymechanised,butnewtechnologiesidentifiedinthedatabaserangedfromfullautomationofcompleteminingprocesses(e.g.,blastinginhard-rockminingbeforetheoreisremoved)tomorepiecemealtechnologiessuchasproximitywarningsystemsformobileminingequipment.Inthedatabase,thespecifictechnologiesweregroupedby‘degreesofautomation’,suchasfullyautomatedandpartiallyautomatedsystems;assistancedevicessuchasproximitydetection/warningsystems;andotherrelevanttechnologies.Thelowerlevelautomationentrieswheretheoperatorisstilldirectlyinthesystemcontrolloop(i.e.,thosetechnologiesthataremorewithinthefocusofthisbook)includewarningsystemssuchascollisiondetectionsystems,andtechnologiesthatsignalwhenmaintenanceofequipmentisdue.Inthiscategory,theoperatorremainsinfullcontrolofthesystem,withthetechnologyprovidingwarnings,informationorassistance.Roughlyhalfofalltheentriesinthedatabasewerefromthiscategory:thishighproportionmightbeexplainedpartiallybythesesystemsbeingsimplertodevelopcomparedwithlarge-scalefullyautomatedsystems(HorberryandLynas2012).
Intermsoftrendstobedistilledfromthedatabase,inadditiontothegeneralgrowthofnewtechnologiesbeingintroducedintothisfield,theauthorsnotedthattherewasalackofuser-centreddesign,withapproximatelyonlyone-thirdofthedatabaseentriesmentioningexplicitlyhowthetechnologiesmightimpactupontheoperator(HorberryandLynas2012).Theimplicationhereisthateitherhumanoperatorsandmaintainersarenolongerimportantforsafeandefficientmining,ortheyhavesimplybeenlargelyoverlookedbytheengineering-focuseddevelopersofthesetechnologies.
AcceptanceofMiningVehicleTechnologies
Giventhegenerallackofanoperator-centredfocusinthedevelopmentanddeploymentofnewminingtechnologies,itisperhapsnosurprisetonotethattherearefewsystematicandwidelyusedmeasurestooptimiseoperatoracceptanceofnewtechnologiesfromminesites.Despitethis,twogeneralapproachesaresometimesundertaken(Horberryetal.2010).
1.SafeDesign
‘Safedesign’isslowlybecomingmorewidespreadinthemineralsindustry(Horberryetal.2013).Alsoknownas‘safetyindesign’,‘safetybydesign’or‘preventionthroughdesign’,thebroadprocessaimstoeliminatehealthandsafetyhazards,orminimisepotentialrisks,bysystematicallyinvolvingend-usersanddecisionmakersinthefulllifecycleofthedesignedproductorsystem.Inthetraditionallyconservativeminingandextractiveindustries,examplesofitsapplicationincludeCookeandHorberry(2011a)forminingequipment,Bersanoetal.(2010)forextractiveactivitystartupandmanagementandKovalchiketal.(2008)forpreventingminingoperatorhearingloss.
Atask-orientedsafedesignandriskassessmentprocessthatfocusesonHumanFactorsrisksrelatedtomobileminingequipmentdesignwasrecentlycreated,validatedandthenappliedtothedesignofseveraltypesofmobileminingequipment(Horberryetal.2013).Itisoutsidethescopeofthischaptertopresentdetailedsafedesignresults,butrecenttrialsbyCookeandHorberry(2011a)coveredminingequipmentissuessuchasequipmentaccessandegressandsafedesignformaintenancetasks.Attheheartofthissafedesignmethodisa‘participatoryergonomics’processwherebyequipmentoperatorsandmaintainerswereactivelyengagedinbothcritiquingdesignproblemswiththeirexistingequipmentandhelpingtodevelopsafergenerationsofnewequipment.Todate,thesafedesignmethodhaslargelybeenappliedto‘traditional’miningequipment,butarecenttrialwithanewin-vehicleminingtechnologyproducedpositiveresults(CookeandHorberry2011b).Aswillbenotedinthecasestudylaterinthischapter,theassumptionisthatactivelyinvolvingend-users(equipmentoperatorsandmaintainers)inthetechnologydesignprocesswouldleadtothembetteracceptingthetechnologywhenitisdeployed.
2.DeploymentStrategiesandOperatorSkillsRequirements
Asnotedearlierinthischapter,theuseofnewtechnologiesinminingisusuallymandatoryoncetheyareintroduced.So,whilsttheiruseisgenerallyofficiallycompulsory,non-acceptanceisoftenrevealedbyequipmentbeingbroken,sabotagedorotherwiseneglected(Horberryetal.2004).Similarly,pooroperatoracceptanceofnewtechnologies/automationaftertheyareintroducedmightbeevidencedbynegativeopinionsofthenewdevices(e.g.,nottrustingtheoutputsofthenewtechnology).
Althoughuser-centredsaferinitialdesignisnecessaryforoperator
acceptance,itisnotusuallysufficientunlessconsiderationisalsogivenastohowthenewtechnologieswillactuallybedeployedataminesite.User-centreddeploymentofthetechnologybymeansofoperatorconsultation,understandingtheexactrequirementsofthetasksandanongoingfeedbackprocessto/frommanagementcanhelpreduceproblemswithnewminingtechnologyacceptance(Horberryetal.2010).
Anotherkeydeploymentaspectforoperatoracceptanceisensuringthatoperatorshavesufficientskillsandtrainingtoeffectivelyusethetechnology.Duetotheever-evolvingnatureofminingtechnologybeingdeveloped,theexactskillsandcapabilityrequirementscannotalwaysbespecifiedapriori;however,itisstillofcriticalimportancetohaveanongoingprocesstoidentifyandaddressskillsgapsandtrainingneeds(Horberryetal.2011).Togiveanexample,ananalysisbyDudley,McAreeandLever(2010)suggestedthemineralsindustrywouldrequirealargenumberofnewautomationsupportstaffifwidespreadautomationwasintroduced.Theexactskillsandcognitivecapabilitiesrequiredbytheseautomationtechnicianswoulddependonthetasksperformedandthetechnologiesworkedwith,butfourgeneralskillsgapsidentifiedbyDudleyetal.(2010)werecommunication,problemsolving,planningandorganization,andtechnology.Aninterestingfeaturehereisthatofthesefourgeneralskillsgaps,thefirstthreearelargely‘non-technical’skills.Theimplicationisthatmanyoftheskillsandcapabilitiesrequiredtosuccessfullyusethenewautomatedtechnology(andhence,indirectly,optimiseacceptanceofthattechnology)arenottechnicalskills:instead,problemsolving,planningandcommunicationabilitiesneedtobesufficientifthetechnologyistobesuccessfullyintroducedandaccepted.
CaseStudy:AcceptanceofCollisionDetectionSystemsinMiningVehicles
Background
Asnotedabove,agreatdealofresearchanddevelopmenteffortiscurrentlytakingplacewithnewminingtechnologies:thisisparticularlytrueforcollisiondetectionandproximitywarningsystemsformobileminingvehicles(CookeandHorberry2011b).Inpartthisisbecauseofthehighpercentageofminesiteincidentsthatsomehowinvolvecollisions–especiallybetweenmobileminingequipment(suchaslargehaultrucksandbulldozers,andlightvehiclesusedformaintenance),orbetweenminingvehiclesandpedestrianworkers(Horberryet
al.2010).This,inturn,ispartlybecauseinrecentyearstherearemoremobileminingvehicles,especiallybiggerequipmentwithmoreblindspots(Bell2009).
Collisiondetectionandproximitywarningsystemsarealsobecomingincreasinglyimportanttoregulators(particularlyinNorthAmericaandAustralia);insomelocationstheiruseisbeingstronglyencouraged(evencompelled)bytheappropriatesafetyauthorities.Theyarguethatcollision/proximitydetectiontechnologiesarenowamatureenoughtechnologytobecomeavaluablecontrol,especiallywhenusedinconjunctionwithothermeasuressuchastrafficmanagement,barriersandvehicleseparation(Bell2009).
TypesofCollisionDetectionandProximityWarningSystemsinMining
Liketheterm‘automation’moregenerally,collisiondetectionandproximitywarningsystemscoverawidevarietyoftechnologies;theydifferinwhere,whenandhowtheycanbeused.Inmining,nosingletypefitsallareas(Horberryetal.2010).Oftentheyarelow-levelwarningsofanothervehicle(orpedestrianworker)nearbyandonlyafewsystemsarespecificallydesignedtotakecontrol(e.g.,tointervenebyapplyingthevehicle’sbrakesinresponsetoalikelycollisionbeingdetected).
Awiderangeofsensortechnologiesandassociatedtoolsarebeingused:radar,Wi-Fi,cameras,radiofrequencyidentification(RFID),databasesofstaticobstacles,globalpositioningsystems(GPS),3Dmappingandultrasonics.Someoftheseworkbetterinspecificenvironments(CookeandHorberry2011b).Forexample,manysensortypeswillnotworkunderground,andtheintrinsicsafetyandresultingcertificationrequirementsassociatedwithundergroundcoalminesinparticularcreateadditionalchallengestotheintroductionoftechnologyingeneral,andproximitydetectioninparticular.Surfacemininghasanadvantageoverundergroundmininginthatitcanmoreeasilybuildonpreviousworkinotherdomains–mostnotably,collisiondetectiontechnologiesdevelopedbythelandtransport/automotivedomains(Horberryetal.2010).
ThemineusedfortheresearchdescribedherewasanundergroundgoldmineincentralQueensland,Australia.Ithadpreviouslyinstalledaradiofrequencyidentificationsystemtotrackvehiclemovement.Thesystemwasprimarilyinstalledattheminetoimprovethemonitoringofgoldproduction.However,subsequentlythemine’smanagementrecognisedthattherewasanopportunitytoaddaproximitywarningsystemto,hopefully,reducetheriskofcollisionsbetweenvehiclesatthesite.‘Tags’weremountedonallvehiclesthatwouldenterthemine.‘Readers’weremountedonheavyvehiclesinthemine
wouldenterthemine.‘Readers’weremountedonheavyvehiclesintheminethathadlargeblindspots,suchashaultrucksandoreloaders(CookeandHorberry2011b).
Intheseheavyvehicles,avisualdisplaywasprovidedtothedriversviaatouchscreentabletcomputer.Thiswasmountedontherightsideofthedriverforbothhaultrucksandloaders.Thesystemdetectedthepresenceofanyvehiclesinrange,notjustthosethatweredeterminedtobedangerousorrequireaction:assuch,thedriverneededtointerpretandtakeanecessarycourseofaction.Anauditorywarning(ofalterablevolume)occurredondetection,andavisualwarning(alineonthevehicle’stouchscreen)flashed.Bothwarningscontinueduntilthescreenwasphysicallytouchedasacknowledgement(CookeandHorberry2011b).Therefore,onsomeoccasionswhenanothervehiclewasdetectednearby,thedesignofthesystemwassuchthattheoperatorwastheoreticallyrequiredtoundertaketwosimultaneoustasks:takeevasiveactiontopreventacollision,andphysicallytouchthescreentocancelthewarning.Inpractice,thesecondofthesetaskswasrarelyundertakenduetoitbeingoffarlessimportancethanpreventingacollision.
ResearchUndertaken
PreviousworkbyCookeandHorberry(2011b)hasusedavarietyofHumanFactorsmethodstoinvestigatetheseprototypeproximitydetectionsystemsattheminesite.Thispastworkincludedmeasuringdetectiondistancesatdifferentpointsaroundtheminesiteandundertakingausabilityauditoftheprototypeinterface.
Buildingonthisearlierwork,researchwasconductedtounderstandtheproximitydetectiondevicewithintheoverallgoldminingsystem,includingothercollisionpreventioncontrolspresent.Theimpetusforthissubsequentresearchwasthatanaccidentinvolvingacollisionbetweenalightandheavyvehiclehadrecentlyoccurredatthemine.Followingtheaccident,anumberofchangesweremadetotheproximitydetectionsysteminterface,andtestingdriver/operatoracceptanceofthesechangeswasthereforeakeycomponentofthework.
Followinginvestigationoftheabove-mentionedaccident,changesmadetotheproximitydetectionsystemincludedalteringtheauditorywarning(tomakeitmoresalient)andmodifyingthevisualinformation(e.g.,addingnewlydetectedvehiclestothetopofthelistonthecomputerscreen,ratherthantothebottomofthescreen,wheretheywereaddedpreviously).FulldetailsofthechangesmadearegiveninCookeandHorberry(2011c).
Method
Togaugetheeffectsoftheinterfacechangesthatweremade,operatorsoftheheavyvehiclesemployedatthemineweresurveyed.Theminewasafairlysmallsitewithatotalpopulationofonly20driversoperatingheavymobileequipment.Eighteenofthesedriverscompletedthesurvey.Itwasconductedprimarilytodeterminehowacceptingthedriverswereoftheinitialsystemincomparisonwiththealteredsystem.Driverswerealsoaskedabouttheimportanceofothercontrolsrelativetotheproximitydetectionsystems.
Giventhelackoftechnologyacceptanceworkpreviouslyundertakeninmining,theresearchbuiltonthelong-establishedmethodformeasuringdriveracceptancedevelopedbyVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997).Thismethodwasselectedbecauseithadbeenappliedinseveraldifferentstudiesofmeasuringacceptanceofin-vehiclesystems,asseeninotherchaptersinthisbook.Usingthetechnique,afive-pointratingscalewasusedforninequestionsratingacceptanceoftheinitialandalteredinterfacesoftheproximitydetectionsystem.Theheavy-vehicledriverswererequiredtoselectbetweenfiveboxesplacedbetweentwoopposingqualitativewords(thepositionofthepositiveandnegativewordswassometimesreversed).Thepositivewordsareshowninitalicsbelow(adaptedfromCookeandHorberry2011c):
1.Useful Useless2.Pleasant Unpleasant3.Bad Good4.Nice Annoying5.Effective Superfluous6.Irritating Likeable7.Assisting Worthless8.Undesirable Desirable9.RaisingAlertness SleepInducing
InthescoringsystemforthescalespreviouslyusedbyVanderLaanetal.(1997),themiddleboxrepresentedascoreof0,theboxeseithersiderepresented-1to+1andtheouterboxes+2or-2.However,inourcase,thescoringsystemwasadaptedtobepositivenumbersonly(1–5)toallowshapeplottingonaradargraph.Byjoiningupeachoftheratings,anirregularpolygonwasformedtovisuallycommunicatetheoverallchange.Thesumofallresponsesmadeupascoreforacceptance.ForVanderLaanetal.(1997),theninequestionsassess
systemacceptanceontwodimensions,aUsefulnessscale(questions1,3,5,7and9)andaSatisfyingscale(questions2,4,6and8).
Results
Usingthemeanratingsfromtheparticipants,agraphicalrepresentationwasplottedtorevealdriveracceptancewiththeinitialandrevisedproximitydetectionsystems.ThisisshowninFigure15.1:theacceptanceoftheinitialsystemisshowninthelightergreyandtheacceptanceoftherevisedinterfaceisshownindarkergrey.AtheoreticalmaximumacceptancescoreoffiveisshownbyasolidouterlinethatjoinsQ1–Q9inFigure15.1:thishasbeenincludedtoshowhowfartheratingsarefromthisceiling.AlsoshowninFigure15.1withadottedlineisa‘positive-negativeline’,representingthemidpointscoreofthree.Scoresthatareinsidethe‘positive-negativeline’thereforerepresentanegativeviewoftheinterfaceoneachoftheninequestions.FullresultscanbefoundinCookeandHorberry(2011c).
Discussion
Theresultsshowthat,beforethesystemchanges,drivers,onaverage,werenotacceptingofthedevice:findingitneitherparticularlyusefulnorsatisfying.Afterthesystemchanges,allmeasuressawamorepositiverating.Onsevenoftheninemeasureswiththerevisedinterface,driversgaveoverallpositiveratingsforthesystem.Boththetwonegativemeasures(Q4andmarginallyQ6)areinthe‘satisfying’componentoftheVanderLaanetal.(1997)acceptanceconstruct.Thepositiveratingsonsevenoutoftheninequestionsthereforeindicatesthatdrivershavemildlypositiveoverall‘acceptance’oftherevisedsystem,aremildlypositiveaboutits‘usefulness’(positiveratingsforQuestions1,3,5,7and9)andareneitherpositivenornegativeaboutits‘satisfaction’(duetopositiveratingsforQuestions2and8,butnegativeratingsforQuestions4and6).
Figure15.1Driveracceptanceratingsoftheinitialandrevisedproximitywarningsystems(adaptedfromCookeandHorberry2011c)
Duetothenatureofthistrial,itwasnotpossibletocounterbalancethebeforeandafterconditions.Assuch,itisacknowledgedthattheproceduremighthavebeenasourceofbias–forexample,duetothedrivers‘expecting’improvements.
Asinotheroccupationaldomains,acceptanceofnewtechnologyinminingisextremelyimportantinsubsequenttechnologyutilisation.Inisolatedminesiteenvironments,operatorssometimeshavetheopportunitytochoosetoavoidusingnewtechnologiesevenwhentheyaremandated.Therefore,ifdriversdonotacceptproximitydetectiontechnologythenitspotentialtopreventaccidentsmayneverberealised(CookeandHorberry2011c).Infieldusageconditions,theoriginalinterfaceshowedseveralnegativebehaviouralresponses,withsomedriversadmittingtoturningdownthesoundandbrightnessofthecomputerscreen,inordertoavoidthesystemasmuchaspossible(CookeandHorberry2011b).Thenewinterfacemadeimprovementstotheseobserveddeficiencies,forexample,bymakingtheauditorywarningtonemoresalient.Withimprovedacceptanceofthenewinterface,itisanticipatedthatthedriverswillbemuchlesslikelytotryandavoidusingthesystem.Theunderlyingassumptionbehindthisisthat,becausetheoperatorsaretheexperts,theiracceptanceisgenerallyrelatedtowhetherthetechnologyaidsthemindrivingtheheavyminingvehicles(CookeandHorberry2011c).Asminesiteaccidentsareextremelyrare,testingtheeffectivenessofaproximitydetectionsystemintermsofincidentratesisbothdifficultand,potentially,unethical.Also,eachminesiteisverydifferent,soundertakingthetypesoffieldoperationalteststhatarebeingincreasinglyusedinroadtransportwouldoftenbeimpracticalinthisdomain.
Conclusions
Newin-vehicletechnologies,includingproximitywarningandcollisiondetectionsystems,canhelpproducesignificantsafetyimprovementsinminingsituations,especiallywhereoff-roadhaulageisresponsibleforalargenumberoffatalities(Horberryetal.2010,Groves,KecojevicandKomljenovic2007).Mininghastheopportunitytolearnfromotherdomains,suchasroadtransportandaviation,todevelopandimplementtechnologyfrombothahuman-centredandanoperationalneedsperspective.Therefore,ratherthanbeingintroducedpurelybecauseprototypetechnologyisavailable,carefulconsiderationmustbegiventohowitwillsupportusers’tasks,beacceptabletooperatorsandintegratewithexistingworksystems.ItisrecommendedthatthegeneralHumanFactorsapproachofsystematicallyanalysingthetasksneedingtobeperformed,involvingoperatorsindevicedesigns,evaluationsandmodifications,andusingHumanFactorsinformationtodevelopappropriateinterfaces,areofkeyimportancetothedevelopmentanddeploymentofsuccessfultechnologiesinthisdomain.Inthisregard,miningisperhapsnodifferentfromroadtransport;operatoracceptanceoftechnologyisintricatelylinkedtoeffective,user-centreddesignanddeploymentprocesses.
Acknowledgements
TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofcolleaguesattheMineralsIndustrySafetyandHealthCentre,UniversityofQueensland,Australia.ThispaperwaspartlywrittenwiththesupportofanECMarieCurieFellowship‘SafetyinDesignErgonomics’(projectnumber268162)heldbythefirstauthorattheEngineeringDesignCentre,UniversityofCambridge,UK.
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Chapter16Carrots,SticksandSermons:StatePolicyToolsforInfluencingAdoptionandAcceptanceofNewVehicle
SafetySystemsMatts-ÅkeBelin
SwedishTransportAdministration,VisionZeroAcademy,Borlänge,Sweden,andSchoolofHealth,CareandSocialWelfare,MälardalenUniversity,
Västerås,Sweden
EvertVedungInstituteforHousingandUrbanResearch,UppsalaUniversity,
Uppsala,Sweden
KhayesiMeleckidzedeckWorldHealthOrganization(WHO),DepartmentofViolenceandInjury
PreventionandDisability,Geneva,Switzerland
ClaesTingvallSwedishTransportAdministration,Borlänge,Sweden
DepartmentofAppliedMechanics,ChalmersUniversity,Gothenburg,Sweden
Introduction
Roadtrafficfatalitiesandinjuriesarearapidlyincreasinghealthproblemintheworld.TheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)hasestimatedthatthenumberoftrafficfatalitieseachyearisapproximately1.2million,whileasmanyas50millionpeopleareinjured.Withoutconcertedaction,thenumberoffatalitiesandinjuriesisestimatedtoincreaseby65percentbetween2000and2020;andinlow-andmiddle-incomecountriesthenumberofpersonskilledintrafficcrashesisestimatedtoincreasebyasmuchas80percent(Pedenetal.2004).AccordingtotheWHO,roadtrafficcrashesweretheninthmostcommoncauseofdeathin2004.Ifthetrendcontinues,theywillbethefifthmostcommoncauseofdeathby2030(WHO2009).Despitethisgrimprojectionforroadtrafficcrashesatthegloballevel,therearemajorregionaldifferences.Forexample,inhigh-income
countriesinEurope,thetotalnumberoffatalitiescausedbytrafficcrashesisthelowestintheworld.
Intheroadtransportsystem,consistingofusers,vehiclesandenvironment(Haddon1980),thedesignof,andinteractionbetween,thesethreefactorsdeterminethesafetylevel.Vehiclesafetyisanareathatisgarneringmoreattentionincountrieswithalowshareoftrafficfatalitiesandtherearehighambitionsforitinthefieldofroadtrafficsafety.AgoodexampleisSwedenwithits‘VisionZero’policy(Belin,TillgrenandVedung2011).AccordingtotheEuropeanCommission,safevehiclesareakeycomponentincreatingasaferoadtransportnetwork.Vehicledesignisimportantforallroadusersandencompassesbothcrash-preventingpropertiesandpassive-damage-reducingpropertiesincaseofacrash(EuropeanCommission2009).ElectronicStabilityControl,WarningandEmergencyBrakingSystems,LaneSupportSystems,SpeedAlertsystemareall,amongothers,examplesofpromisingnewvehiclesafetytechnology(iCarSupportdatabase2012).
Safedesignsoffuturevehiclesareultimatelydeterminedbythecompaniesthatproducethem.Forcompaniestobeabletoselltheirproductsthereneedstobeademandamongconsumers.Therefore,consumerdemandandcompanies’estimationofthisdemandgreatlyinfluencethevehiclesthatareavailableforpurchase.
Anotherimportantstakeholderisthestate.Theroleofthestate,particularlywhether,whenandhowtointerveneinthemarketandaffairsofsociety,isalong-standingissueinpolicyresearchandpolitics(Parsons1995).Withrespecttoroadsafety,thestatehasvarioustoolsthatithasusedinothersectorsthatitcanemploytoinfluencethemarketforsafevehicles.TheaboverelationshipcanbedescribedaccordingtoFigure16.1.InthischapterthefocuswillbeonthefirstboxinFigure16.1.Thepurposeofthischapteristoexaminethetypesofgovernmentactionsthatarebeingtakentoinfluencethemarketforsafevehiclesandhowthepublicstrategieshavechangedovertime.Thischapterismainlydescriptiveandthereforewillnotdeeplydiscusswhichkindofpolicyinstrumentsandstrategiesaremosteffectiveininfluencingsocialacceptanceofsafevehicletechnology.
ToolsofGovernance:Carrots,SticksandSermons
Roadsafetyresearchtendstofocusontheeffectivenessofspecificmeasuressuchashelmets,seatbeltsandspeedcameras(see,e.g.,ElvikandVaa2004forasummaryofstudies).However,behindthesemeasuresisthestate,whose
contributionrangesfromformulatingpolicythroughtoenforcingtrafficlawstoprovidingresourcesneededforroadsafetymeasures.Thestatecarriesoutitsroleinroadsafetythroughanumberofpolicyinstruments.Literatureonstateinstrumentsshowsthatthestatehasanumberofpolicyinstrumentsatitsdisposal,whichcanbeusedtoensuresupportandeffectorpreventsocialchange(Vedung1998).Theseinstrumentscanbeclassifiedinanumberofdifferentwaysbut,accordingtoVedung(1997and1998),theycanbeputintothreemaincategories:
Figure16.1Theprocessofinfluencingthemarketforsafevehicles
•Sticks(regulations);•Carrots(economicmeans);and•Sermons(information).
Thestatecaneitherforceustodowhatitwants,rewardusorchargeusmateriallyfordoingit,orpreachtouswhatweshoulddo.Simplyput,governmentsmayvariouslyusesinglyorincombination,thestick,thecarrotorthesermon.Thebasisofthistrifolddivisionisthelevelofauthorityinrelationtothetargetgroup.Regulations(sticks)arecoerciveforthetargetgroupsubjectedtothem.Economicinstruments(carrots)involveeitherdistributingortakingawaymaterialresources.Whileeconomicinstrumentsmaybeextremelycontrollingforthetargetgroup,thereisstill,intheory,apossibilityforthetargetgroupnottofollowthestate’sintentions,attheriskofbeingmateriallyaffected.Inthecaseofinformation(sermon),thestatedisseminatesknowledge,arguments,advice,encouragingtalkandotherimmaterial(symbolic)assetstothetargetgroup.Thetargetgroupisneitherforcednorwillitsufferanyfinanciallossorenjoyanyrewardsifitpaysheedtoandfollowsthethrustofstateinformation(Vedung1997and1998).
Inthischapter,thefocuswillbeprimarilyontherolethestatecanplayinpromotingadoptionofroadvehiclesafetytechnology.Thebasicscenarioisthattechnologywhichmightenhanceroadusers’safetyexists,butisnotavailableon
technologywhichmightenhanceroadusers’safetyexists,butisnotavailableonthemarket,willnotreachthemarketquicklyenoughorwillonlybeavailabletoasmallnumberofroaduserswhocanaffordtopayforit.Weshallregardthisas‘failedmarketintroduction’.Dependingontheanalysisofthefailedmarketintroduction,thestatecanchoosebetweenthreestrategies:
1.Thefirststrategyisbasedontheassumptionthatthefailedmarketintroductionisduetothefactthattheautomotiveindustry,strivingtomaximisefinancialgain,estimatedthattherewouldbenodemandforcarswiththissafetytechnologyinstalledeventhoughitwouldbenefitthegreatercommunityofroadusers.Thestatecanthenforcetheautomotiveindustrytoequipthevehicleswiththedesiredtechnologybyintroducingaregulation.
2.Thesecondstrategyisbasedontheautomotiveindustryestimationthatthereisacertaindemandbutthatthenewsafetytechnologywillbetooexpensivetointroduce,orthatthetechnologywillresultintoosmallaprofit.Thestatecantheninvariouswaysmanipulatethemarkettoreducethecostsorincreasetheprofitfortheautomotiveindustrybyintroducingeconomicmeans.
3.Inthethirdscenario,thereisastrongpotentialdemandandfinanciallyviabletechnology,butknowledgeamongconsumersistoolow.Thestatecanthen,invariousways,informandconvinceboththeautomotiveindustryandconsumersaboutpositiveaspectsofthetechnology.InFigure16.2thesethreemainstrategiesareillustrated.
Figure16.2ThreebasictoolsofgovernanceforpromotingvehiclesafetytechnologyIthasnotbeenpossibletoamendthisfigureforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Fig16_2.pdf
Thefollowingsectionswillprovideexamplesofhowstatesutilisethethree
Thefollowingsectionswillprovideexamplesofhowstatesutilisethethreegovernancetoolstostimulatethesupplyofcertainsafetytechnologies.
TheFirstStrategy:RegulationsandVehicleSafety
On9September1966,then-presidentoftheUnitedStatesLyndonB.JohnsonsignedboththeNationalTrafficandMotorVehicleSafetyActandtheHighwaySafetyAct.Afederalroadtrafficsafetyinstitutionwasalsoestablished.Thisuniqueeventmeantthatthenewfederalauthoritywasgiven,fromacontemporaryperspective,averyprogressivemandatetogoverntheautomotiveindustry(Graham1989).Itwasnothinglessthanacomprehensiveshiftinpublicpolicy,whichmeantthattheAmericanstateabandonedanon-interventioniststrategywithregardstotheautomotiveindustryinfavourofaninterventioniststrategy(Vedung1998:2f).Apolicychangeofthismagnitudeismostlytheresultofaverycomplexprocessinvolvingmanystakeholders.AccordingtoGraham(1989),thepolicychangecanbeexplainedinpartbytheautomotiveindustry’sinabilitytoplaythepoliticalgametocombatfederallegislation,andinpartbyaverystrongconsumerrightsmovementledbyRalphNader.ThispolicychangeprovedofgreatsignificancenotonlytoroadtrafficsafetyworkintheUnitedStates;itaffectedotherhighlymotorisedcountriessuchasSweden,whichalsopassednationalvehiclelegislationand,in1968,establishedanationalroadtrafficsafetyagency,StatensTrafiksäkerhetsverk.AccordingtoStone(1982),thiswasalsothestartofaneraofgeneralconsumerprotectionwheretheAmericanCongresspassedanumberoflawsandmanyfederalauthoritieswereestablished,suchastheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)andsoon.Publicandgovernmenttrustintheabilityofcompaniesandthemarkettosatisfypeople’ssafetydemandswasextremelylow.AccordingtoStone(1982),thefederalregulationoftheautomotiveindustrywasjustifiedprimarilyongroundsofequity.Consumershadinformationdeficitinrelationtotheautomotiveindustryandtheregulationwasintendedtoforcetheautomotiveindustrytodevelopanddelivervehiclesthatmetatleastonesetofminimumsafetyrequirements.
Bytheendofthe1970s,therewerestrongviewsagainsttoomuchstateintervention.ThedownsideofanoverlyinterventioniststrategyintheformofincreasedbureaucracyandhighercostswereemphasisedandderegulationbecameanimportantwatchwordforRonaldReaganwhenhetookoveraspresidentin1981(Stone1982).Itwasn’tjustincreasingcostsorbureaucracythatmotivatedanincreasinganti-regulationview.Thestate’sambitionsto
thatmotivatedanincreasinganti-regulationview.Thestate’sambitionstoregulatetheautomotiveindustryseemedtoalsobringunwantedandperversesideeffects(Vedung1997),whichmeantthatregulationessentiallyreducedconsumers’accesstosafetytechnologyratherthanincreasingit.AccordingtoGraham(1989),thecoercivestrategythatwasemployedwhenitcametopassivesafetysystemswasmostlikelycounterproductiveanddelayedtheintroductionofairbags.Regulationinitselfcreatedstrongresistancefromtheautomotiveindustry,whichinturnmadedevelopmentandtheintroductionofnewsafetytechnologyharder.
TheSecondStrategy:EconomicInstrumentsandVehicleSafety
Economicpolicyinstrumentsexistinmanydifferentforms.Thereisanimportantdifferencebetweenmonetaryandnon-monetaryeconomicgovernancetools.Justlikeregulations,economictoolscanbeframedpositivelyasincentivesornegativelyasdisincentives(Vedung1997and1998).
Thestatecanuseanumberofdifferenteconomicinstrumentstoaffecttheintroductionofsafetytechnologyinthemarket.Inthissectionwewilllookattwoexamples,appliedindifferentareas:namely,publicallyfundedlarge-scaledemonstrationprojectsandpublicprocurement.
PublicallyFundedLarge-ScaleDemonstrationProjects
Large-scaledemonstrationprojectsarecommonlyusedbythestatetoreducecostsandincreasetheutilityforcompaniesthatwishtointroducenewtechnologytothemarket.Forexample,duringtheperiod1999–2002,theSwedishgovernmentconductedalarge-scaleattempttointroduceIntelligentSpeedAdaptationsystems(ISA)infourSwedishmunicipalities,atacostofapproximatelyUS$8.4million.Atotalof10,000driverstestedvariouspiecesofequipmentanddespiteitbeingprimarilyaresearchprojectitwasalsoastepinthebroaderimplementationofISAsystemsinSweden(Svedlund,BelinandLie2009).Thisdemonstrationprojectisanexampleofwherethegovernmentcreatesthefinancialandotherconditionsforcompaniestoshowcasetheirnewtechnologies.Anotherexampleofalarge-scaledemonstrationprojectaimedatamongotherthings,easingtheintroductionofnewsafetytechnologytothemarket,istheEuropeanCommission’sfinancingofandparticipationinFOT-NET(FOT-NET2012).FOT-NETarelarge-scaletestingprogramsaimingatacomprehensiveassessmentoftheefficiency,quality,robustnessandacceptance
ofICTsolutionsusedforsmarter,safer,cleanerandmorecomfortabletransportsolutions.
PublicProcurement
Publicstakeholdersinmanydirectandindirectways,affectthesafetyleveloftheroadtransportsystem.Publicprocurementhasformanyyearsbeenusedbygovernmentsasawayofreducingenvironmentalimpactsonsociety.Ithasbeenusedtoreachenvironmentalgoalsandisalsousedtoresearchvehiclesafetyandmeetroadtrafficsafetygoals.TheMonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentreinMelbourne,Australia,hassystematicallyidentifiedanumberofactivitiesthatpublicactorsperformtoimproveavehicle’ssafety(Haworth,TingvallandKowadlo2000).Forexample,whatwasthentheSwedishRoadAdministration,introducedatravelpolicythatmeantthatinternalsafetyrequirements,inadditiontocontemporarylegislation,wereplacedonvehiclesthatwerepurchasedandusedforwork-relatedtravel.Suchademandcouldbethatallvehicles–companycars,privatevehiclesandhiredvehicles–shouldbeequippedwithaspecificpieceofsafetyequipment.TheSwedishRoadAdministration’stravelpolicyspreadtootherpublic,nonprofitandprivateorganisationsandso,hadanindirecteffectontheoverallmarket.Thus,publicprocurementaimstocreateademandforsafetytechnologybycreatingeconomicincentivesforcompaniestoprovidevehicleswithahighsafetystandard.
TheThirdStrategy:InformationandVehicleSafety
Thethirdpolicyinstrumentstrategyaimstoexertinfluencethroughpersuasionandinformation.Economicandinformativemeansofcontrolaresimilarinthat,unlikeregulation,theylacktheelementofcoercion.Therecipientsarethereforefreetofolloworignoretherecommendationsastheyseefit.Thetargetgroupneitherbenefitsmateriallynorriskssufferinganymateriallossesduetotheiractions.Allthatisofferedisarguments.
VehicleRatingProgram
Asanalternativetogovernmentregulation,andasaresponsetothecriticismlevelledagainsttheregulationstrategy,theNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA)launchedtheir1979crashtestassessmentprogramfor
newvehicles.TheNewCarAssessmentProgram(NCAP)aimedtoimprovepassengersafetythroughvehicletestingandevaluationinaccordancewithpredeterminedsafetycriteria.Theresultsofthesetestsaredisseminatedtoconsumerswhocanthencomparethesafetylevelsofdifferentvehicles.Theaimforthissortofratinginformationistoencouragetheautomotiveindustrytovoluntarilyimprovethesafetyoftheircars(USDepartmentofTransportation2007).Today,therearesimilarprogramsinEurope,JapanandAustraliaamongotherplaces(McIntosh2008).Althoughvehicleratingprogramsmainlycanbeseenasconsumerinformationaimedatpotentialbuyersandasawayofmakingtheirchoiceofsafecarseasier,theprogramsalso,toalargedegree,aimtodirectlyinfluencetheautomotiveindustryandincreasetheirincentivestocontinuouslyimprovethesafetystandardsoftheirvehicles.Thehopeisthatvehiclesthatdowellinthetestsandscorethehighestmarkswillalsosellbetterinthemarket.
DisseminationofScientificResults
Electronicstabilitycontrolsystems(ESC)haveproventobeveryefficientpiecesofroadtrafficsafetytechnologywithgreatpotentialtoreduceroadtrauma.TheESCmarketpenetrationinSwedenincreasedfrom15percentto90percentin48months(Krafftetal.2009).Averyquickdiffusionprocessofaninnovation(Rogers1983)canbedescribedinthestepsshowninFigure16.3:theECSseffectsarestudiedusingscientificmethodsandtheresultsareactivelydisseminatedbygovernmentalofficialsthroughthemedia;importantpurchaserspartakeoftheinformationandsomekeystakeholdersexpresstheirintentionsofonlypurchasingvehiclesthatareequippedwithESC;andimportersandproducersthenofferESCasstandardequipment.Thisisagoodexampleofhowfactualinformationaffectsconsumerdemandinthemarket,whichinturnaffectsthesupplyofsafetytechnology.
Figure16.3AprocessofinfluencingcarimportersandproducerstoinstallESCasstandardequipment
Vertical,HorizontalandChronologicalPackagingPolicyInstruments
Differentmeansofcontrol,strategiesandtheirdeploymentarerarelyimplementedinapureform.Mostofthetime,thedifferentmeansofcontrolandstrategiesarecombinedintovertical,horizontalorchronologicalpackages.Verticalpackagingiswhenameansofcontrolisaimedatonesetofactorsinordertoaffectthemtoperform,intheirturn,anactionthataffectsthefinaltargetgroup.Horizontalpackagingoccurswhentwoormoremeansofcontrolareaimedsimultaneouslyatthesametargetgrouptoreachthesameendtarget.Chronologicalpackagingoccurswhenvariouspolicyinstrumentsareappliedincertaintimesequences(Bemelmans-VidecandVedung1998).
Packagingofregulatory,economicandinformationalpolicyinstrumentstoaffectsupplyanddemandofroadvehiclesafetytechnologyisveryrelevant.AnexampleofverticalpackagingcouldbetheSwedishgovernment’sregulationthatplacesrequirementsongovernmentagenciesintheirprocurementofvehiclesandroadtransportationservices.From1February2009,governmentagencieswererequired(regulation)topurchaseonlyvehiclesandroadtransportationservicesthatmeethighenvironmentalandroadtrafficsafetyrequirements.Amongotherthings,carsthatareprocuredorhiredbyagovernmentagencyshouldbeequippedwithelectronicstabilitycontrolsystems.Thischainofinfluencethusleadsfromregulationtoaneconomicpolicyinstrument–namelyprocurement–whichinturnaffectstheautomotiveindustryintoproducingvehicleswithelectronicstabilitycontrolsystems.
Examplesofhorizontalpackagingcouldbewhenthegovernmentsimultaneouslyprocuresandprovidesinformationaboutthepositiveeffectsofelectronicstabilitycontrolsystems.Finally,anexampleofchronologicalpackagingcouldbewhenthegovernmentincreasesthemarketshareofvehiclesequippedwithelectronicstabilitycontrolsystemsbyprovidinginformationabouttheirperformanceand,thenatalaterpointintime,afterthemarketsharehasincreasedvoluntarily,regulatethetechnology.(TheEUhasproposedtomakeESCcompulsoryfornewcarsfrom2014onward.)
Conclusion
Inthischapter,differentpolicyinstrumentsandstrategiestoinfluencethemarketwithsafetytechnologyinroadvehicleshavebeenanalysed.Inmanyhigh-incomecountriesthenumberoffatalitieshasreachedarelativelylowlevel.
DuetoverydemandingroadsafetypoliciessuchasVisionZero,greatemphasisisoftenplacedontheuseofnewsafetytechnology.Althoughtheuseofregulationsarestillavailableasapolicyoptionforgovernmentstopromotetheimplementationofnewvehiclesafetysystems,thismechanismhas,inaglobalmarket,becomeincreasinglydifficulttoapply.Therefore,themodernstateneedstodevelopinnovativestrategiesandmechanismstoamplifyaswellaspromotesocietalacceptanceofnewtrafficsafetytechnology.
When,whereandwithinwhatculturalcontextisaspecificpolicyinstrumentorapackageofseveralpolicyinstrumentsmosteffectiveandappropriate?Toanswerthatquestion,furtherresearchisneeded.Forexample,asBelinetal.(2010)haveshowninacomparativestudyoftwodifferentspeedcamerasystems,evenifbothsystemstechnicallyhavethesameaim–toreducespeeding–theideasonhowthatshouldbeachieveddiffersubstantially.Interventionsarebasedeitherimplicitlyorexplicitlyontheoriesaboutthewayinwhichtheinterventionsaresupposedtowork(Hoogerwerf1990,SchneiderandIngram1990,Vedung1997,Rossi,LipseyandFreeman2004).Designandchoiceofpolicyinstrumentscanbeexpectedtovarywiththebackground,rolesandcognitiveorientationsofpolicymakers,aswellaswithcontextualfactorsthathavehistoricallyinfluencedtheirviewsoftheinstruments(LinderandPeters1989).Therefore,thechoiceofdifferentpolicyinstrumentsandpackagestrategiestoinfluenceroadvehiclesafetyiscomplexandnotsimplyamatterofchoosingthemosteffectiveinstrument.
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PARTVOptimisingDriverAcceptance
Chapter17DesigningIn-VehicleTechnologyforUsability
AlanStevensTransportResearchLaboratory,UK1
GaryBurnettHumanFactorsResearchGroup,FacultyofEngineering,
UniversityofNottingham,Nottingham,UK
Abstract
Usabilityofin-vehicletechnologyisakeycontributortodrivers’acceptanceofit.Thischapterfocusesonusability,includinghowusabilityisdefined,howitcanbemeasuredandhowitcanbeenhancedthroughdesign.Thechapterdescribesarangeofinternationalregulationsanddesignguidelinesforinformationsystems,warningsystemsandassistancesystemsthatattempttopromoteusabilitybyincorporatingbestpractice,bothindesignandinthedesignprocess.Althoughthetechniquechosen,theequipmentusedandthetestingenvironmentneedtobecarefullychosendependingonthein-vehiclesystemandtheevaluationquestionbeingaddressed,itisconcludedthatusabilityisakeycontributortodrivers’acceptanceofin-vehicletechnologyandthatitcanbemeasured.
IntroductionandScope
TheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(Davis,BagozziandWarshaw1989),describeshowperceivedusefulnessandeaseofusearethemaindeterminantsofattitudetowardsatechnology,whichinturnpredictsbehaviouralintentiontouseand,ultimately,actualsystemuse.InthischapterweshalldefineusabilityandrelateittotheconceptsofacceptancewithintheTechnologyAcceptanceModelbeforedescribinghowusabilitycanbemeasuredandenhancedthroughdesign.
Withtheprofusionofinformationandentertainmentoptionsavailabletodrivers,themoderncarhasbeendescribedas‘aSmartPhoneonwheels’(e.g.,Toyota2011).Informationmaybepresentedbothin-vehicleandexternallyand
needstoberelevant,timely,consistentanduseful.Thechallengeistoprovidetheinformationandservicesdemandedbydriversthatareusablewithoutcausingunsafedistractionandoverload.
Aswellasinformationandentertainment,in-vehiclesensor,communicationsandprocessingtechnologycanassistthedriverbyprovidingadviceandwarningsconcerningthevehicle’simmediateenvironment.Suchwarningshavetobeperceived,understoodasrelevantandacteduponappropriately,iftheyaretobeeffective(Wogalter2006).Issuessuchasperceivedfalsealarmratealsohavetobecarefullyconsideredthroughuser-centreddesigntoensureusabilityandpromotedriveracceptance(seeChapter9byJan-ErikKällhammerandcolleaguesearlierinthisbookforfurtherdiscussionaboutwarningsandfalsealarms).
Withdrivererrorconsistentlyidentifiedasacontributoryfactorinmorethan90percentofvehiclecrashes(Treatetal.1977),vehicledesignersarenowofferingsystemsthatprovideautomationofspecificelementsofthedrivingtask.Systemscanevenbedesignedtointerveneinvehiclecontroltoavoidormitigateanimpendingcollision.Nevertheless,usabilityissuesaroundhowthevehicle‘feels’andrespondsandhowcontrolispartitionedbetweenthevehicleandthedriverarecrucialtoachievingdrivertrustandacceptance.
Usability
Usabilityasaconceptaroseinthelate1970sandearly1980sasdesktopcomputersemergedwithgraphicaluser-interfacesdesignedforthemassmarket.Arangeofdefinitionshasbeenproposedinsubsequentyears,whichdependspredominantlyonwhetherusabilityisviewedasapropertyofaproduct/systemoranoutcomeofuse(Bevan2001).ThispointisspecificallymadeintheInternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO)/InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission(IEC)25010(2011:12),whichconsiderssoftwarequality:
Usabilitycaneitherbespecifiedormeasuredasaproductqualitycharacteristicintermsofitssubcharacteristics,orspecifiedormeasureddirectlybymeasuresthatareasubsetofqualityinuse.
Arguably,therehasbeengreaterimpactfromdefinitionsofusabilitythatconsidertheoutcomesthatemergefromuser-systeminteraction.Inthisrespect,themostwell-knownandutiliseddefinitionisgiveninISO9241(1998:2),whereusabilityisdefinedas
whereusabilityisdefinedas
Theextenttowhichaproductcanbeusedbyspecifieduserstoachievespecifiedgoalswitheffectiveness,efficiencyandsatisfactioninaspecifiedcontextofuse
Effectivenessisessentiallyaboutwhethertasksareachievedornotwithaproductandthis,inturn,largelydependsontheextenttowhichaproductdoeswhatitwasdesignedtodo.Forsimplesystems/functionsthiscanbeablack/white(yes/no)issue.Forexample,ifagoalistoturnonanin-carentertainmentsystem,thenwemayconsiderwhetherthisgoalwasachievedornot.Formorecomplextasks,itmaybebettertothinkofthedegreeofsuccess,astheremaybepartialsuccesses.Forexample,withthetask‘planaroute’withanavigationsystem,ausermaybeabletofindandopenthenavigationfunction,enteradestination,selectarouteandsoon,butnotbeabletoviewthecompleterouteonamappriortostartingajourney.Althoughthismaynotbecriticaltoachievingaplannedroute,theinabilitytopreviewitmayimpactacceptanceofthenavigationsystemforsomeusers.
Figure17.1UsabilityComponents(conceptfromISO92411998)
Itisimportanttonotethattwosystemscouldhavethesameeffectiveness(i.e.,canachievegoalsinboth),butthe‘cost’totheusermaybeverydifferentbetweenthesystems.Forexample,itcouldtakemuchlongerwithonethantheotherorbemoredemandingphysicallyandmentally.Theusabilityfactor,efficiency,considerstheseresourcesrequiredtoachieveatask.Reducedefficiencycanbebroughtaboutby‘deviationsfromcriticalpath’,reflectingthe
factthatmosttaskshaveacriticalpathforperformance–thatis,amethodthatrequirestheleaststeps/effort.Anydeviationsfromthispathwillmaketheuser’sperformancewithasystemlessefficient.Errorsareclearlyofsignificancetoefficiency,particularlywhenconsideringthesafety-criticaldrivingsituationwheretheconsequencesoferrormaybesignificant.
Whereastheconceptsofeffectivenessandefficiencyareessentiallyobjectivecriteria,satisfaction,thethirdfactorintheISO9241definition,islargelyasubjectiveviewpointonusability,andiswherequestionnairesandinterview-basedtechniquescanbeparticularlyuseful.Forinstance,anevaluationteammayaskquestionssuchas‘howeasy/difficultwasittouse?’,‘Wasitenjoyabletouse?’,‘Wereanyaspectsannoying?’,‘Whatfeatureswereliked/disliked?’andsoon.
Severalauthorshavenotedthatsatisfactionistoorestrictiveasacriterionforsuccessinmoderncomputingproductdesign(e.g.,Rogers,SharpandPreece2011,Jordan2000).Onemaythinkofproducts,suchascomputergames,appsonsmartphones,aswellasin-vehicleentertainmentsystemswhichcouldbedescribedas‘engaging’,‘entertaining’,‘fun’,‘sociable’,‘exciting’andsoon.Satisfactionwasconceivedasacriterionforusabilitywhensoftwareandhardwarewasgenerallyconsideredinawork(office)context.Incontrast,moderncomputingproductsarepervasivewithineverydaylifesituations,includingthesituationofdrivingavehicleequippedwithconsiderablecomputingandcommunicationspower.Consequently,abroaderrangeofconceptsbecomeimportantrelatingtotheaffectiveneedsofusers,whichwecanthinkofasanextensionofthesatisfactionfactor.Twokeylabelsarecommonlyusedtodescribethiswiderviewofusability:emotionaldesign(Norman2004)andpleasure-baseddesign(Jordan2000).
NoneofthethreeelementsofusabilitywithintheISO9241definitionhaveadimensionoftimeorexposuretothesystem;however,thisshortcomingisaddressedintheworkofJordan(1998)whichintroducedfivehigherordercomponentsforusability:
•Guessability(theabilitytopredictwithoutfullinformation)isparticularlyimportantforproductswhichhaveahighproportionofone-offusers,forexample,ahiredcar,orproductswithanumberofrarelyusedfunctions.Poorguessabilitycanputpeopleoff,andmayhavesafetyimplicationsevenifthey’reactuallyeasytousewithpractice.
•Learnabilityconcernsthecosts(time,effort,etc.)toauserinreachingacompetentlevelofperformance.Thiswillbeimportantiftrainingtimeisshort,orifauseristobeself-taught,asisoftenthecasewithvehicle
short,orifauseristobeself-taught,asisoftenthecasewithvehiclesystems.
•ExperiencedUserPotential(EUP)istheperformanceofsomeonewhohasconsiderableexperiencewithaproduct–theexpertuser.Inotherwords,thelikelyefficiencyoftheinterfaceforaproficientuser(withefficiencyoneelementofusability).Thisisimportantifahighlevelofknowledge(breadthanddepth)and/orskillsisneeded,andtraining/timetoreachitisnotasignificantissue,forexample,basicdrivingskills.
•Systempotentialisthemaximumperformancetheoreticallypossiblewiththesystem–andisessentiallyanupperlimitonEUP;forexample,theminimumnumberofkeypressesrequiredtoachieveatask.ItisimportantifitislimitingEUP(andEUPisimportant).Forexample,itmaybethatauserhastogothroughsetkey-presses.Shortcutoptions(e.g.,throughacommand-basedspeechsystem)canraisethesystempotentialandhenceEUPifusersaremadeawareofthemandcaneasilyaccess/rememberthem.
•Re-usability(ormemorability)isthedecrementinperformancefollowingaperiodoftimeawayfromaproduct–ausermayforgetwhatafunctiondoesorhowtoaccessitandsoon.Itisanimportantaspectofusabilitywhenaproductorproductfunctionsarelikelytobeusedinintermittentbursts;forexample,anavigationsystembeingusedonholiday.
Althoughdesktopcomputerswerethesubjectofinitialusabilitystudies,thischapterconcernsusabilityinthecontextofthedrivingenvironmentwherethesystembeingexaminedmaynotbetheprimaryfocusofattention.ThisspecificcontextofapplicationwasthesubjectoftheISOstandard(ISO17287:2003:5)whichdefinedanewconcept‘suitability’as‘thedegreetowhicha[system]isappropriateinthecontextofthedrivingenvironmentbasedoncompatibilitywiththeprimarydrivingtask’.Suitabilityfocusesontwoelementsofproductusealreadydiscussedaboveasimportantinusability:efficiency,andeaseofusewhilelearningaboutanewsystem.Moreover,theconceptofsuitabilityintroducestwonewelementsspecificallyrelatedtothedrivingcontext:
•Controllability(essentially,theeffectivenessinthedrivingcontext);and•Interference(withthedrivingtask).
TheinternationalstandardonSuitability(ISO172872003)alsodescribesaprocessforassessingwhetheraspecificin-vehicletechnologysystemoracombinationofsystemswithotherin-vehiclesystemsissuitableforusebydriverswhiledriving.
driverswhiledriving.
UsabilityandAcceptability
AfurtherperspectiveonusabilityisgivenbyNielsen(1993)inwhichitisdefinedintermsoffivekeyattributesforproducts:learnability,efficiency,memorability,errorsandsatisfaction.Thisbreakdowntakesquiteanarrowstanceonusability,butisofparticularinteresthereasusabilityisexplicatedintermsofbroadercriteria,includingacceptability.Specifically,Nielsenbelievestheoverallconsiderationissystemacceptability(theextenttowhichrequirementsaremet,bothsocialandpractical).Forpracticalacceptability,severalcriteriaareofrelevance,includingcost,reliability,compatibilityandusefulness.ThislatterfactorofusefulnessisanalogoustoeffectivenessintheISO9241definitionandcomprisestheutilityoftheproduct/systemandtheusability.Thedistinctionbetweentheseconstructsisimportanttoanyviewonusability.Asanexample,acarwithoutlightswouldbeconsideredtobeunusableaccordingtotheISOdefinitions,butlackinginutilityaccordingtoNielsen.
Somekeyimplicationsemergefromthesealternativedefinitionsforvehicle-basedtechnologiesandissuesofacceptance.Tounderstandusabilitywemustspecifyourusersandconsequentlyunderstandtherelevantcharacteristics(drivingexperience,technologyexperience,expectationsandsoon).Wemustalsounderstandwhatuserswishtoachievewithanin-vehicleproductandconsiderindetailthephysical,socialandpotentialorganisationalenvironmentinwhichtasksarecarriedout.Withoutthisknowledge,wecannotmakeanystatementsaboutwhetheraproductisusableormoreorlessusablethananotherproduct.
Toexplorefurthertherelationshipbetweenusabilityandacceptability,itisusefultoconsidertheTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM–Davisetal.1989).Thisdescribeshowperceivedusefulnessandeaseofusearethemaindeterminantsofattitudetowardsatechnology,whichinturnpredictsintentiontouseandultimately,actualsystemuse.Now,fromtheISO9241definitionofusability,therearethreeelements:effectiveness,efficiencyandsatisfaction.ItisimmediatelyclearthatTAM’sUsefulnessalignswiththeEffectivenesselementofusabilityandTAM’sEaseofUsealignswiththeEfficiencyelementofusability.Satisfaction,thethirdelementintheISO9241definition,islikelytocontributetotheperceptionaspectsofbothUsefulnessandEaseofUseor(alternatively)couldberegardedasasupplementaryfactorinanenhancedmodeldirectlyinfluencingIntentiontouseandActualSystemUse.Sofromthis,
itisclearthatthethreeusabilityfactorsintheISO9241definitionwilleachhaveadirectimpactontheoverallacceptanceofanin-vehiclesystem.
DesignGuidelines
Introduction
Theprevioussectionhasdemonstratedhowusability(andrelatedconcepts)directlyinfluenceacceptanceofnewtechnologyanddiscussedtheimportantroleofthedriverinterfaceofthosesystemsindeterminingusability.
Thissectionreviewsarangeofstandardsandguidelinesthatareavailabletoproductdesignersthataimtopromotesafetyandusabilityinthedrivingcontext.Althoughgooddesignadvicecannotguaranteeusabilityoracceptance,itsuseislikelytoleadtomoreusableinterfacesandhencehelpproducetechnologiesthataremoreacceptable.
InternationalRegulationsandStandards
Aconsiderablevolumeofinternationalregulationexistsinrelationtodesignrequirementsformotorvehiclesthataimstoensurethattechnologywithinvehiclescanbeusedsafely.TheViennaConventiononRoadTraffic(ViennaConvention1968),forexample,isaninternationaltreatydesignedtofacilitateinternationalroadtrafficandtoincreaseroadsafetybystandardisinguniformtrafficrules.Oneofthemostquotedextractsistherequirementthat‘Everydrivershallatalltimesbeabletocontrolhisvehicle’.TheUnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE)TransportDivisionprovidessecretariatservicestotheWorldForumforHarmonizationofVehicleRegulations.TheWorldForum,throughitspermanentWorkingParty29(WP29)providestheregulatoryframeworkfortechnologicalinnovationsinvehiclestomakethemsaferandtoimprovetheirenvironmentalperformance(UNECE2012).
Althoughnotlegallybinding,internationalstandardsprovideprocess,designandperformanceadviceandthefollowingISOgroupsareworkinginareasrelevanttovehicledesignandusability:
•ISOTC22SC13WG8coveringbasicstandardsforHumanFactorsdesignofin-vehiclesystems;
•ISOTC204WG14concerningvehicleandcooperativeservices(andsomeinterfaceissues)including,forexample,LaneDepartureWarningand
interfaceissues)including,forexample,LaneDepartureWarningandautomaticEmergencyBrakingSystems;and
•ISOTC204WG17concerningnomadicandportabledevicesforITSservices.
EuropeanRegulations
During2010theEuropeanCommission(EC)publishedastudyontheregulatorysituationintheMemberStatesregardingbrought-in(i.e.,nomadic)devicesandtheiruseinvehicles,whichhighlightedthediversityofapproachesacrossmemberstates(EuropeanCommission2010).
Attheendof2008,theEuropeanCommissionpublishedanactionplanfollowedbyadirectivein2010(EuropeanCommission2010),whichhasprovisionsforthedevelopmentofspecificationsandstandardsforITSroadsafetyincludingHMIandtheuseofnomadicdevices.
USRegulations
IntheUS,lawsaboutin-vehicledistractiongenerallyfallunderthejurisdictionofindividualstatesbutwithsomeatthenational(federal)level.Asanexampleofstateprovision,theStateofNevadapassedalawinJune2011concerningtheoperationofdriverless(fullyautomated)carswherebytheNevadaDepartmentofMotorVehiclesisresponsibleforsettingsafetyandperformancestandardsandfordesignatingareaswheredriverlesscarsmaybetested.
Asanexampleofnationalprovision,inOctober2009PresidentObamaissuedanexecutiveorderprohibitingfederalemployeesfromtextingwhiledriving.Thisorderisspecifictoemployees’useofgovernment-ownedvehiclesorprivatelyownedvehicleswhileonofficialgovernmentbusinessandincludestexting-while-drivingusingwirelesselectronicdevicessuppliedbythegovernment.
DesignGuidelinesforInformationandCommunicationSystems
Europe:EuropeanStatementofPrinciples
TheEuropeanCommission(EC)hassupportedthedevelopmentofadocumentcalledthe‘EuropeanStatementofPrinciplesonHMI’(referredtoasESoP)whichprovideshigh-levelHMIdesignadvice(EC2008).AsanEC
recommendation,ithasthestatusofarecommendedpracticeorcodeofpractice(CoP)foruseinEurope.TheECrecommendationalsocontains16recommendationsforsafeuse(RSU),whichbuildonhealthandsafetylegislationbyemphasisingtheresponsibilityoforganisationsthatemploydriverstoattendtoHMIaspectsoftheirworkplace.AdherencetotheRSUislikelytopromotegreateracceptanceoftechnologybydrivers.
Thedesignguidelines-partoftheESoPcomprises34principlestoensuresafeoperationwhiledriving.Thesearegroupedintothefollowingareas:OverallDesignPrinciples,InstallationPrinciples,InformationPrinciples,InteractionswithControlsandDisplaysPrinciples,SystemBehaviourPrinciplesandInformationabouttheSystemPrinciples.
UnitedStates:AllianceandNHTSAUSmotorvehiclemanufacturershavedeveloped‘AllianceGuidelines’thatcoversimilar,high-level,designprinciplestotheESoP.Theguidelines(AutoAlliance2006)consistof24principlesorganisedintofivegroups:InstallationPrinciples,InformationPresentationPrinciples,PrinciplesonInteractionswithDisplays/Controls,SystemBehaviourPrinciplesandPrinciplesonInformationabouttheSystem.
TheUSNationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAdministration(NHTSA)hasworkedwiththeautoindustryandthecellphoneindustrytodevelopasetofguidelinesforvisual-manualinterfacesforin-vehicletechnologies.ThesearebasedontheESoP/Allianceguidelinesandintroducesomespecificassessmentprocedures(NHTSA2013).
TheNHTSAplanstopublishguidelinesforportabledevicesin2013andguidelinesforvoiceinterfacesby2014.Anothersuggestionhasbeenimplementationofa‘carmode’onportabledevices,similarto‘airplanemode’.Theideawouldbetodisablecertainfunctionswhenthevehicleismoving.
Japan:JAMATheJapaneseAutoManufacturersAssociation(JAMA)Guidelinesconsistoffourbasicprinciplesand25specificrequirementsthatapplytothedriverinterfaceofeachdevicetoensuresafeoperationwhiledriving.Specificrequirementsaregroupedintothefollowingareas:InstallationofDisplaySystems,FunctionsofDisplaySystems,DisplaySystemOperationWhileVehicleinMotionandPresentationofInformationtoUsers.Additionally,therearethreeannexes:DisplayMonitorLocation,ContentandDisplayofVisualInformationWhileVehicleinMotionandOperationofDisplayMonitorsWhileVehicleinMotion.Thereis,aswell,oneappendix:OperationofDisplay
VehicleinMotion.Thereis,aswell,oneappendix:OperationofDisplayMonitorsWhileVehicleinMotion.
WarningGuidelines
Guidelinesonestablishingrequirementsforhigh-prioritywarningsignalshavebeenunderdevelopmentformorethanfiveyearsbytheUNECE-WP29’sITSInformalGroup(Warningguidelines2011).
Therehasalsobeenworkinstandardisationgroupstoidentifyhowtoprioritisewarningswhenmultiplemessagesneedtobepresentedandone‘Technicalspecification’(TS)hasbeenproduced:
•ISO/TS16951:RoadVehicles–Ergonomicaspectsoftransportinformationandcontrolsystems–Proceduresfordeterminingpriorityofon-boardmessagespresentedtodrivers.
Inaddition,twoTechnicalReportsarerelevantthatcontainamixtureofgeneralguidanceinformation,wheresupportedbytechnicalconsensus,anddiscussionofareasforfurtherresearch:
•ISO/PDTR16352:RoadVehicles–Ergonomicaspectsoftransportinformationandcontrolsystems–MMIofwarningsystemsinvehicles;and
•ISO/PDTR12204:RoadVehicles–Ergonomicaspectsoftransportinformationandcontrolsystems–Introductiontointegratingsafetycriticalandtimecriticalwarningsignals.
DriverAssistanceSystemGuidelines
TohelppromotedriveracceptanceofAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems(ADAS),akeyissueisensuringcontrollability.Controllabilityisdeterminedbythepossibilityanddriver’scapabilitytoperceivethecriticalityofasituation;thedriver’scapabilitytodecideonappropriatecountermeasures(e.g.,overridingorswitchingoffthesystem)andthedriver’sabilitytoperformanychosencountermeasures(takingaccountofthedriver’sreactiontime,sensory-motorspeedandaccuracy).Driverswillexpectcontrollabilitytoexistinalltheirinteractionswithassistancesystems
•duringnormalusewithinsystemlimits;•atandbeyondsystemlimits;and
•atandbeyondsystemlimits;and•duringandaftersystemfailures.
TheEuropeanprojectRESPONSEhasdevelopedacodeofpracticefordefining,designingandvalidatingADAS(Cotter,HopkinsandWood2007,ACEA2009).ThecodedescribescurrentproceduresusedbythevehicleindustrytodevelopsafeADASwithparticularemphasisontheHumanFactorsrequirementsfor‘controllability’.
AnotherEuropeanproject,ADVISORS(Cotteretal.2008),hasattemptedtointegratetheRESPONSEcodewithinawiderframeworkofuser-centreddesigntakingaccountoftheusabilityofinformation,warningandassistancesystems.ThereisalsoactivitybytheInternationalHarmonizedResearchActivities–IntelligentTransportSystems(IHRA-ITS)WorkingGrouptodevelopasetofhigh-levelprinciplesforthedesignofdriverassistancesystems(IHRA-ITS2012).
Figure17.2OverviewoftheRESPONSEcodeofpracticefordesignofin-vehicleinformationandassistancesystems
MethodsRelatedtoUsabilityMeasurementandIn-VehicleSystems
Amethodfortestingtheusabilityofin-carsystemscanbeseentobeacombinationofthreefactors(Burnett2009):
1.Whichenvironmentisthemethodusedin(road,testtrack,simulator,laboratory,etc.)?Choosinganenvironmentwillbelargelyinfluencedbypracticalconsiderations,theknowledge/skillsofthedesign/evaluationteamandresourcelimitations.Fundamentally,thereisoftenatradeoffinchoosingamethodenvironmentbetweentheneedforinternalvalidity(control)andtheecologicalvalidityofresults(Parkes1991).Forinstance,roadtrialsmayhavehighecologicalvalidity(weareconfidentthatthephenomenonbeingobserveddoesariseintherealworld),butmayhavepoorinternalvalidity(wemaynotbeabletounderstandclearlywhysuchbehaviourarises).
2.Whichtaskmanipulationsoccur(multipletask,singletaskloading,notasksgiven,etc.)?Incertainmethods,thereisanattempttoreplicateorsimulatethemultipletasknatureofdriving.Forothermethods,performanceand/orbehaviouronasingletaskmaybeassessedandthepotentialimpactonothertasksisinferredfromthis.Othermethodsconsiderunderlyingopinionsandattitudes(e.g.,questionnairesurveys,interviews)ormaynotinvolveusers,aiminginsteadtopredictimpactsorissues;forinstance,throughtheuseofexpertratingsormodellingtechniques.
3.Whichdependentvariables(operationalisedasmetrics)areofinterest?Somewillrelatetodrivers’performancewithprimarydrivingtasks(e.g.,laneposition,hazarddetection)ortheiruseofprimaryvehiclecontrols(e.g.,useofbrake,steeringwheel).Othermetricsfocusondriverperformance,thedemandofsecondarytasks(e.g.,tasktimes,errors,displayglances)orvariousphysiologicalparameters(ECG,EEG,EMG,etc.).
AsnotedbyRogersetal.(2011),indecidingonanymethod,thedesignteammustconsidertheoverallgoalsofthework,specificquestionstobeaddressed,thepracticalandethicalissuesandhowdatawillneedtobeanalysedandreported.Bynecessity,manybespokemethods(oratleastspecificversionsofgenericmethods)arerequiredthataccountfortheparticularlycomplex
characteristicsofthedrivingcontext.ArecentUSstudy(Ranneyetal.2011)assesseddifferentmethods(tests)ofdistractionpotentialinpreparationfortheNHTSAguidelines.Somewell-knownandcommonlyusedmethodswhichshedlightonusabilityandhencedriveracceptance,canbesummarised:
Roadtrials–Driverstakepartinashort-term(normallylessthanoneday)focusedstudyoranaturalisticlong-termstudy(acrossmanydays/months).Participantsmayuseasysteminaninstrumentedcarortheirownvehicleonpublicroads(occasionallyontesttracks).Forsuchtrials,awiderangeofvariablesmaybemeasuredandanalysed(e.g.,visualbehaviour,workload,vehiclecontrol,subjectivepreference)dependingontheaimsofthestudy.
Simulatortrials–Driverstakepartinashort-term(normallylessthanoneday)focusedstudyusingasystemfittedormockedupwithinadrivingsimulator.Thefaithfulnesswithwhichasimulatorrepresentsthedrivingtask(knownasitsfidelity)canvaryconsiderably.
Occlusion–Thisisastandardisedlaboratory-basedmethod(ISO2007)whichfocusesonthevisualdemandofin-vehiclesystems.Participantscarryouttaskswithanin-vehiclesystemwhilstwearingcomputer-controlledgogglesthatcanopenandshutinaprecisemanner.Consequently,bystipulatingacycleofvisionforashortperiodoftime(e.g.,1.5seconds),followedbyanocclusioninterval(e.g.,1.5seconds),glancingbehaviourismimickedinacontrolledfashion(Stevens,BurnettandHorberry2010).
Peripheraldetection–Thismethodrequiresdriverstocarryouttaskswithanin-carsystem(eitheronroadorinasimulator)andtorespondtochangeswithintheirperiphery(e.g.,thepresenceoflightsorthemodificationofashapeforanobject).Thespeedandaccuracyofresponsesareconsideredtorelatetothementalworkloadanddistractionassociatedwithsecondarytasks.Inadevelopmentofthemethod,someresearchhasconsideredthepotentialfortheuseofatactiledetectiontask,wheredriversrespondtovibro-tactilestimulation(e.g.,throughthewristorontheneck)whilstinteractingwithanin-vehiclesystem(Engström,AbergandJohansson2005,Diels2011).
Lanechangetask–Thisstandardisedmethod(ISO2010)occursinabasicPCsimulatedenvironmentinwhichdriversarerequestedtomakevariouslanechangemanoeuvreswhilstengagingwithanin-vehiclesystem.Theextenttowhichtheprofileofmanoeuvremadebyadrivervariesfromtheoptimummanoeuvre(thenormativemodel)isconsideredtobeameasureofthequalityoftheirdriving.
KeystrokeLevelModel(KLM)–TheKLMmethodisaformoftaskanalysisinwhichsystemtaskswithagivenuser-interfacearebrokendownintotheir
underlyingphysicalandmentaloperations;forexample,pressingbuttons,movinghandbetweencontrolsandscanningforinformation.Timevaluesareassociatedwitheachoperatorandsummedtogiveapredictionoftasktimes.InanextensionoftheKLMmethod,Pettitt,BurnettandStevens(2007)havedevelopednewrulesthatenabledesignerstodeveloppredictionsforarangeofvisualdemandmeasures.
Conclusions
Thischapterhasdiscussedhowusabilitycanusefullybeconsideredintermsofeffectiveness,efficiencyandsatisfaction,allthreeofwhichcontributetoadrivers’judgementoftheacceptabilityofin-vehicletechnology.
Thechapterhasreviewedarangeofregulations,standardsanddesignguidelinesthataimtoencouragebetter-designedin-vehicletechnologythatshouldalsohelptopromotedriveracceptance.AlthoughbasicHumanFactorsprinciplesareestablished,therapiddevelopmentofin-vehicletechnologypresentsachallengeforupdatingregulationsanddetaileddesignguidance.
Finally,thechapterhasexploredarangeofmethodsthroughwhichusabilitycanbeevaluated.Thetechniquechosen,theequipmentusedandthetestingenvironmentneedtobecarefullychosendependingonthein-vehiclesystemandtheevaluationquestionbeingaddressed.Nevertheless,itcanbeconcludedthatusabilitycanbemeasuredandthatusabilityisakeycontributortodrivers’acceptanceofin-vehicletechnology.
Acknowledgements
ThischapterdrawsonpreviouslypublishedworkfortheEuropeanCommission.However,thecontentofthischapteristheresponsibilityoftheauthorsandshouldnotbeconstruedtoreflecttheopinionsorpoliciesofanyorganisation.
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1©TransportResearchLaboratory,2013
Chapter18TheEmotionalandAestheticDimensionsofDesign:AnExplorationofUserAcceptanceofConsumer
ProductsandNewVehicleTechnologiesWilliamS.Green
UniversityofCanberra,Australia
PatrickW.JordanUniversityofSurrey,UK
Introduction
Thetechnological‘levelplayingfield’hasbeenevidentinconsumerproductdesignformorethantwodecades(Jordan1997a),andeventhecontinuousroundoffaceliftsandupgradestotheelectronicsandmechatronicsofourlatesttoysdolittletodifferentiatetheoperabilityofoneproductfromanother.Thereare,arguably,no‘bad’cars.Thereareindeedsomethatwillperformbetterthanothers,willlastlonger,willbesmootherorquieterandsoon,butthediscriminationisoftenattheouteredgesofthefunctionalityenvelopeandthesameistrueofmostofourconsumerproducts.Whatthen,arethedesignfactorsthatdeterminethepurchaseimpulseinthefirstplaceandthecontinuedsatisfactionwiththeproduct?
Thefirst-centuryRomanarchitect,engineerandwriterVitruvius,inhismagnumopus,DeArchitectura,identifiedthreequalitiesforthecriticalappraisalofdesign.Thesewere‘Firmitas’,‘Utilitas’and‘Venustas’.WemaytranslatetheseasStructuralIntegrity,UsabilityandBeauty.
Thefirsttwoarenotveryproblematic.Doesitwork?Canweuseit?Therearereasonablyobjectivemetricsavailableforustoapplythesecriteriatoalmostanyproduct.Thethird,however,hasalwaysbeenaslipperyconcept,withthecommonappraisalbeingcapturedintheoldsayingthat‘beautyisintheeyeofthebeholder’.Unfortunately,thisisnotveryusefulforthedesignerorengineerchargedwiththetaskofspecifyingthenextgenerationproduct,andindeeditisnotcompletelyaccurate.
Theproblemsfacingaresearcherordesignerwhoreliesonrationalityare
Theproblemsfacingaresearcherordesignerwhoreliesonrationalityareexemplifiedbythefollowingexcerptfromaconversationbetweenoneoftheauthorsandafriendknownforhisextensivecarownership:
WhenIbuyacarIamabsolutelymeticulous.Ireadthetestreports,thespecifications,lookatthesafetyrecord,thecost,thepower,fuelconsumption,reliability,sizeoftheboot,evenconsultTheBoss(referringtohispartner);thenIthrowitawayandgobuysomethingthatIlike.(Anonymous2012,inconversationwithoneoftheauthors)
Whatthis‘like’meansshouldbeoffundamentalconcerntomanufacturers,engineers,designers,marketersandindeedanyoneinvolvedintheproductionandsalesofanyproduct,becauseitencapsulatestheentireaesthetic/emotionalresponsetotheproduct.TheaestheticdimensionhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdiscussionanddebatefromtheearlyGreekphilosophers(e.g.,Plato,Aristotle)onwards,withouteverreachingdefinitiveconclusions,butnonethelesswiththetacitunderstandingthattherearegeneralisablequalitiesthataresufficientlyrobusttobeuseful.Asanexample,termssuchassymmetry,balanceandtensionhaveaphysicalanaloguethatallowstheirapplicationtothevisualwithanadequategeneralacceptance.
Inrecentyearsthescrutinyoftheaestheticqualitiesofproductshasbeenextendedbeyondthecerebralappreciationofform,colour,textureandsoon.Currentresearchisconcernedwiththeemotionalproductexperience,andthisimmediatelyamalgamatestraditionalaestheticjudgementswithusability,reliability,longevity,valueandcost.Thebasisofthetechniquesthatareemergingfortheassessmentandformalisationofthisscientificallydifficultstudy,andsomeofthetechniquesthemselves,arethesubjectofthefollowingsections.
TheBasics
ThepsychologistAbrahamMaslowdescribedwhathecalleda‘hierarchyofhumanneeds’(Maslow1954).Thismodelviewsthehumanasa‘wantinganimal’thatrarelyreachesastateofcompletesatisfaction.
Indeed,ifNirvanaisreacheditwillusuallybetemporarybecauseonceonedesirehasbeenfulfilledanotherwillsurfacetotakeitsplace.Maslow’shierarchyisillustratedinFigure18.1.Theideaisthatassoonaspeoplehavefulfilledneedslowerdownthehierarchy,theywillturntheirattentiontothingsatthenextlevelandlooktomeetthose.Forsomeonetoreachastablestateofsatisfaction,theywouldhavetobeabletofulfilltheneedsatthetopofthehierarchyandalltheneedsunderneaththemonanongoingbasis.
Asimilar,albeitsimpler,hierarchyhasbeenproposedinthecontextofuserneedsasshowninFigure18.2,andthisrelatesdirectlytothefundamentalsarticulatedbyVitruvius.Atthebottomofthehierarchywehavethefunctionsthattheproductofferstheuser.Theseneedtoworkwellandbesufficienttoenabletheusertoachievewhattheywantwithaproductinorderforittohaveanyvaluetothem.
Figure18.1Maslow’shierarchyofneeds(Maslow1954)
Figure18.2Hierarchyofuserneeds(Jordan1999)
Thenextlevelisusability.Onceusersknowthattheproductoffersthemthefunctionstheyneed,thenextissueishoweasyitistouse.Theyarelikelytobediscontentediffunctionstakealotoftimeandefforttouseoriftheystruggleandmakeerrorsalongtheway.
Oncethisissortedout,thenextlevelispleasure.Thisisabroadconceptthatwewilldiscussinmoredetailbelow,butessentiallyitincludesthingslikepositiveemotions,goodexperiencesandapositiveself-image.
Iftheproductalsoprovidesthese,thenwecanexpecttheusertoexperiencelong-termsatisfactionwithit.
Asanexample,consideranentertainmentproductsuchasatelevision.In
Asanexample,consideranentertainmentproductsuchasatelevision.Inthiscasefunctionalitywouldincludethingssuchasthesizeofthescreen,thequalityofthepicture,thethingsthatcanbeadjusted(e.g.,volume,contrast,brightness),thefacilitiesthatareprovided(HDMI,USBetc.)andthemanufacturedqualityofthetelevision.
Usabilitywouldincludethingssuchashoweasyitistoadjustthefunctions,howeasyitistosettheTVupandinstallthechannels,howeasyitistonavigatebetweenfunctionsandhoweasyitistobacktrackerrors(the‘Oops’factor).
Whilepleasureinowningandusingthetelevisionislikelytobeheavilyaffectedbythefunctionalityandusability,therearealsolikelytobeotherfactorsthataffectpleasurabilityandthesevarywithcircumstance.
Theperceivedaestheticqualitiesofthetelevisionareaffectedbyitsshape,colour,materialsanddesigndetails:isitflat-screenornot,doesithaveabrushedmetalfinishorisitblackplastic,arethespeakergrillsnicelydetailed,doestheremotecontrolsatisfytheuser’svisualandtactileexpectationsandsoon?
Thelookandfeeloftheinterfacemayalsoplayarole–whatarethegraphicslikeonthemenus,dothebuttonsontheremotecontrolgiveapleasingclickwhenpressed,whatdothebuttonsfeelliketothetouch?Hapticresponsesinparticularbecomeimportantinacontrolenvironmentwherevisualreferencingmaybelimited;forexample,inavehiclewheredirectingattentiontoaconsolelocationmayevenbedangerous.Insuchacasetheresponseimpactsonsafetyandfunctionalityaswellaspleasureandsatisfaction.Anobviousreferenceisthemoveawayfromsmallandpoorlydifferentiatedbuttonsoncarstereostothecurrentsteeringwheelmountedandlineofsightcontrols.
Brandimageandperceptionsofstatuscanbeimportant.Marketingresearchhashighlyrefinedcategorisationsontheresponseofpurchasersanduserstotheperceivedprestigeorotherwise,conferredbycertainbrandsandtheimportancethatvaryingdemographicsassigntothem.
Itmustbeacknowledgedthatthearcaneworldoffashionalsoexertsaconsiderableinfluence,butishighlycomplexandworthyofmoreconsiderationthanispossiblehere.ThosewishingtopursuethisinthecontextofproductscouldstartwithanessaybyJeanBeaudrillard(Beaudrillard1988)onthesystemofobjects.Questionsofstatusandfashionableacceptancearepresentatmanylevelsofhumanexperiencebutitisattheupper(pleasure)levelsthattheybecomesignificant.Concernwith,forexample,acolourbeingfashionableimpliesalevelofsecuritywellbeyondtheneedforfoodorshelter!
ModelsofthePleasureExperience
Thereareanumberofpleasureexperiencemodels.AgoodexampleisNorman(2004),whoidentifiesthreelevelsofcognitiveprocessingatwhichwecanexperiencepleasure.
Norman(2004)
VisceralThisisthemostimmediatelevelofprocessing.Therearecertainsensoryaspectsofaproductthatweperceiveevenbeforeanysignificantlevelofinteractionhasoccurred.Itgivesusourinstinctivefirstimpressionsofaproduct.Itispredominantlyvisualbutmayalsobeolfactoryandtactile.
Asanexample,considertheJuicySalifcitruspressdesignedbyfamousproductdesignerPhillipeStarkfortheAlessicompany.Theangularlegsandbulbousbodyarevisualcharacteristicsreminiscentofagiantspider.Becausespidersarefrequentlyperceivedasdangerousanimalstheproductwillimmediatelygrabourattention,eveninaclutteredkitchen.
Inourpreviousexampleofthetelevision,thesize,screentype,colour,materialtextureanddesigndetailsarethefirsttoimpact.
BehaviouralThislevelofprocessingoccurswhenusingtheproduct.Itreferstotheimpressionofaproductthatwehavewhileweareinteractingwithit.
Forexample,whenweareusingproductssuchastheAppleiPhone(andothercurrentsmartphones)wemayenjoytheintuitivewaytheyworkandthebrightandcheerful-lookingiconsontheinterface.
ReflectiveThislevelofprocessingisaboutconsciousconsiderationandreflectionsonpastexperiences.Itincludeshowwethinkaboutaproducthavinghadsomeexperienceofit,butwhennotactuallyusingit.
Forexample,theCanonIxuscamera(knownastheCanonElphinsomemarkets)hadadesignthatwas,atthetime,radicallydifferentandarguablymoreaestheticallypleasingandinterestingthanothercamerasonthemarket.Thismadeitsomethingofatalkingpointforusersandalsoattractedattentionfromothers.Whenpeoplereflectedonowningitandbeingseenwithit,itgeneratedasenseofpride.
Normanmakesthepointthatpleasuresateachofthesethreelevelsof
Normanmakesthepointthatpleasuresateachofthesethreelevelsofprocessingcaninfluencepleasureatotherlevels.Forexample,ifsomethinggivesusagoodimpressionrightfromthestart(visceral),wemaythenbemoreinclinedtofeelpositivelyaboutitwheninteractingwithit(behavioural)andconsequentlywhenwethinkaboutitafterwards(reflective).
Thisissometimesreferredtoasthe‘halo’effect.Itcanworkfromanystartingpoint;forexample,ifwehaveagreatexperienceinteractingwithaproduct(behavioural)thenthismaymakeusthinkaboutitmorepositivelyafterwards(reflective)andhaveamoreinstinctivelypositivereactionthenexttimeweseeit(visceral).
Thehaloeffectcanalsoworkinreverse;ifwehaveanegativeviewoftheproductatanyoneofthesestages,thenwemayalsobeinclinedtotakeamorenegativeviewattheotherstages.Norman’smodelgivesusanoverviewofthedifferentlevelsatwhichaproductcanbepleasurabletoownoruse,butwhataboutthedifferenttypesofpleasurethataproductcangive?
Jordan(1999)
BasedontheworkofanthropologistLionelTigerin1992,PatrickJordan(1999)hasidentifiedfourdifferenttypesofpositiveexperiencesthatwecangetfromproducts.
Physio-pleasuresThesearetodowiththebodyandthesenses.Theycomefrom,forexample,thevisual,tactile,auditoryandolfactorypropertiesofaproduct.Forexample,thefeelinginthehandofamobilephonewouldcomeintothiscategoryorthesmelloffreshcoffeethatcomesfromacoffeegrinder.
Psycho-pleasuresThesearetodowiththemind,bothcognitionsandemotions.Theyinclude,forexample,thepleasureofknowinghowsomethingworksorthepleasurewetakeinfindingsomethinginteresting.Theyincludethefeelingofpositiveemotions.Forexample,usingasoftwarepackagetoproducecreativeimagerywouldcomeintothiscategoryaswouldthefeelingofreassurancewegetwhenweturnonanApplecomputerandheartheresonant‘bong’whenitbootsup.
Socio-pleasureThisistodowithrelationships.Itincludesboth‘concrete’and‘abstract’relationships.Concreterelationshipsarethoseassociatedwithspecificallyidentifiablepeople,suchasafriend,lovedoneorco-worker.Forexample,
identifiablepeople,suchasafriend,lovedoneorco-worker.Forexample,Skypebringssocialpleasurebyallowingustohavevideoconversationswithourfriendsandfamilyatnocost.
Abstractrelationshipsarethosewithsocietyingeneral;theyincludethingslikestatusandhowweareperceivedbyothers.Forexample,ifwewearanArmanisuititenhancesoursocialstatusandmayhelpustobeperceivedasstylish.AcrypticremarkbyRobertSchullersumsupourconcerns:‘IamnotwhatIthinkIam.IamnotwhatyouthinkIam.IamwhatIthinkyouthinkIam!’(Schuller1982).
Ideo-pleasureThisistodowithourtastesandvalues.Tastesaregenerallyjustamatterofpreference.So,forexample,ifwepreferbluetoyellow,wemayfindablueT-shirtmorepleasurabletowearthanayellowone.
Valuesrepresentourmoralsandaspirations.Ifweareconcernedabouttheenvironment,wemay,forexample,findlocallysourcedfoodsmorepleasurablethanfoodsthathavebeenimported,thusincurringgreaterairmiles.Meanwhile,ifweaspiretobesomeonewhoissuccessfulintheircareer,wemaygetpleasurefromproductsassociatedwithbeingahigh-flyerinthebusinessworld.
ApplyingtheModelstoVehiclesandDriverAcceptance
Inthissection,wewillcombinetheFourPleasuresandThreeLevelsmodelsandlookathowvehiclescanprovidepleasureinthesevariousways.
Physio-pleasure
Physio-visceralThesearetheimmediatefirstimpressionphysicalpleasuresthatwegetfromavehicle.Forexample,thesmellinsideanewcarwouldbeanexampleofphysio-visceralpleasure.Thisissomethingthatweareawareofevenbeforewehavehadanysignificantinteractionwiththecaranditgivesusapositivesenseofthecar’squality.
Anotherexampleisthesoundthatacardoormakeswhenclosing.BMW,forexample,hasputalotofresearchintoensuringthattheirdoorsclosewithadeepbassthud–asoundthatisassociatedwithsolidityandgoodbuildquality.
SomeyearsagoHarleyDavidsoneventried(unsuccessfully)toregisterthesoundtheirmotorbikesmake,becauseofthevisceralassociationwiththeiconicproduct.
product.
Physio-behaviouralThesearethephysicalpleasuresthatwegetfromavehiclewhenusingit.Itcouldincludethebenefitsofcomfortableseatingorthepleasantfeelingofthesteeringwheelorgearshift.Forexample,thefeelingoftheluxurioushand-stitchedleatheronthesteeringwheelandgearshiftofaBentleywouldbesourcesofphysio-behaviouralpleasure.
Physio-reflectiveThisreferstothephysiological‘legacy’ofmakingatripinavehicle.Forexample,dowehaveanyachesandpainsafterthetrip,dowefeeltiredordowefeelcomfortableandfresh?Theinclusionofmassageseatsinsomehigh-endcars–forexample,Bentley–areanexampleofsomethingthathelpsinachievingthis.
Psycho-pleasure
Psycho-visceralTheserefertoourimmediatepsychologicalreactionswhenseeingavehicle.Designersoftenuseanthropomorphism–parallelswithpeopleoranimals–toelicitcertainreactionsinusinthisrespect.Headlightsareoftenusedtorepresenteyes,grillstorepresentmouths.Inthiswaycarscanbemadetolookcute,aggressive,tough,orwhatevereffectthedesignerisgoingfor.ThereincarnationoftheVWBeetleisanexampleofacardesignedtolookcute.
Psycho-behaviouralThesearethepsychologicalpleasureswegetwhendrivingthevehicle.Theyincludethesenseofcontrolthatwehaveoverthevehicle,thefeedbackwearegettingfromtheinstrumentsandtheeaseofusingthecontrols.Feelingpositiveemotionssuchasconfidenceorexcitementwhendrivingwouldalsocomeintothiscategory.Forexample,theimmediateresponsivenessandrapidaccelerationofaPorsche911givesbothafeelingofexcitementandcontrolandisthusasourceofpsycho-behaviouralpleasure.
Psycho-reflectiveThisreferstoourthoughtsandemotionswhenreflectingonusingavehicle.Forexample,wemaythinkbacktowhatanexcitingdrivewehavejusthadorreflectwithquietsatisfactiononourvehiclesreliability.Theseven-yearwarrantythatKiaoffersontheircarsisanexampleofthis.Becausethemanufacturerhassuchahighlevelofconfidenceintheirvehicles,wearelikelytobeconfidentinthem
ahighlevelofconfidenceintheirvehicles,wearelikelytobeconfidentinthemtoo.Confidenceinthevehicleisaformofpsycho-reflectivepleasure.
Socio-pleasure
Socio-visceralThistypeofpleasureincludestheimmediatereactionthatourcargeneratesinothers.Thismayhavepositiveornegativeconsequencesforthewaythatotherstreatuswhenwearedriving.Forexample,surveysintheUKhaveshownconsistentlynegativeattitudestodriversofBMWcarswhoareconsideredaggressiveandinconsiderate.WhensomedriversseeaBMW,theymayreactnegativelyandBMWdriversreportbeingshownfarlessconsiderationbyothersmotoriststhandriversofothervehicles.
Socio-behaviouralThisreferstothesocialreactionsthatpeoplehavetousandourvehicleswhentheyseeusdrivingandalsotothesocialrolethatthecarplaysinourlives.
Formanyofusourcarplaysanimportantroleinourfamilylives.Thisincludestransportingourchildrentoandfromschool,variousotheractivities,andgoingouttogetherforfamilyoutings.
FeaturessuchasDVDplayersinthebacktokeepthechildrenentertainedandwipe-cleanseatstocopewillspillagescanbeasourceofsocio-behaviouralpleasure,asareoptionsin,forexample,theChryslerVoyagermulti-personvehicle.
Socio-reflectiveThisincludeshowothersthinkaboutourvehicleandhowwetalkaboutourvehicleinthecompanyofothers.Forexample,ifwetalkaboutourvehiclepositivelytoothersthenthiswouldbeasocio-reflectivepleasure.
Havingavehiclethatisdifferentfromeveryoneelse’scanalsobeasocio-reflectivepleasure.Forexample,thehugenumberofoptionsthatMinioffersforthecoloursofthevariouspartsofthebodyandthelightingandcolours,givesuchahugevarietyofpotentialcombinationsthatitispossibletospecifyacaruniquetoyou.
Ideo-pleasure
Ideo-visceralThisisourowninstinctiveresponseastowhetherornotavehicleappealstoourtastesandmoralsensibilities.Forexample,somepeoplewhoareconcerned
tastesandmoralsensibilities.Forexample,somepeoplewhoareconcernedabouttheenvironmentimmediatelyhaveanegativereactionwhenseeingahuge4x4vehiclesuchasaRangeRoverbeingdrivenonurbanroads,buthaveaninstinctivelypositivereactiontoahybridvehiclesuchasaToyotaPriusoranelectricvehiclesuchasG-Wiz.
Ideo-behaviouralThisconcernsthedegreetowhichweperceivethevehicleasbeingconsistentwithourtastesandvalueswhenwearedrivingit.Manycarsnowgivereadingsonhowmanymilesorkilometreswearetravellingpergallonorlitreoffuel.Forthoseconcernedwithenvironmentalissues,thiscanbeasourceofideo-behaviouralpleasure.In2012,Kawasakiintroducedan‘eco’symbolonthedashboardoftheirmotorcycleswhichflashesto‘congratulate’theriderwhentheyareridinginanenvironmentallyfriendlymanner.
Ideo-reflectiveThisreferstothedegreetowhichwefeelthatavehiclefitswithourtastesandvalueswhenwereflectonit.Forexample,whenwelookatapictureofitorreadaboutitinamagazine,dowefeelproud?Wemaylikeacarbecausewefeelthatitsdesignreflectsqualitiesthatwewouldliketothinkofourselvesashaving.Forexample,owningatough,rugged,vehiclelikeaHummermaymaketheownerfeeltough.‘IlovemyJeepbecauseit’stoughlikeme’(GoversandMugge2004).
TheQualityoftheDriverExperience
Whendesigningacarorothervehicle,itisimportanttoconsideralloftheaboveaspectsinordertomaximisethequalityofthedriverexperience.Itisclearthatthereismuchoverlapbetweenthecategories,andthatasinglephenomenonmayelicitmorethanonecategoryofpleasure.TorehearsethesoundoftheAppleboot-up,thereassuranceitpromotesisclearlya‘psycho-pleasure’buttheactualnoisemaybepsycho-visceral.
Decidingonthenatureofthedriverexperienceisnotastraightforwardtask.Atanobviouslevel,theremaybeaconsiderabledivergencebetweentheperceivedpositiveexperiencesofatestosterone-rich18yearoldandanelderlyretiree.Thereareindeedsomegeneralisable‘pleasures’buttheidentificationofthemtendstobeafunctionofresolution.Atlevelsoflow(population)resolution,thepredictabilityofanexperiencebeingjudgedpleasurableisrelativelyhigh.Astheresolutionincreasesthepredictabilitydecreases,sothat
foranygivenindividualitislikelytobeafarfromrobustjudgement(GreenandKanis1998).Itis,forexample,relativelysafetopredictthataphysio-visceralimpressionofgoodbuildqualityasexemplifiedbypanelfit,paintfinishordetailresolutionwillresultinpositiveresponsesfromthebulkofapopulation.However,theremaywellbeseveralindividualswhoignoresuchmarkersinfavouroflessmainstreamassociations.Thinkofthenichefashionfor‘feral’transportationgeneratedbytheMadMaxmovies,ortheappliquémudforurbanSUVs.Customisationmayaccountforsomeoftheinter-individualvariation,butjudgementsstillneedtobemade,andsupportedinsuchawaythatthenatureofthedesignedexperienceisascontrolledaspossibleandnotlefttochance.
Oncewehavedecidedwhatpleasureswewantthedrivertoexperience,howdowegoaboutdeliveringthesethroughthedesign?
Ononelevelmuchofthiscomesdowntothejudgementofthedesignerandtheirknowledgeofthepeopletheyaredesigningfor.However,therearealsoanumberofapproachesandtechniquesthatcanhelpwiththis,selectedexamplesofwhicharegivenintherestofthechapter.Thereisnobasisforselectionofthetechniquesotherthantodemonstratearangeofpossibilities.
Itisimportanttonotethatthevarioustechniquesaresometimescomplexandrequireeffortandknowledgetoapply.Mostarebasedonsomeelicitationofhumanresponsestostimuliandarethusakintotechniquesofusertriallingand/ormarketresearch.Itisnotourpurposetopresentimmediatelyapplicablemethods,butrathertoillustratesomeoftheworkthathasbeendoneintheareaandtoindicatefurtherreading.Referencesareprovidedforthosewishingtopursuethetechniquesmentioned.
Kansei(Emotional)Engineering
ThisisastatisticalapproachdevelopedbyMitsuoNagamichiatHiroshimaUniversity(Nagamichi1995,1997)wherebythedesignofaproductisbrokendownintoitsconstituentpartsandastatisticalanalysisisusedtolinkpeople’semotionalresponsestoparticulardesignaspects.
Eachconstituentpartisdesignedtoelicitthedesiredemotionalresponsesothattheproductasawholegeneratestheoverallemotionaleffectrequired.Forexample,ifwewereaimingtodesignacarthatwaspowerfulandelegant,wecouldlookatvariousaspectsofthedesign–suchascolour,formandsound–andcombinethemindifferentwaysandmeasureuserresponsestoseewhichonecreatedtheoveralldesiredaffect.
Imaginethatwehad,forexample,fivecolouroptions,fiveformoptionsandfivedifferentexhaustnotestochoosefrom.Thiswouldgiveusapossible125
fivedifferentexhaustnotestochoosefrom.Thiswouldgiveusapossible125combinations(5×5×5)andwecouldputalloftheseinfrontofuserstoseewhichscoredbestoverallonthedesiredcharacteristicsofpowerandelegance.
Thistechniquehasbeenusedextensivelywithinthecarindustry–perhapsmostnotablyinthedesignoftheMazdaMX5orMiata.KanseiEngineeringwasusedtogivethecarspropertiesreminiscentofa1970sBritishsportscar.TheMX5wentontobeamassivesuccessandisnowthebest-sellingtwo-seatconvertibleinhistory.AnaccessiblereferenceisLee,HaradaandStappers(2002).
SEQUAM
SEQUAM(SEnsorialQUalityAssessmentMethod)hassomesimilaritiestoKanseiEngineeringinthesensethatitusesstatisticalanalysestounderstandhowtolinkproductpropertiestoemotionalresponses.
WhereitdiffersfromKanseiisthat,ratherthanlookingattheemotionalresponsestocombinationsofdesignelements,SEQUAMlooksatresponsestodesignelementsindividually.Itinvolvesplottingthepropertiesofeachelementonacontinuumandseeingwhattheresponsetoeachis.
So,forexample,iftryingtocreateasteeringwheelwithahigh-qualityfeel,propertiessuchastheroughnessandhardnessofthematerialcanbeplottedagainstperceivedquality.Oncetheoptimumlevelofroughnessandhardnesshasbeenidentified,amaterialusingboththislevelofroughnessandhardnesscanbeusedforthesteeringwheel.
Fiathasusedthistechniquetooptimisethetactilepropertiesoftheirsteeringwheels,gearshiftknobandinsidedoorhandles.Becausetheseareusuallyamongthefirstthingsthatpeopletouchwhentryingoutanewcar,theyareimportanttothevisceralimpressionthatthecarmakes.Forfurtherdetail,seeBonapace(2002).
Desmet’s‘PrEmo’
PieterDesmet(Desmet2003,Desmet,HekkertandJacobs2000)isoneofarecentgenerationofresearcherswhohavemadesignificantstepsforwardintheformalisationofemotionalresponsestoproducts,particularlyvehicles.Hisdoctoralresearchusedanimatedmanikinstohelpviewersarticulateemotionalresponsestoproducts.WorkingintheIDStudioLabinTUDelft,DesmetandHekkerthavebeenseminalinthestudyofaffectivedesign,andtogetherwithJanJacobsandKeesOverbeekewereprimemoversintheestablishmentoftheDesignandEmotionSociety,whichaimstocreatemethodsandtechniquesfor
DesignandEmotionSociety,whichaimstocreatemethodsandtechniquesforthestudyofemotionalresponsestodesign.
PrEmouses14differentanimationsofgender-neutral‘puppets’todepictsevenpositiveandsevennegativeresponsestovisualstimuli.Thesepuppetsweredrawnbyanartistusingprofessionalmodelstoregistertherequiredemotions.Theanimationbeginsataneutralexpressionandmovestothedepictedemotioninonesecond.Thepositiveemotionsareinspiration,desire,satisfaction,pleasantsurprise,fascination,amusementandadmiration.Thesevennegativeemotionsaredisgust,indignency,contempt,disappointment,dissatisfaction,boredomandunpleasantsurprise.Forfurtherdetailoftheapplicationtoautomobiles,consultDesmet,HekkertandJacobs(2000)andDesmet(2003).
ProductsasPersonalities
Therehasbeenconsiderableinterestinthelastdecadeintheconceptofproductsaspersonalities.Jordan(1997b)usedtheMyers-Briggspersonalitytypeindicatorandlater,in2002,translatedthisintomoreaccessibleterms.Sincethen,therehavebeennumerouspapersillustratingthepossibilitiesandthedifficultiesofassigninganthropomorphicqualitiestoproductsandtoassesstheeffectsofdoingso.
GoversandMugge:ProductAttachment
PascalleGoversandRuthMuggehavebeenactiveintheexplorationofproductattachmentandtheconceptofproductpersonality.Govers,aconsultantwithMetrixLabinRotterdam,publishedherbookProductPersonalityin2004(Govers2004).
Forherdoctoralresearchcompletedin2007atTUDelft,Muggeconsideredtheideaofproductsaspersonalitiesandthephenomenonof‘bonding’withproductsandhassincepublishedseveralrelatedpapers.Herworkconcentratedontheproductfacilitationof‘self-expression’,thisbeingoneofthefourfactorsthatweredrawnfromtheliteratureasbeingabletoinfluenceproductattachment:self-expression(canIdistinguishmyselffromotherswiththeproduct?),groupaffiliation(doesownershipoftheproductconnectmetoagroup?),memories(relatedtotheproduct)andpleasure(providedbytheproduct)(Mugge,SchiffersteinandSchoormans2006).FurtherReferencesareGovers,Hekkert,andSchoormans(2002),Govers(2004),GoversandMugge(2004),Mugge,SchiffersteinandSchoormans(2004),Mugge,Schoormans,and
Schifferstein(2005)andMugge,etal.(2006).
CulturalProbes:The‘Presenceproject’GaveretAl.
Toillustratethediversityoftechniquesassociatedwithemotionaldatagathering,weincludetheCulturalProbestechnique,initiatedbyGaver(Gaver,DunneandPacenti1999)attheRoyalCollegeofArtandused,forexample,byWensveen(Wensveen2005)inhisdoctoralthesis:
Theprobesconstituteacollectionofevocativetasksforexploringattitudesandaspirationsanddevelopinganempatheticandengagingunderstandingofaparticularaudience.(Gaveretal.1999)
Theprobesintheformofexperimentaldesignsof,primarily,communicationavenues(graphicandhapticuserinterfaces)wereeventuallytestedwiththeelderly,childrenandethnicgroups.StephanWensveenusedthetechniqueinthedesignofproductsandthusprovidesabridgebetweenthetheoryandproductdesign.
Conclusion
In-vehicletechnologicaladvanceshavethepotentialtobeseenasassistive/positiveorrestrictive/negativebydifferingdemographics.Think,forexample,oflaneguidance,distanceorspeedcontroldevices.In-cabincontrolsmaybegenerallylesscontroversialbutrecentexamplesofstronglycriticisedmenusystemsdemonstratethattheuserexperiencemustbeconsideredadominantfactor.Amajorcomponentoftheuserexperienceisaestheticandemotionalsatisfaction.
Thischapterhasattemptedtopresentsomeoftheissuesconfrontingdesignerswhowanttomovetheexperienceoftheirvehiclebeyondthegenerallyacceptedstandards.Theresearchandtheknowledgementionediswellknownandaccreditedintheacademicdomainthatgeneratedit,andthereisawealthofpublishedexemplarsavailablebyfollowingthereferencetrailprovidedhere.Thereisalsonodoubtthatindividualmanufacturersanddesignstudioshaveinvestedmuchtimeandmoneyindeterminingtheirbrandidentityandhavedetailedinformationonthevaryingdemographicsthatconstitutetheirmarket.However,elevationoftheemotionalproductexperiencetoahighprofileinthedesignprocessisstillawork-in-progress,andtranslationoftheacademicadvancesintosoliddesignparametershasmuchinherentuncertainty.Thereisat
advancesintosoliddesignparametershasmuchinherentuncertainty.Thereisatpresentnogeneraltheoryofdesignforproductemotionandindeedtheremayneverbesuch,butsomeoftheresearchersandthetechniquespresentedinthischapterhavethepotentialtomovethespecificationofapositiveemotionalexperiencetobealittlemoredeliberateandalittlelessgiventochance.
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Desmet,P.M.A.2003.Measuringemotion:Developmentandapplicationofaninstrumenttomeasureemotionalresponsestoproducts.InFunology:fromUsabilitytoEnjoyment,111–23.EditedbyM.A.Blythe,A.F.Monk,K.OverbeekeandP.C.Wright.Dordrecht:KluwerAcademic.
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Gaver,B.,Dunne,T.andPacenti,E.1999.Design:Culturalprobes.Interactions,6(1).
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Chapter19OptimisingtheOrganisationalAspectsof
Deployment:LearningfromtheIntroductionofNewTechnologyinDomainsOtherthanRoadTransport
MartinC.MaguireLoughboroughDesignSchool,LoughboroughUniversity,UK
Abstract
Theuseoftechnologyinanydomain,suchasmanufacturing,financeorhealthcare,takesplacewithinawiderorganisationalenvironment.Theroadtransportenvironmentisnodifferentinthisregardfromotherdomains.Thischapteroutlineshoworganisationalaspectsinteractwithtechnologydeployment,providingexamplesfromvarioussectorsordomains.Lessonsfromthesedomainscanbeappliedtohelpimprovedriveracceptanceofnewtechnologyintheroadtransportdomain.Thesearediscussedandsummarised.Theconclusionsdescribegeneralorganisationalstrategiesthatcanbeadoptedwhendeployingin-cartechnologytopromoteuseracceptanceofit.
Introduction:People’sAttitudestoNewTechnology
Whennewtechnologyisintroducedintoanorganisation,reactionstoitmayvary.Theremaybeanaturalresistancetochangeandlimitedacceptanceofasystemthatwillrequirelearningandadaptationtonewprocedures.Theremaybeafeelingthatthenewsystemwillincreaseworkload,makeworkinglifemorecomplicatedortakeoverfunctionsthatpeopleenjoyeddoingandwereskilledat(Kirk1983,Eason1988).
Incontrasttothis,peoplemaylookforwardtothenewsystem,thinkingitwillhelpthemdotheirworkmoreeasily.Theymayhavebeenpartoftheprocessthathelpedspecifytheuserrequirementsforthesystemandsoknowwhatiscoming.Theymayfeelthatusingitwillhelpthemgrowanddevelopnewcareerskillsandopportunities.
Thischapterreviewsorganisationalfactorsthatarerelevanttotheintroductionandacceptanceofinformationtechnology(IT)systems.Eachfactoristhenrelatedtoin-cartechnologyandthedrivingdomain.Conclusionsaredrawnwhichdescribestrategiesfordeployingin-cartechnologysothatorganisationalfactorshelptopromoteratherthanconstrainuseracceptance.
OrganisationalFactorsandNewTechnology
Whennewtechnologyisintroducedintoaworkoractivitysetting,itsitswithinphysicalsurroundings,people,proceduresandothertechnologiesthattogethermakeupatotalsystem.Thisiscalledthe‘organisationalcontext’.Theorganisationalcontextwillaffecthowthesystemisthenusedandcanhaveimplicationsforthedesignoftheuserinterfacetoit(Maguire2013).Ifitisdevelopedfromauserperspectiveandwithaconsiderationofhowitwillmatchtheorganisationalcontext,itismorelikelytobeacceptedandusedasintended.Ifnot,thenthesystemmayendupbeingonlypartiallyused,misusedornotusedatall.
TheimportanceofhavingknowledgeoforganisationalcontextisrecognisedintheISOstandard9241-210(2010)concernedwithhuman-centreddesign.Itstates:
Thecharacteristicsoftheusers,tasksandtheorganisationalandphysicalenvironmentdefinethecontextinwhichthesystemisused.Itisimportanttounderstandandidentifythedetailsofthiscontextinordertoguideearlydesigndecisions,andtoprovideabasisforevaluation.
Figure19.1showssomeofthekeyelementsoftheorganisationalenvironmentthatmayinteractwithanewITsystemwhenitisintroduced.
Thereareanumberofsociotechnicalprinciplesthatguidesystemdesign(Clegg2000).Oneoftheseisthattheorganisationalcontextisnotstaticandwillevolveovertime.WhentheITsystemitselfisintroduceditmaychangetherolesthatworkersoccupy,theirwaysofworkingandtheirattitudestotechnology.Thereareanumberofwell-developedandvalidatedmodelsforhowwellusersreceivetechnology.OneoftheseisthetechnologyacceptancemodelorTAM(Davis1989,Davis,BagozziandWarshaw1989),whichhasbeensuccessfullyappliedinexaminingadoptionbehaviourofvariousinformationsystems(Figure19.2).
ThecoreideaoftheTAMisthattechnologyacceptanceisbaseduponaperson’soverallattitudetowardsasystem.Thisisdeterminedbyhowusefuloreasytousetheyfeelthattechnologytobe(i.e.,itsperceivedusefulness–PU,anditsperceivedeaseofuse–PEU).Thismayinturnbeinfluencedbywider
anditsperceivedeaseofuse–PEU).Thismayinturnbeinfluencedbywideraspectsintheorganisationalcontext.SometimesotherfeaturesareassociatedwiththeTAMsuchastrustinthesystemandthesocialinfluenceofothers;forexampleinrecommendingthesystemorcertainfunctionsofit.Thesereflectthewiderorganisationalcontextthatinfluencesindividualuserviews.
Figure19.1FactorsmakinguptheorganisationalcontextforanITsystem
Figure19.2TechnologyacceptancemodeldescribedbyDavis(1989)Ithasnotbeenpossibletoamendthisfigureforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Fig19_2.pdf
TheTAMreflectsoureverydayexperiencesofacquiringorusingtechnologyandourperceivedneeds.Forexample,keepingadigitalcamerainthecartorecordthesceneorawarningtriangleasaroadsidewarningarebothconsideredusefulifanaccidentoccurs.
OrganisationalDeploymentFactors
Inthissection,arangeoforganisationalfactorsispresentedthatinfluencetheacceptanceofITand,whererelevant,aspectsofPUandPEUoftechnology.Eachfactorisrelatedtotheintroductionofin-vehicletechnology.Inthecontextofdriving,theorganisationaldomainisthedriver,passengersandotherroadusers.Wheretechnologymayhavewiderimplicationsonpeopleortheenvironment,theorganisationmaybeconsideredtobesocietyitself.
Itshouldbesaidthatthedesignandinstallationofsafeandefficientin-vehicleinformationandcommunicationsystemsisalsoanimportantpartoftechnologyacceptance.Theapplicationofprinciplesforachievingthis,asdefinedbytheEuropeanCommission(2008),isstillneededinadditiontoconsideringhowacceptanceisinfluencedbyorganisationalfactors.
OrganisationalGoals
Anorganisation’sgoalsareoftensummarisedintermsofahighlevelvisionstatementofwhatitwishestoachieveandprovidingtheinspirationforstrategicdecisionsanddailyoperation.ThegoalsforanorganisationshouldleadthedesignofanewITsystem.Iftheyarenotexplicitordetailedenough,thiscanmakeithardtospecifytheuserrequirementsfornewITtosupporttheachievementofthosegoals.So,forexample,ifthegoalofanewcallcentresystemistoprovidecustomerswiththebestexperiencewhentheycontacttheorganisation,thesystemneedstoprovidetheinformationinaflexiblewayandwithfunctionsthatareeasilyaccessibletosupportthatgoal.Ifthecallcentresystemsupportsonlyarigidstructureofquestionsinordertoprocesscustomerenquiriesasquicklyaspossible,thiswon’thelpinachievingtheorganisationalgoals.Thesamecanbeappliedtoin-cartechnology.Thehighlevelgoalsheremaybetoassistthemotoringcommunityindrivingmoreeconomically,safelyandcomfortably,andpossiblytohelpthemmaintainthecarmoreeasily.Ifnew
andcomfortably,andpossiblytohelpthemmaintainthecarmoreeasily.Ifnewtechnologyinthecarhelpstoachievethis,itwillfitinwiththeaspirationsofthedriverandpassengerswhowillbemotivatedtouseandacceptit.
Theorganisationalgoalfortheintroductionofnewtechnologymaybetomergetwoormoresystemstogethersothatusersindifferentrolescanusethesamesystem.ThiswastheplanbehindtheproposedmergeroftheNationalProbationandHMPrisonServiceoffendermanagementsystemsinEnglandandWales.Thedetailsofanoffenderwhomovedbackandforthbetweenprisonandprobationcouldbekeptonthesamesystemwhilebeingaccessibletobothservices.Systemconvergencegoalscanleadtolowersystemmaintenance,simplificationoftrainingprogrammes,removaloftheneedtotransferdatabetweensystemsandeasiercommunicationbetweenthetwoservices.Therehasbeenatrendtomergedifferentsystemsinthecar(communication,navigation,entertainment,ventilationandclimatecontrol,etc.)sothattheconfusingarrayofcontrolsisaccessedfromasinglecontrolunitgivingthedriverasimpleruserinterface.Inprinciplethisisagoodideabutiftheintegratedsystemcontainstoomanyfunctionsandthecontrolsanddisplaysareoversimplified,thiscanmaketheuserinterfacedifficultforthedrivertonavigate.TheBMWiDriveisoneexampleofthis(Cobb2002,Gilbert2004).However,theconceptofacomputer-oriented,integratedinterfacehasbecomepopularintheluxurysegmentofthecarindustry(Niedermaieretal.2009).
Roles,ResponsibilitiesandSkills
Peoplewithinanorganisationoftenfulfiloneormoreroleswithaccompanyingresponsibilities.Whenanewsystemisintroducedtheremaybeamismatchbetweenthisandaperson’scurrentroleandresponsibilities.Forexample,apersonwhoisonlyexperiencedinperformingITmaintenancemayfinditdifficultiftheyarealsorequired,withoutsuitabletraining,toprovideusersupport.Workersusuallyvaluetheskillstheyhavebuiltupovertimeandapplyintheirjob,sayinanalysis,decision-makingorliaisonwithothers.However,newtechnologymayreplacethesetasks,leavingtheoperatorswithmoreroutineandlesschallengingroles.Theymayforinstancebeinchargeoftravelarrangementsforstaffandcompilingrequirementsforofficesupplies.Thisrolemaybetakenawayandbecomelessefficientiftheprocessisdevolvedandtravelrequestsandordersforofficematerialsaresentdirectlybyindividualemployeestotheexternalsupplier.
Moderncarsorlorriesoftenbringalevelofautomationtodrivingsuchasadaptivecruisecontrol,vehicleplatooning,driverassistlanekeepingormerging
intotraffic,speedlimitersforteenagedrivers,alertsfordrowsydrivers,automatedparkingandpossiblyinthefuture,automateddriving.Itcanbearguedthatwhilesuchdevelopmentstendtodeskilldrivers,theymayalsorequirethedrivertoacquirenewskillsofmonitoringandintervention.Methodsforoptimalallocationoftasksbetweenhumanbeingsandmachineshavebeendeveloped,forexamplebyWaterson(2005).Theseincludedecisioncriteriasuchasthefeasibilityofallocatingatasktothemachineandthelegalrequirementforahumantoperformatask.Inrelationtocontrolsystemsandautomation,Sheridandevelopeda10-pointscaleshowingpossiblelevelsofcomputerautomation,forexample,thecomputersuggestingapathoractionallowingtheusertoapproveit,orthecomputerdecidingonapathofactionandinformingtheuserafterithasbeencarriedout(Parasuraman,SheridanandWickens2000).Decidingonwhatisanappropriatelevelofautomationforparticulartechnologiesororganisationalcontextsdependsonfactorssuchascomplexityandpredictabilityofthecontrolprocess,workloadontheuser,fatigue,criticalityoferrorsandtheconsequencesofactionsanderrorsincludingethicalconcerns.Thepotentialuseofautomateddronesinwarfarehasbroughtthistopicintosharpfocus(Finn2011).Similarly,thenewGoogledriverlesscarwillrequirearethinkofwhatskillsarerequiredinsuchanenvironment(Nasaw2012).
Aninterestingquestionintermsofdriversusingin-cartechnologyishowmuchtheymaytrytodelegateresponsibilitytothetechnology.Adrivermaydriveclosetothesafetylimitsandtrustthecartomitigatetheeffectofanylossofcontrol;forexample,throughActiveSafetysystems,suchasbrakeassist,tractioncontrolandelectronicstabilitycontrol.Awarenessandtrainingwouldbevaluabletohelpthedrivertakeappropriateresponsibilitywhentheycometousesuchsystems.Thiswouldalsogivethemconfidenceinengagingwithsuchsystemsandbeingmorewillingtoacceptthem.
Discretionintheuseofin-cartechnologyislikelytobepreferredoverasystemthatdoesnotallowit.Anexamplemightbeasatellitenavigationsystemthatallowstheusertospecifyanintermediatedestinationpartwaythroughajourneyratherthansplittingitupintotwoseparatejourneys.Afacilityallowingadriverofahirecartodisableanyspecialdrivingmodesthathavebeensetpreviouslyislikelytobehelpful.
Generalcharacteristicsofgoodjobdesign–variety,autonomy,taskidentityandfeedback(HackmanandLawler1971)–canberelatedtothedrivingenvironment.Thiscouldbedesignedtosupportdrivingasacompletetask,thusmatchingtheideaofacoherentjob.Insomecarsfeedbackisofferedondrivingperformanceintermsofefficiency,fuelsavingandsoon.Thiscouldbetranslatedintermsofcontributiontotheenvironment,reducinggeneralstresson
translatedintermsofcontributiontotheenvironment,reducinggeneralstressontheroadandsavingwearandtearcosts.AcarpromotedinthesetermsmightbeattractivetopotentialbuyerswhoseedrivingasmorethansimplygoingfromAtoB.
WorkflowsandProcedures
Workflowsandproceduresdescribethewaythingsaredoneoroughttobedonewithinanorganisationtoachieveitsgoalsandobjectives.Inpractice,workersmayhavetoworkaroundtherulestogetthingsdone.Whileproceduresareprimecandidatestobeencodedinsoftwaredesign,thereisadangerthatintryingtoimplementthemwithoutanunderstandingofhowtheyworkinpractice,theymayproduceaninefficientornon-viablesystem.
Inthemedicalfield,acomputerised‘physicianorderentrysystem’wasintroducedwhichreducednurse-physicianinteractionaboutcriticallyillinfants(Harrison,KoppeiandBar-Lev2007).Inthenewsystem,physiciansinitiatedordersformedicationandpharmacistscheckedthemwhileclerksdeliveredthemtonursesforadministration.Thislinearworkflowledtodelaysindeliveryoforders,uncertaintyoverwhethertheyhadbeeninitiated,andsometimes,divergentorderswereproduced.Thusnursescontinuedtoinitiateorders,tointerruptphysicianstoensurethatordershadbeenenteredontothesystem,andtomakedecisionswhendivergentmedicationorderswerepresented.Abetterunderstandingofthecurrentproceduresandmoreflexibilityinthenewsystemprocesswouldhavehelpedtopreventsomeoftheproblemsoccurringandwouldhaveimprovedsystemacceptance.
Intermsofproceduresforsettingupnewtechnologyinthecar,presentingaseriesofpromptsforeachstepintheprocesscouldbehelpful.Thecarmightalsomonitoradriver’stypicalbehaviourinusingcontrolsandgiveadviceonhowtointegratethenewtechnologywithintheirdriving.Ifcarefullythoughtout,thiswouldmakethetakeupofthetechnologyamoreuser-friendlyexperience.
LawsandRegulations
Inworkinglife,thereareoftenlawsorregulationsthathavetobefollowed;forexample,abouttheprotectionofpersonalinformation,thetestingofcircuitboardsformilitaryuseandsafepracticebymedicalstaff.Thesesocietalrequirementsmightbeinconflictwithinternalproceduresandrules.Inahospitalenvironment,medicalstaffmightbeissuedwithIDcardstoaccessthepatientrecordssystemwitharegulationthattheymustnotallowothersto
patientrecordssystemwitharegulationthattheymustnotallowotherstoborrowthem.However,forpracticalreasons,nursesmayhavetolendtheircardssothatnewstaffmemberscanaccessthesystemandstartworkbeforebeingissuedtheirowncard.Enforcingtheregulationbyincorporatingbiometricsecuritycouldpreventthispracticebutwouldthencauseinconvenienceforstaff.Currentworkpracticesandthereasonsforthemneedtobeconsideredbeforeanewsystemisintroduced.
Intermsofin-cartechnology,thesystemmightdisablethecarphonewhendriving.However,thismightbecounterproductiveifthephoneisrequiredinanemergencysituation.Similarly,apoliceroadcameramightunfairlycatchdriverswhorunthroughan‘alwaysred’trafficlightthathasfailed,orwhouseausuallyprohibitedpartoftheroadspaceorpedestrianareatogetaroundafallentree.Thussystemdesignneedstotakeaccountoflawsandregulationsbutbeawareofsituationswhereitmaynotbeappropriatebysystembehaviourorrestrictiontoenforcethemstrictly.
WhiletheuseofhandheldphonesinacarisillegalintheUK,theuseofhands-freephonesisallowedprovidedthedriverisseentobeincontrolofthevehicle.Ifthisisnotthecase,theyortheiremployercanbeprosecuted.Thereisevidencethathands-freephonesarenotnecessarilysaferthanhandhelddevicessincetalkingandlisteningcantakeupalotofmentalcapacity(NunesandRecarte2002).Nevertheless,communicationfromacentralofficetodriversontheroadremainsasignificantneed,sothereisanopportunityforcreativethinkingabouthowtofacilitateitinasafemanner.Forexample,alightonthedashboardcouldwarnthedriverthattheyhaveacallwaitingandtoslowdowninordertotakeithands-free.
CommunicationandDistraction
Communicationbetweenpeopleisarequirementforeffectiveworkinginmostorganisationsandhelpstorelieveboredomandworkstress.IThasfacilitatedmanynewformsofcommunication(email,texting,instantmessaging,video-telephonyandconferencing),butthiscancreatebarrierstoface-to-facecommunicationorcommunicationoverload.
Someformsoftechnologysuchasmachinery,manufacturingprocessesorevenITequipmentcancreatenoisethathamperscommunicationbetweenpeople.Partitionedworkspacescanalsohavetheeffectofcreatingisolationwhichworkersoftenviewnegatively(Vickers2007).Establishedworkproceduresmayinvolvecertainkindsofcommunicationbetweendifferentgroupsofpeople;forexample,nursesanddoctors,managersandstaff.Ifanewsystemcutsacrosstheseestablishedchannelsofcommunication,itcancreate
systemcutsacrosstheseestablishedchannelsofcommunication,itcancreatefrustrationandpossiblyresultinalessefficientsystem(BoonstraandBroekhuis2010).
Whenconsideringthesocialcontextofthecarasincludingbothdriverandpassengers,otherquestionsarise.Peoplewithinacarwillnormallybeincommunicationwitheachotherwhichmayaffecthowthedriverinteractswithin-cartechnologyorreducetheattentiontheypaytoit.Passengersmayalsoaccessfunctionalityonthedriver’sbehalfsuchassettingthesatnavoroperatingtheentertainmentsystem.Withincars,soundproofinghasenabledthedriverandpassengerstocommunicatefreelyalthoughin-cartechnologycanhindersuchcommunicationiftheyhaveaudiooutput(forexample,spokendirectionsfromasatnav).Havingasilentoravisualdisplay-onlymodemaybehelpfulinmakingsuchsystemsmoreacceptable.Technologythatpreventsuseofacellphonewhileavehicleisinmotion,thuspreventingusebyapassenger,isanotherpotentialproblem.Newsensingtechnologywhichcandeterminewhetheraphoneisbeingusedbythedriverorbyapassengermayovercomethisproblem(Talbot2012).Fordrivers,filteringoutallbutkeycallersforhands-freecommunicationmaybehelpful.
WorkCulture
Workcultureismadeupofthesharedvalues,beliefs,underlyingassumptions,language,attitudesandbehaviourssharedbyagroupofpeople(Donais2006).Cultureisthebehaviourthatresultswhenagrouparrivesatasetofgenerallyunspokenandunwrittenrulesforworkingtogether.Anorganisation’scultureismadeupofallofthelifeexperienceseachemployeebringstotheorganisation.Cultureisespeciallyinfluencedbytheorganisation’sfounder,theexecutivesandothermanagerialstaffbecauseoftheirroleindecision-makingandstrategicdirection.
IfanITsystemprovidesawayofworkingthatdoesnotmatchwiththetypicalworkculture,thiscancauseproblemsintheorganisation.Soifasystemrequires,forinstance,frequentcheckingofemails,loggingofpeople’smovementsandrecordingofhowworkhourshavebeenspent,thismightfailifitisnotpartofthegeneralworkcultureofthegroup.
Forin-carsystems,astudyofdriverattitudestowardsnewcardevelopmentsandthewaytheythinkandtalkabouttheirvehiclescanbeausefulinputtothedesignprocess.Forexample,itmaybefoundthatownersofcertainvehiclesgenerallyhaveahighleveloftechnicalknowledgeandaremorelikelytomaintainorcarryoutrepairsforthemselves.Thiscouldencouragethedesignofvehiclesthatprovidediagnosticinformationtotheownersasguidancewhen
vehiclesthatprovidediagnosticinformationtotheownersasguidancewhenworkingontheircars.
TechnicalandFunctionalKnowledge
Technicalknowledgeamongemployeesinaworksituationcanbeanimportantfactorindeterminingauser’ssuccessintheuseandacceptanceofnewtechnology.If,forexample,auserhassomeknowledgeabouttelecommunications,theyaremorelikelytobeabletosortouttheproblemifanInternetconnectionfails.Iftheyhaveknowledgeaboutsoftwareapplications,thiswillhelpthemworkmoreefficiently.Examplesaretheuseofkeyboardshortcutcommands,thedisplayofcontrolcharacterswheneditingawordprocessingdocumentandthesplittingofrowsandcolumnsinaspreadsheetsothatheadingsstayvisiblewhenscrollingthroughthedata.
AlhussainandDrew(2009)studiedemployees’perceptionsofusingbiometricequipmentforidentityrecognitionintwogovernmentdepartmentsintheKingdomofSaudiArabia.Fingerprintscannerswereusedtorecordandproveemployees’attendancethuspreventingthemfromsigning-inforothers.Thesurveyidentifiedalackoftrustinandacceptanceofthetechnologybysomeworkers,whichtheauthorsfeltwasduetoalackoftechnicalknowledgeandexperiencewithtechnology.Employeeswerealsounsureabouttheiremployer’smotivesforusingthetechnologyandmanyfeltthatthisindicatedalackoftrustinthem.TheauthorsadvocatedthatmanagersshouldacquireabetterunderstandingofbiometrictechnologyandITsotheyshouldimplementitinamoresensitiveway,whileemployeesshouldbemademoreawareofthepurposeandbenefitsoftheinnovation.
Intheauthor’sownexperience,alackofknowledgebymembersofthepublicabouttheuseofbiometrictechnologytoaccessATMcashmachineswasareasonforreduceduseracceptanceofthem.InafocusgroupstudyconductedforanATMmanufacturer(Maguire2003),someparticipantsthoughtthatirisscanningwasunsafeasitusedalaserbeam,andunhygienicastheyhadtoplacetheireyeoveratubesharedwithothercustomers.Infact,thetechnologyisbasedoncameratechnologysotheuserhasnophysicalcontactwithit.Otherparticipantsdoubtedwhetherfaceorvoicerecognitiontechnologywouldworkifsomeone’sappearanceorvoicechanged.However,suchtechnologiesarebasedondimensionsofthefaceandfundamentalcharacteristicsofthevoicesoaremorereliablethatpeopleappreciated.
Thesameideascanbeappliedtoin-cartechnology.Knowledgeofhowdifferentfeaturesofadrivingsystemoperate,couldpromoteitsuseinamore
appropriatewaybybuildingtrustinitsoperation,enablingthedrivertouseitmoreefficientlyandovercominganyproblemswhenusingit.AnexampleisAdaptiveCruiseControl(ACC),whichusesheadwaysensorstocontinuouslymeasurethedistancetoothervehicles,automaticallyadjustingthevehicle’sspeedtoensurethatitdoesnotgettooclosetotheoneinfront.Therearedifficultieswiththistechnologyasittendstolockontolargetrucksinpreferencetomotorcyclesand‘unexpectedly’acceleratesintoanoff-roadlanewhenexitingintoamoreslowlymovingtrafficstream.Bybeingawareofthis,driverscandecidewhenitisappropriatetoemployACCandwhennot,andhowtointeractwithitappropriately.
SafetyThinking
Correctoperationofsystemsisimportanttoensurethesafetyoftheworkers,thepublicandtheenvironment.Duringthedevelopmentofasafetycriticalsystem,theimplicationsofitsuseareassessedand,wherenecessary,measuresaredeterminedtomeetsafetyneeds.Carefulattentiontosafetyissuesthenbuildsuptrustinthesystemwhichissharedbythosewhoworkinitandthosewhouseit.Reason(2004)arguesthatinthemedicaldomain,someorganisationalaccidentsequencescouldbethwartedatthelastminuteifthoseonthefrontlinehadacquiredsomedegreeoferrorwisdomandappropriatementalskills.Inasimilarway,knowledgeofdangeroussituationsandsafedrivingbehaviourcandoalottoreducethenumberofvehicleandpedestrianaccidents.Variousdocumentsareproducedbyorganisations,forexampleBVRLA(2012)andROSPA(2012),whichgiveguidelinesonsafedrivingandimploringemployerstodisseminatethemtotheiremployeesontheroad.
SecurityandUsability
Tokeepasystemsecure,authoriseduserswilloftenberequiredtoenteroneormoreusercodesandpasswords:forexample,toaccessthenetwork,theoperatingsystem,andtheapplication.Levelsofuseraccessandfunctionsavailablemayalsobeconstraineddependingoneachperson’sgradeorjobrole,soadditionalcodesmaybeneededtoaccesssensitiveorconfidentialdata.
Unfortunately,multiplepasswordsarehardtorememberespeciallyiftheychange,sotensionexistsbetweenmaintainingsecurityandeaseofuse.System-generatedpasswordstendtobehardtorememberwhileuser-generatedonesareopentohackersguessingthem(e.g.,‘secret’,‘qwerty’and‘1234’).Somepeople
maywritetheirpasswordsdown,whichcompoundstheproblemofsecurity.Ifauserforgetstheirpasswordorislockedoutfromthesystembecauseoffailedaccessattempts,theythenhavetosortouthowtoregainaccess.
Infuture,securityaccessforcarsmayevolveandbecomemorelikeITsystemaccess,withtheuseofpasswordsorbiometrics.Fingerprintcarlocksalreadyexistandtheuseofotherbiometrictechniquesmayfollow.Onceinthecar,personalidentificationmaybeusedtosetthecorrectseatingposition,steering-wheelangleortostartthecar.Whilesuchsystemsforvehicleaccessareattractivefromasecuritypointofview,therearedangersinlockingoutthedriverwhoforgetstheirpasswordorifthebiometricsystemfailslateatnightinanunfamiliarlocation.Havingabackupmechanismforsuchsituationsislikelytogivefuturedriversandcustomersmoreconfidenceincar-accessinnovations.
TrainingandSupport
Asystemdevelopedtosupportacompanyorpublicorganisation’sworkprocesseswillnormallyrequireatrainingprogrammeandusersupport.Carefulorganisationofuserawarenessandtrainingsessionsandmatchingthemtoindividuallearningstyles,playsakeyroleinstaffattitudestowardsasystemandenthusiasmforusingit(Bostram,OlfmanandSein1990).
Drivinglessonsandadvanceddrivertrainingarethemeansbywhichpeoplelearnthebasiccontrolsofacarandgaindrivingexperience.Asin-cartechnologybecomesmoreadvancedandanincreasinglysignificantpartofdriving,itmaybenecessaryforlearnerorexistingdriverstobetrainedinthesafeandeffectiveuseofit.Thismightbecomepartofdrivertrainingandthedrivingtest,orbeofferedbythevehiclemanufacturer,althoughsimilarprovisionmaynotbeavailablewithinthesecond-handmarket.Trainingtousevehicletechnologiessuchasanti-collisionwarning,self-parkingoradaptivecruisecontrolmightbeconductedpartlywithinadrivingsimulatorsothatadriverlearningtousethetechnologycanmakeerrorsand‘crash’safely.However,thisshouldnotbeasubstituteforthedesignofanintuitiveuserinterface.
SummaryofOrganisationalFactorsThatHaveImplicationsforVehicleTechnology
ThefollowingtablesummarisestheorganisationalaspectsofITimplementationandthecorrespondingimplicationsforthedesignofin-cartechnology.
Table19.1Summaryoforganisationalcontextfactorsandhowtheymayrelatetoin-cartechnology
Conclusions:OrganisationalStrategiesfortheAcceptanceofIn-CarTechnologies
KnowledgeoftheorganisationalenvironmentisimportantifanITsystemistointegratewellwiththesocialsystemandbeacceptedbytheusercommunity.Theintroductionofcomputertechnologyintovehiclescanbeseeninthesameway.Itwillonlybesuccessfulandacceptedifmatchedwiththesocialororganisationaldomain;thatis,thedrivingcommunityandbroadersociety.
Generalstrategiesthatcanbeemployedareasfollows:
1.Userawarenessandreadinessforthenewtechnologyisparamount.Ifadriverisawareofwhatthenewtechnologycando,theyaremorelikelyto
driverisawareofwhatthenewtechnologycando,theyaremorelikelytoperceivethebenefitsofusingit.Similarly,themoretheyunderstandabouthowthetechnologyoperates,theeasiertheywillfindittouse.Givingdriverspriorexperienceofin-cartechnologythroughshowroomdemonstrationscanhelptopromotebothoftheseaspects.Drivinginstructorscouldalsoprovidetrainingintheuseofthesetechnologies,ifnothingelse,togivenewdriversexposuretothem.
2.Driversvaluetheskillsandexperiencetheybuildupindriving.Technologywithincarsthatmakestheseskillsredundantisunlikelytobeacceptedeasily.Userrequirementsanalysiscanhelptoexplorewhatskillsdriversvalue,whattheywouldbepreparedtogiveupandwhatnewskillstheymightdevelopwhennewtechnologyisintroduced.
3.Aswithanyformofautomation,problemscanoccuriftheuserofthesystemisnotinformedaboutautomatedactionsthattakeplaceorgiventheflexibilitytoturnthemonandoff.Suchsystemsalsoneedtofitwiththenaturalbehaviourofthedriver,whichmightbethoughtofinorganisationaltermsasthe‘culturalcontext’.Knowledgeofthiscontextforparticulargroupsofdriverswillhelppredicthowwellcertainin-cartechnologieswillbeacceptedandused.
4.Peopleinanorganisationarenormallymoremotivatediftheycanseehowtheirparticularjoborrolecontributestothebroadersuccessofthecompanyororganisation.Iftheuseofnewtechnologyisseenbythedriverascontributingtodesirablehigh-levelgoals,suchasenhancingtheirdrivingskills,improvingtheexperienceofthepassengers,andreducingcostsoremissions,thenitwillbemoreattractiveandacceptable.
Ingeneralterms,drivingcanbeequatedtoanyjobortaskthatapersonperforms.Technologyinthecarthatpromotesthelearningofnewskills,supportsthedrivingtask,contributestodriver’saspirationsandfitsinwiththeircultureandvalues,willgreatlyenhancethechancesofitstake-up.
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Chapter20AdaptivePolicymakingforIntelligentTransport
SystemAcceptanceJan-WillemvanderPas
DelftUniversityofTechnology,FacultyofTechnology,PolicyandManagement,theNetherlands
WarrenE.WalkerDelftUniversityofTechnology,FacultyofTechnology,
PolicyandManagement,andFacultyofAerospace,theNetherlands
VincentMarchauRadboudUniversity,NijmegenSchoolofManagement,theNetherlands
SvenVlassenrootGhentUniversity,Belgium,andFlandersInstituteforMobility,Belgium
Introduction
IntelligentTransportSystem(ITS)implementationisoftenhinderedbytheuncertaintiesthatsurroundimplementation(see,e.g.,Marchauetal.2002,vanGeenhuizenandThissen2002,Walta2011,vanderPasetal.2012).OftenthisuncertaintyrelatestogeneralpublicacceptanceoftheITStechnology,thefutureacceptanceofthetechnologyorthedynamicsinacceptanceofthetechnology.(HerewerefertotheuncertaintyregardingfutureITSacceptanceamongstakeholdersdueto,forinstance,changesinthetrade-offsstakeholdersmakeamongITSoutcomesandchangesinthestakeholderconfiguration.)Transportpolicymakersseemparalysedinthefaceofthisuncertainty.Often,thisresultsintheabandonmentofimplementationofITS(e.g.,theimplementationofroadpricingintheNetherlands)oradelayinimplementationduetotheconclusionthatmoreresearchisneededbeforeadecisioncanbemade(e.g.,thenumeroustrialsofIntelligentSpeedAdaptationthathavebeenheldacrosstheworld–seevanderPas,MarchauandWalker2006).Butwhatshouldtransportpolicymakersdoinsituationsinwhichthefutureissouncertainthatanalystscannotagreeupontherightmodelorhavelittleunderstandingofwhatthefuture
willlooklike?Hereafter,werefertothistypeofuncertaintyas‘deepuncertainty’.
Inthischapterweintroduceapolicymakingapproachthatisespeciallydesignedtodealwithdeepuncertaintyindevelopingpolicies.ThisapproachiscalledAdaptivePolicymaking(APM).APMisapolicymakingapproachthatwasdevelopedattheendofthe1990sattheRANDCorporationinresponsetotheneedtocopewithdeepuncertaintyinlong-termpolicymakingforAmsterdamAirportSchiphol(RANDEurope1997).Theapproachaimsatcreatingpoliciesthatcanchangeovertime,astheworldchanges,anduncertaintiesaboutthefutureareresolved.APMspecifiesaseriesofgenericstepsfordecision-makingunderuncertaintythatcanbeusedtodesignanadaptivepolicy.ThestepsinAPMarebasedonthestepsofSystemsAnalysis(MiserandQuade1985),andkeyconceptsarederivedfromAssumption-BasedPlanning(ABP)(Dewar2002).ThepotentialofAPMhasbeendemonstratedbyvariousresearchersusingtransportationcasesthatreflectreal-worldpolicyproblems(Agusdinata,MarchauandWalker2007,Marchauetal.2008,AgusdinataandDittmar2009,Taneja,LigteringenandSchuylenburg2010a,Tanejaetal.2010b,Kwakkel,WalkerandMarchau2010,Marchau,WalkerandvanWee2010).However,APMhasseenlittlepracticalapplication.Onlyrecently,almost10yearsafterthefirstpublicationonAPM,hasattentionbeengiventothepracticaluseofAPM(Kwakkel2010,Walker,MarchauandSwanson2010,vanderPas2011).
Whyisitimportanttoincludeachapteronhowtransportdecision-makerscandealwithuncertaintyinabookthatdiscussesacceptanceissuesforITStechnologies?ITSarehighlypromisingwhenitcomestoachievingtransportationpolicygoals(e.g.,lessemissions,lesscongestionandagenerallysafertransportsystem).However,publicacceptanceofITSprovescrucialforitsimplementationand,assuch,forcontributingtothesepolicygoals.OftentheacceptanceoftheuseofITS(orpoliciesthatrequiretheuseofITS,suchasroadpricing)isdeeplyuncertain,andinmostcasespolicymakersdonotknowhow,and/ortraditionaltoolsareinsufficient,tocopewiththisuncertainty(see,e.g.,vanderPasetal.2006andvanderPas,KwakkelandvanWee2011).ThischapterdescribesamethodologythatpolicymakerscanusetoovercometheuncertaintiesthathinderITSimplementationandthatcanenablethemtostarttoimplementITSdespitetheseuncertaintiesandtheinherentlyuncertainfuture.
Thischapteranswersthequestion:howcantransportationpolicymakersdealwiththedeepuncertaintyregardingacceptancethatsurroundspoliciesaimedatimplementingITS?Inparticular,inthischapter,we
•explainAPM;•explainhowAPMcanbeusedtodealwithuncertaintyregardingacceptance;and
•illustratehowtouseAPMtodesignadaptivepoliciesusingtworeal-worldITSexamples(onebasedondeskresearch,theotherbasedonparticipativeresearch).
Afterreadingthischapter,areaderwillunderstandwhatAPMisandhowtouseit.Thechapterwillalsosupplythereaderwithsourcestofindmoreinformationonthissubject.InthenextsectionAdaptivePolicymakingisintroducedandthebasicprinciplesareexplained.AdaptivePolicymakingisthenoutlinedusingtwocases–PersonalIntelligentTravelAssistance(PITA)andIntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA).Inthefinalsection,themainconclusionsarepresented.
AdaptivePolicymaking
APMisaprocessofpolicydesignthathasfivephases:PhaseIsetsthestage.PhasesII,IIIandIVdesignthepartoftheadaptivepolicythatcanbeimplementedatacertainmomentintime(callthist=0).PhaseVdesignsthepartoftheadaptivepolicythatistobeimplementedatanunspecifiedtimeaftert=0(callthist=0+).Figure20.1presentstheAPMprocess,togetherwiththeelementsthatcompriseanadaptivepolicy.Webrieflyexplaineachphase,defineeachoftheirelements(policyactions),andelaborateontechniquesthatcouldbeusedtofacilitatethephaseinaworkshopsetting.FormoreextensivedescriptionsandexamplesoftheAPMprocess,seeWalker,RahmanandCave(2001),Kwakkeletal.(2010),vanderPas(2011)and/orMarchauetal.(2008).
Figure20.1TheAPMprocessandtheelementsofanadaptivepolicy(adaptedfromKwakkel2010)Ithasnotbeenpossibletoamendthisfigureforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Fig20_1.pdf
SettingtheStage(PhaseI)andAssemblingtheBasicPolicy(PhaseII)
Inthisphase,thepolicyproblemisanalysedandthegoalsofthepolicyareformulated.SettingthestageisanimportantpartoftheAPMprocess.Therightpolicyproblemhastobeidentifiedandformulated,goalsandadefinitionofsuccesshavetobespecifiedandacomprehensivelistofpolicyoptionshastobegenerated.
AssemblingtheBasicPolicy(PhaseII)
Basedonanex-anteevaluationofthepolicyoptionsidentifiedinPhaseI,apromisingbasicpolicyisassembled;thatis,apromisingstartingpolicy.Inthisphase,theconditionsforachievingsuccessarealsoformulated.Themethodsin
phase,theconditionsforachievingsuccessarealsoformulated.Themethodsinthisphasearepracticallythesameasthemethodsusedintraditionalex-antepolicyanalysistoidentifyapromisingpolicy(MiserandQuade1985).Inpractice,therearemanymethodsthatcanbeusedfortheex-anteevaluationofthepolicyoptions:forexample,cost-benefitanalysis(SassoneandSchaffer1978),multi-criteriaanalysis(French,MauleandPapamichail2009)andbalancedscorecards(KaplanandNorton1993).Theseassessmenttechniquescanbecombinedwiththeresultsfromforecasts,scenarios,modelsandsoon.
IncreasingtheRobustnessoftheBasicPolicy(PhaseIII)
Thisphaseandthefollowingphasesaredesignedtomakethebasicpolicyadaptive.Afterselectingabasicpolicy,thevulnerabilitiesandopportunitiesofthebasicpolicyareidentified.Vulnerabilitiesofthebasicpolicyrelatetowaysinwhichthebasicpolicycouldfail(i.e.,violateconditionsforsuccess).Opportunitiesaredevelopmentsthatcanincreaseoracceleratethesuccessofthebasicpolicy(i.e.,accelerateconditionsforsuccess).Thevulnerabilitiesofthebasicpolicycanbedeterminedbyexaminingtheimplicitandexplicitassumptionsthatunderlieit.Baseduponthevulnerabilitiesandtheopportunities,fivetypesofactionscanbedefinedthatcouldbetakenatthetimethebasicpolicyisimplemented(t=0),inordertoincreasethechancesforitssuccess:
•Mitigatingactions(M)–actionsaimedatreducingtherelativelycertainvulnerabilitiesofapolicy;
•Hedgingactions(H)–actionsaimedatspreadingorreducingtheriskoffailurefromtherelativelyuncertainvulnerabilitiesofapolicy;
•Seizingactions(SZ)–actionsaimedatseizingrelativelycertainavailableopportunities;
•Exploitingactions(EP)–actionsaimedatexploitingrelativelyuncertainopportunities;and
•Shapingactions(SH)–actionsaimedatreducingthechancethatanexternalconditionoreventthatcouldmakethepolicyfailwilloccur,ortoincreasethechancethatanexternalconditionoreventthatcouldmakethepolicysucceedwilloccur.
Setting-UptheMonitoringSystem(PhaseIV)
TheactionsdefinedinPhaseIIIaretakeninadvancetoreducethe
TheactionsdefinedinPhaseIIIaretakeninadvancetoreducethevulnerabilitiesofthebasicpolicyandtoidentifyopportunitiestoimproveitschancesofsuccess.However,uncertaintiesaboutthefuturerequiretheperformanceofthebasicpolicytobemonitoredcarefullyinordertoknowwhen(andif)toimplementactions.ThismonitoringmechanismissetupinPhaseIVbydefiningwhatshouldbemonitored(signposts)andwhenachangeinpolicyisneeded(triggervalues).Signpostsareusedtodeterminewhetheradefensive,correctiveorcapitalisingaction–orevenafullpolicyreassessment–isneeded(seePhaseV).Implementationofadefensive,correctiveorcapitalisingaction,orapolicyreassessment,occurswhenacriticalvalueofasignpostvariable(triggervalue)isreached.
PreparingtheTriggerResponses(PhaseV)
Therearefourdifferenttypesofactionsthatcanbetriggeredbyasignpost:
•Defensiveactions(D)–actionsaimedatclarifyingthebasicpolicy,preservingitsbenefitsormeetingoutsidechallengesinresponsetospecifictriggers.Theseactionsleavethebasicpolicyunchanged;
•Correctiveactions(CR)–actionsaimedatadjustingthebasicpolicy;•Capitalisingactions(CA)–actionstriggeredbyexternaldevelopmentsthatimprovetheperformanceofthebasicpolicy;and
•Reassessment(R)–anactionthatisinitiatedwhentheanalysisandassumptionscriticaltotheplan’ssuccesshaveclearlylostvalidity.
TheseactionsaredesignedinPhaseV.Oncethebasicpolicyandadaptiveelementsareagreedupon,theactionsfromPhasesI–IVareimplemented(att=0);theactionsforPhaseVarepreparedbuttheirimplementationissuspendeduntilatriggereventoccurs.
ApplyingAPMtotheImplementationofaPersonalIntelligentTravelAssistant
ThePersonalIntelligentTravelAssistant(PITA)
Amajorobjectivefortransportpoliciesistheefficientusebytravellersoftheexistingtransportinfrastructurecapacity.Althoughtravelinformationthroughradio,television,theInternetetc.,iswidelyavailable,itseffectivenessislow,
sincethosetravellersthatareofferedalternativeroutes/modesgenerallydonotacceptthem(Muizelaar2011,Dicke2012).
Therefore,amobilephone-basedtravelinformationservicehasbeendevelopedthatprovidestravellerswithafulloverviewoftraveloptionsfortravellinginthemostefficientandeffectivewayfromaspecificorigintoaspecificdestination.Thisso-calledPersonalIntelligentTravelAssistant(PITA)hasrecentlybecomeavailable,butimplementationisproceedingveryslowly.Sofar,policymakingonPITAhasbeenlimitedtosupportingresearchanddevelopmentdesignedtoreducetheuncertaintyintheoutcomesofaPITA.Inparticular,thebehaviouralresponseoftravellerstoadvancedtravelinformationhasbeenresearchedindepth(foranoverview,seeChorus,MolinandvanWee2006).Althoughuseful,assumptionsinmostofthesestudiesincludethecontinuousavailabilityofnecessarytrafficinformation,aperfectlyfunctioningtechnologyandarationaltraveller.TheseassumptionswithrespecttothetravellerresponsetoPITAareunlikelytobevalid.Inanyevent,theyareinsufficientforPITAimplementationtoproceed.Insteadofadditionalresearchanddevelopmentonreducingtheuncertaintyoftheoutcomes,implementationofPITAcouldbespedupbydevelopinganadaptivepolicythattakesintoaccountthefullrangeofuncertaintyandmodifiesthebasicpolicybasedonwhatislearnedovertime.
DesigninganAdaptivePolicyUsingDeskResearch
ThefollowingsubsectionsshowhowanadaptivepolicyforPITAimplementationwasdesignedusingdeskresearchandexistinginformation.MoreinformationonmethodsandtoolsthatcanbeusedtodesignadaptivepoliciescanbefoundinvanderPas(2011).
PhaseI(SettingtheStage)andPhaseII(AssemblingtheBasicPolicy)InPhase1ofdevelopinganadaptivepolicyforPITAimplementation,importantconstraintswouldbefinancialandarequirementthattheachievementofothertransportpolicyobjectives(e.g.,safety,environmentalstress)notbemademoredifficultduetotheimplementationofPITA.Adefinitionofsuccessmightbeapre-specifiedimprovementin(thereliabilityof)traveltimes.Forinstance,nationalpolicyobjectivesintheNetherlandsincludethat,in2020,95percentofallmovementsbyroadshouldbeontimeduringrushhours,and90percentofalltrainsshouldbeontime(MinistryofTransport,PublicWorksandWaterManagement2000).SeveralalternativePITAoptionscanbespecifiedforconsiderationinPhaseII.
InPhaseII,abasicpolicymightbetoimplementPITAfirstforthoseindividualswhohavehighdemandsontheirtime–forexample,forprofessionaldriversandbusinesstravellers(PolydoropoulouandBen-Akiva1998,Bovy2001).ThesetravellersarelikelytobethemostwillingtoadoptPITAsince,bydefinition,theyarethesub-groupthatismostaffectedbytraveltimelossesandunreliability.Basicconditionsforsuccessincludethewillingnessofkeyactors(e.g.,roadtrafficmanagers,publictransportoperators)toprovidereliableandaccuratetravelinformation,theavailabilityofintegratedmodelstocombinemultimodaltraveldatatomeetindividualpreferencesandthewillingnessofprofessionaldriversandbusinesstravellerstobuyandusePITA.
PhaseIII(IncreasingtheRobustnessoftheBasicPolicy)andPhaseIV(SettingUptheMonitoringSystem)InPhaseIII,theseveralvulnerabilitiesofthisbasicpolicyareidentified.Acertainvulnerabilitymightbeatemporarylackoftraveldataavailabilityforcertainmodes.ThiswilllikelyaffecttheuseracceptanceofPITA.Amitigatingactionmightbetoincludeabackuptravelinformationsystemthattravellerscanuseincaseofatemporaryblackout.AnothercertainvulnerabilitywouldbethattravellersresistthewillingnesstobuyPITAbecauseitaffectstheirprivacy;thatis,itseemslike‘BigBrother’watchingtheirtravelbehaviour.Sometravel-dataencodingthatavoidspersonalidentificationinrelationtotravelchoicescanbeusedtomitigatethisvulnerability.AnuncertainvulnerabilityinvolvestheuseracceptanceofPITA–inparticular,whetherthePITAadvicewillbefollowedbytravellers(Bonsall2004).AsignpostcanbeconstructedthatmonitorsthelevelofPITAuse.Assoonasthelevelofusedropsunderapredefinedlevel(trigger),somecorrectiveactionmightbeinitiated,suchasadvertisingoreducatingtravellersontheadvantagesofusingPITAwhentravelling.Thisisrelatedtoanotheruncertainvulnerability–thewillingnessofkeyactorstocooperateonimplementingPITAdueto,forinstance,toolargeinvestmentrisksfor(publicand/orprivate)transportoperators.Ahedgingactionmightbethat,atthebeginning,publicpolicymakersgivesomeinsuranceforcompaniesagainstpotentialinvestmentlosses.
PhaseV(PreparingtheTriggerResponses)Oncetheabovepolicyisagreedupon,thebasicPITApolicyplusthePhaseIIIandPhaseIVactionsareimplemented,andsignpostinformationbeginstobecollected(seeTable20.1).Inthecaseofatriggerevent,therelatedpreparedactionisundertaken.If,forinstance,thenumberoftravellersfollowingthePITAadviceappearstobetoolow,somecorrectiveactioncanbeundertaken–
forexample,givingsomefinancialincentivetothosetravellerswhodocomplywiththePITAadvice.Forsometriggerevents,onlyafullreassessmentofthebasicpolicymightbesufficient.Incasesomeofthekeyactorsarenotwillingtoparticipateanymore(e.g.,ifthereturnsoninvestmentremaintoolow),theentirepolicymightcomeunderseriouspressure.However,theknowledgegatheredintheinitialpolicymakingprocessonoutcomes,objectives,measures,preferencesofstakeholdersandsoonwouldalreadybeavailableandwouldacceleratethenewpolicymakingprocess.
Table20.1DealingwithvulnerabilitiesofthebasicPITApolicy
ApplyingAPMtoISAImplementation
IntelligentSpeedAdaptationintheNetherlands
IntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA)systemsarein-vehicledevicesthattakeintoaccountthelocalspeedlimitsandwarnthedriverincaseofspeeding;someevenautomaticallyadjustthemaximumdrivingspeedtothepostedmaximumspeed.Sincespeedingisthemajorcauseoftrafficaccidents–roughlyathirdofallfatalaccidentsareduetoinappropriatespeedchoice(OECD2006)–thepotentialcontributionofISAtotrafficsafetyishigh.Forinstance,fullyautomaticspeedcontroldevicesareestimatedtoproduceuptoa40percentreductionininjuryaccidents(VàrhelyiandMäkinen2001)anduptoa59percentreductioninfatalaccidents(CarstenandTate2000).Recently,thefirstISAapplicationshaveenteredthemarket.Speed-limitinformationisbeingaddedtodigitalmaps,sodriverscanbewarnedaboutspeedingbytheirnavigationdeviceusingaudiovisualsignalling(thisiscalledwarningISA).
SotheISAtechnologyisavailableandthereisexperiencewithusingit.AlthoughexpectationsconcerningthepositiveimpactsofISAarehigh,therestillisaconsiderablegapbetweenwhatistechnologicallypossibleandwhathasbeenimplementedsofar.TheimplementationofISAishinderedbyvariousdeepuncertainties,includinguncertaintyaboutthewayusersmightrespondtoISA.Inthiscase,anadaptivepolicyforISAimplementationwasdevelopedwithISAexperts,policymakersandstakeholdersduringaworkshop.
PhaseI(SettingtheStage)andPhaseII(AssemblingtheBasicPolicy)
ImportantconstraintsfordevelopinganadaptivepolicyforISAimplementationwouldbefinancialandtherequirementthatothertransportpolicyobjectives(e.g.,safety,environmentalstress)arenotmademoredifficulttoachieveduetotheimplementationofISA.Adefinitionofsuccessingeneraltermswouldrelatetotheimprovementoftrafficsafety(e.g.,areductionof10percentinthenumberoffatalities).Basedontheselectedbasicpolicy,thedefinitionofsuccessandtheconstraintshavebeenoperationalisedinTable20.2.FollowinginterviewswithpolicymakersfromtheDutchMinistryofInfrastructureandEnvironmentandexistingpolicyplans,weadoptedabasicpolicyaimedatimplementingthemostappropriateISAforthemostappropriatetypeofdriver.Threetypesofdriversweredistinguished:
•Thewell-meaningdriver:Thistypeofdriverhastheintrinsicmotivationtosticktothespeedlimit;
•Thelesswell-meaningdriver:Thistypeofdriverlackstheintrinsicmotivationtosticktothespeedlimit;and
•Thenotoriousspeedoffender:Underthecurrentregime,thistypeofdriverwouldlosehisorherdriver’slicence(andwouldbeobligedtofollowatrafficbehaviourcourse).
Inadditiontodifferenttypesofdrivers,twodifferentsequentialphasesfortheimplementationofISAwereidentified.PhaseIrunsupto2013.After2013,acurrentlyundefinedPhaseIIwillstart.Table20.2presentsanoverviewofthebasicpolicy.
Table20.2BasicpolicyfortheISAcase
Ithasnotbeenpossibletoamendthistableforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Tab20_2.pdf
AscanbeseeninTable20.2,makingapracticaldistinctionbetweenwell-meaningandlesswell-meaningisnotneeded,becausebothgroupsaretargetedwiththesamepolicies.However,itisexpectedthatthemeasureswouldhaveadifferenteffectoneachofthetargetgroups.(Notoriousspeederscanbedefinedbasedonpastbehaviour.)
PhaseIII(IncreasingtheRobustnessoftheBasicPolicy)
Thevulnerabilitiesandopportunitiesofthebasicpolicywerespecifiedusinga
Strengths,Opportunities,WeaknessesandThreats(SWOT)analysisstructure(Ansoff1987).Inourcase,weconsideredboththeopportunitiesandstrengthstobeopportunitiesasdefinedinFigure20.1,andconsideredboththeweaknessesandthreatstobevulnerabilitiesasdefinedinFigure20.1.Thisresultedinalistofmorethan100differentopportunitiesandvulnerabilitiesforthebasicpolicy.Accordingtotheparticipants,themostimportantoftheserelatetoacceptance,technicalfunctioningofISAsystems,therelationshipbetweentechnicalfunctioningandacceptanceandtherelationshipbetweentechnicalfunctioninganddriverbehaviour(forafulloverview,seevanderPas2011).
Next,thelevelofuncertaintyandlevelofimpactforeachofthemostimportantopportunitiesandvulnerabilitieswereidentifiedandtheparticipantsweretaskedtodefineactionsforhandlingthese.Theprocessincludedrankingtechniquesandspeciallydesigneddecision-makingflowcharts(seevanderPas2011).Table20.3presentsasubsetofPhaseIIIactionsthatweregeneratedduringtheworkshop.(ThecompletesetcanbefoundinvanderPas2011.)
Table20.3Increasingtherobustnessofthebasicpolicy
PhaseIV(Setting-UptheMonitoringSystem)andPhaseV(PreparingtheTriggerResponses)
Next,actions,signpostsandtriggersweredesigned(alsousingspeciallydesigneddecision-makingflowcharts(seevanderPas2011).Asubsetoftheseactions,signpostsandtriggersisshowninTable20.4.
Table20.4Contingencyplanning,monitoringsystemandtriggerresponses
Ithasnotbeenpossibletoamendthistableforsuitableviewingonthisdevice.PleaseseethefollowingURLforalargerversionhttp://www.ashgate.com/pdf/ebooks/9781472405852Tab20_4.pdf
ThecentrecolumnofTable20.4canbetransformedintoalistofindicatorsthatshouldbemonitored:‘themonitoringsystem’.Thismonitoringsystemconsistsofsignpoststhatmeasuretheprogresstowardsthegoal(i.e.,success),andsignpoststhataredirectlyrelatedtothevulnerabilitiesandopportunities.
PhaseV(PreparingtheTriggerResponses)
Theworkshopresultedinthedevelopmentofanextensiveadaptivepolicy,includingatotalof26mitigatingactions,16defensiveactions,threereassessmentactions,twocapitalisingactionsandtwoseizingactions.Inpractice,oncethebasicpolicyandallitsadaptiveelementshavebeenagreedupon,thebasicISAimplementationpolicy(Table20.2)plusthePhaseIIIandPhaseIVactionswouldbeimplementedandsignpostinformationwouldbegintobecollected(seeTables20.3and20.4).Incaseofatriggerevent,therelated(alreadyprepared)actionwouldbeundertaken.
TheResult
Thedesignedpolicywastestedusingwildcardscenarios,inordertodeterminehowrobustitmightbe.OneexampleofawildcardscenarioisafterISAisimplemented,industrystartstodevelopequipmentthatmisleadstheISAsystems,allowingpeopletospeedwithoutthesystemnoticing.Theparticipantswereaskedtothinkabout‘whatif’suchawildcardscenarioweretooccur.Inparticular,foreachscenario,theywereaskedtoanswerthefollowingquestions:
•Whatwouldhappentothe(road)transportsystem?•Whatwouldhappentoyourpolicy,andhowwouldtheoutcomesofthepolicybeinfluencedifthisscenarioweretooccur?
•Isyouradaptivepolicycapableofdealingwiththisscenario?
Thesewildcardscenariosledtointeresting(andlengthy)discussions,whichallowedtheparticipantstoreflectonthedevelopedadaptivepolicy,assessitsrobustnessandimproveit.
Theparticipants’evaluationoftheworkshopindicatedthattheresultingadaptivepolicywasreadytobeimplementedandcould,ifimplemented,reallycontributetoasuccessfulISApolicy(seevanderPasetal.2011).
Conclusion
Inthischapter,weintroducedarelativelynewapproachthatallowstransportationpolicymakerstodealwiththeuncertaintiesthatsurroundtheimplementationofITStechnologies.Basedontwoexamples,thechaptershowsthatAPMisanapproachthatallowspolicymakerstodealwith(amongstothers)issuesofacceptance,andshouldallowthemtospeed-uptheimplementationofITStechnologies.
Twoadaptivepoliciesweredesigned,oneforPITAbasedondeskresearchandoneforISAbasedonaparticipativeworkshopwithISAstakeholders.ThebasicPITApolicyisdesignedforthosedriversthatcouldbenefitmostfromPITA.ThebasicISApolicyisdesignedtoimplementdifferenttypesofISAfordifferenttypesofdrivers.BothpolicieswouldbeginwiththeuseoftheITSsystemsbysmallsubsetsoftransportusers.Bothwouldofferthepossibilityofmodifyingthepolicygraduallyasmoreinformationregardingacceptancebecomesavailable(basedonmonitoringacceptance).Thisapproachwouldallowforimplementationtobeginrightaway,forpolicymakerstolearnovertimeandforthepolicytobeadjustedinresponsetonewdevelopments.
AlotofresearchhasbeenperformedonISAandPITAacceptance.Thetimehascometobeginimplementation.APMisanapproachthatallowspolicymakerstodealwith(amongstothers)issuesofacceptance,andshouldallowthemtospeed-uptheimplementationofITStechnologies.
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Chapter21DesigningAutomotiveTechnologyforCross-Cultural
AcceptanceKristieL.YoungandChristinaM.Rudin-Brown
MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,Australia
Abstract
Therisingglobaldistributionofautomobilesnecessitatesthatthevehiclehuman–machineinterface(HMI)isappropriatefortheregionstowhichtheyareexported.DifferencesinculturalvaluesacrossregionshavebeenshowntoberelevanttotheusabilityandacceptanceofHMIinarangeoffields.Thischapterexaminesresearchrelevanttocross-regionalautomotiveHMIdesign.Limitedresearchspecifictocross-regionalautomotiveHMIissuescurrentlyexists.However,alargebodyofcross-culturalHMIworkexistsinotherdomains,suchasthehuman–computerinteraction(HCI)domain.ThroughareviewofworkfromacrosstheHCIandautomotivedomains,thischapteridentifiesanumberofimportantculturalfactorsthatmayimpactuponautomotiveHMIdesign.Itisconcludedthataddressingcultural,aswellaswiderregionalfactors,isavitalstepintheglobalautomotiveHMIdesignprocess.Afailuretoconsiderthesefactorscouldhavesignificantimplicationsfortheacceptabilityandusabilityofin-vehicleinformationsystemsandAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystemsindifferentregions.
Introduction
Likemostproductmarkets,theautomotivemarketisbecomingincreasinglyglobalised.Thistrendinglobalisationleadstoincreasedinteractionbetweendiversegeographicalregionsandcultures.Hence,amajorchallengeforglobalisationishowbesttoincorporateandaccommodateculturaldifferencesinthedesignofproductsthataredestinedtobeusedacrosstheglobe.Differencesinlanguage,socialstructure,education,environmentandculturalvaluesleadtovastdifferencesinhowpeopleperceiveandvalueobjects,howtheyinteract
withthem,howtheywantthemtooperateandeveniftheyfindthemuseful(Marcus2009,Nisbett2003).Theextenttowhichaproductmeetsthepreferencesandexpectationsofpeoplefromaparticularregionorcultureisacriticalcomponenttoitssuccessinthatregion.Inadequateconsiderationandadaptationofaproductorsystemtotheneedsandpreferencesofatargetculturecanresultinissuesrangingfromminorfrustrationonthepartofusersthroughtoatotalfailureoftheproduct(Nielsen1996).Indeed,therearemyriadcasesinthecross-culturalliteraturewhereinadequateconsiderationandunderstandingoftheculturalcharacteristicsofaregionhasledtodevastatingoutcomes.Inoneexample,membersofaparticularculturedidnotunderstandthemeaningoftheskull-and-crossbonespoisonsymbolplacedoncontainersofgrainintendedonlytosowcrops.ThemembersofthevillagemistookthepoisonsymbolsimplyasanAmericanlogoand,ratherthansowthegrain,consumeditwithfatalconsequences(Casey1998).Thisexamplehighlightshowtheuniquelifeexperiencesandviewsofaparticulargrouporculturecaninfluencethemeaningandunderstandingofsymbolsfromthatoriginallyintended.Italsohighlightstheimportanceofconsideringculturaldifferencesinthedesignofanyglobalproduct.
WiththeautomotivemarketexpandingrapidlyintomarketssuchasChinaandIndia,thereisaneedtoensurethedesignofvehicleinterfacesisappropriatefortheintendedexportregion.Thatis,thedesignmustmeettheregions’culturalexpectationsandalsotheneedsdictatedbytheirparticulartrafficenvironment,suchasdrivingregulationsandtrafficdensity.ThisisparticularlytrueofIn-VehicleInformationSystems(IVIS)andAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems(ADAS),whicharebecomingmoreprevalentandalsomorecomplexintheirdesignandfunctionality.Traditionally,thedesignanddevelopmentofIVISandADAShaslargelyfocusedontheneedsandpreferencesofdriversfromWesternmarkets;however,thesesystemsarenowbeingintroducedintoemergingmarketsunchangedormodifiedonlyslightlytosuitthebasicspecificationsoftheregion.Withcross-culturalautomotiveresearchinitsinfancy,concernremainsastohowdriversfromemergingmarketssuchasChina,whoseculture,languageandtrafficenvironmentdifferssubstantiallyfromWesternsocieties,willreacttoWesternstandardsforIVISandADASdesign.
Asassertedinotherchaptersinthisbook,theacceptanceofin-vehicletechnologybydriversisacriticalfactorinfluencingthesuccessfuluptakeofthetechnologyanditseffectivenessinimprovingroadsafety.Afailurebydriverstoacceptatechnologycanleadtothemnotusingitinthemannerintended,ornotusingitatall.Sprung(1990)notedtheimportanceofaccurateadaptationoftechnologytoacultureonacceptance.Assumingitisusable,asystemthathas
technologytoacultureonacceptance.Assumingitisusable,asystemthathasbeentailoredtomeettheaestheticandlinguisticpreferencesofaculturecanhaveasignificantcompetitiveedge.
Thischapterexaminestheinfluenceofculturalcharacteristicsonin-vehicletechnologydesign,withaparticularemphasisonitsinfluenceonuseracceptanceoftechnology.Variousaspectsofculture(culturaldimensions)areidentifiedandhowtheyimpactupontechnologydesignand,inturn,acceptabilityisdiscussed.BeforereviewingresearchexaminingtheinfluenceofcultureonHMIdesignandacceptability,itisimportanttobrieflydiscussprominentculturaltheoriesandmodelsanddefinewhatismeantbytheterm‘culture’.
CulturalTheoryandModels:HowCulturesDifferfromEachOther
Culturehasarangeofdefinitions,mostofwhicharecomplementaryratherthancontradictory.IntheoriesrelevanttoHMI(Hofstede1980,Hoft1996,TrompenaarsandHampden-Turner1998),cultureisdefinedasasetofsharedbeliefs,feelings,values,customs,actionsandartefactsthatmembersofasocietyorgroupusetomanageandinteractwiththeworldandoneanotherandthataretransmittedacrossgenerationsthroughimplicitlearning.Culturalcharacteristicsmanifestthemselvesvisually,forexampleinartandlanguage,andnon-visually,suchasinpreferencesandinteractionstyles(ChristaansandDiehl2007).
Thereareanumberofculturaltheoriesthatattempttodefinethosecharacteristicsthatdifferentiatemembersofoneregionorculturefromanother.Culturalmodelsarerepresentationsoftheelementsordimensionsthatmakeupaculture.Theydefinetheaspectsofaculturethatareobservableandmeasureableandallowaculturalprofiletobebuiltthatcanthenbeusedtocompareoneculturetoanother.WithrespecttoHMIdesign,culturalmodelscanbeusedtoidentifythecharacteristicsofasystemthatarelikelytobeacceptableandunderstoodbyaparticulargroupandthosefeaturesthatneedtobeadaptedtobettermeettheneedsandpreferencesofthegrouporregion.
PopularculturalmodelsincludethePyramidModel(Hofstede1980),theIcebergModel(Hoft1996)andtheOnionModel(TrompenaarsandHampden-Turner1998).Eachofthesemodelsconsidersculturetobecomprisedofatleastanoutersurfacelayer(directlyobservableaspectsofculture)andadeeper,hiddenlayer(intrinsicaspectsofculturethatarebeyondimmediateawareness).Thesemodelsalsodescribecultureintermsofculturalvariablesordimensions.Dimensionsareconstructsuponwhichculturesmaydifferintermsoftheirvalues,attitudesandbehaviour,andinclude,amongothers,factorssuchasthe
values,attitudesandbehaviour,andinclude,amongothers,factorssuchasthedegreeofconnectivitybetweenmembersofacultureandthedegreetowhichmembersofaculturefeelincontroloftheirlifeandenvironment.
TheOnionModel
TheOnionModeldevelopedbyTrompenaarsandHampden-Turner(1998)proposesthatcultureiscomprisedofthreelayers,eachofwhichcanbe‘peeled’backtorevealthemorecentralinnerlayers.Theoutersurfacelayersrepresentthoseaspectsofaculturethatarevisible,whiletheinnerlayersarelessapparent.
Theoutermost,surfacelayerrepresentstheobservableandimmediatelyrecognisableaspectsofcultureandincludesphysicalcharacteristicsandobjectssuchasclothing,art,architecture,traditionalfoodsandlanguage.Theseculturalfeaturesaresaidtorepresentexpressionsoftheunderlyingprinciplesoftheculturethatexistintheinnermostlayers.Themiddlelayerofthemodelrepresentsthenormsandvaluesoftheculture.Normsarethecollectivesenseofrightandwrongandreflecthowacultureshouldbehave,oftenexpressedintermsoflaws.Valuesontheotherhand,compriseasenseofgoodandbadandrepresenthowacultureaspirestobehave.Theinnermost,corelayerrepresentsthemostinaccessibleaspectsofaculturethatinfluencealloftheotherlayers.Itcomprisestheimplicit,fundamentalprinciplesandassumptionsoftheculture,suchastheprincipleofhumanequality.
ThePyramidModel
ThePyramidModel,developedbyHofstede(1980),isanotherthree-layeredculturalmodel,whichemphasisesthebidirectionalrelationshipbetweenthemodel’selements.Insteadofdepictingcultureasmadeupoflayers,thismodeldescribestheoriginsofculture.ThePyramidModelsummarisesaspectsofhumanbehaviour,or‘mentalprograms’,thatdefinebehaviouratdifferentscales:theindividual,allofhumankind,andcollectivegroupsorcultures.
Hofstedeproposesthatcultureisdevelopedbothfromaspectsoftheindividualandfromaspectsofhumankind.Atthelowerhumannaturelevel,arethosecharacteristicsthatareinheritedby,andcommonto,allhumans.Theupper,personalitylevel,referstocharacteristicsthatarespecifictotheindividualandarebothinheritedandlearned.Themiddlelevelrepresentsthecultureorthe‘collective’,withwhichbothoftheouterlayersinteractinawayspecifictoaparticulargroupofpeople.Akeyfeatureofthismodelisthatcultureisnotinherited,butlearned;and,therefore,isdependentonotherstobe
cultureisnotinherited,butlearned;and,therefore,isdependentonotherstobepassedon.
TheIcebergModel
TheIcebergModel,asdescribedbyHoft(1996),usesanicebergmetaphortodescribeculturewhereonlythetipoftheicebergisvisibleabovethesurface.Thisexposedsectionrepresentsconsciousnessand,asappliedtoculture,containstheobservableaspectsofaculturesuchasclothing,artandlanguage.Thelayerjustbelowthesurfacerepresentsthesubconsciouslayerandcontainstheunspokenrulesofaculture,suchassocialetiquette.Thelargest,deepestandmosthiddenlayerofthemodelrepresentstheunconsciousrulesoftheculture,whicharenotreadilyaccessibleorobservable,butareintrinsicallyimportant.Theseunconsciousrulesincludeaculture’ssenseoftimeandpreferredpersonalspace.
CulturalDimensionsCulturalmodelsdescribecultureintermsofdimensions.Culturaldimensionsareconstructsuponwhichculturesdifferintermsoftheirvalues,attitudesandbehaviour;thatis,theyaccountforthemannerinwhichcultureisexpressed.Dimensionsareusuallydichotomousandculturalgroupsvaryintermsoftheirorientationtowardsonepoleoranother.Forinstance,theperceptionoftimeisonedimensionuponwhichculturescandiffer,withsomeadoptingarigidstanceontimeandfollowingitprecisely,whileotherstakeafarmorerelaxedview.
Alargenumberofculturaldimensionsexist,withmostoriginatingfromculturalmodelsandtheories.Table21.1providesabriefdescriptionofthemostcommonlyusedculturaldimensionsderivedfromkeyculturalmodels(e.g.,Hofstede1980,TrompenaarsandHampden-Turner1998)thathavebeenusedinculturalstudiesoftechnologyuseandpreferences.Therehavebeenanumberoftheoreticaldescriptionsofhoworientationsonvariousculturaldimensionsmaycontributetooraccountfordifferencesinuserneeds,preferencesandexpectationsoftechnologyacrossculturalandregionalgroups.Thisissueisexploredinthefollowingsections.
Table21.1Keyculturaldimensionandtheirdefinitions
TheInfluenceofCultureonSystemDesignandAcceptability
Itisexpectedthatculturehasarangeofinfluencesonthewaypeopleinteractwithtechnologyanddevelopexpectationsandpreferencesforhowasystemshouldlookandoperate.Noproductisculture-free:thedesignofalltechnologyisinfluencedbythecultureitwasdesignedinandfor,andthisisreflectedinallaspectsofthesystem,includingitsappearance,functionalityandpurpose(Honold2000,McLoughlin1999).
Therehavebeennumerousattemptstoexplainhowagroup’sorientationsonvariousculturaldimensionsmayaccountfordifferencesinuserneeds,preferencesandexpectationsoftechnology(Choietal.2005,Lodge2007,
MarcusandGould2000,Rau,GaoandLiang2008).SomeculturaldimensionshavebeenmorecommonlyexaminedinrelationtoHMIdesignthanothers.Forexample,Hofstede’s(1980)powerdistance,uncertaintyavoidanceandindividualism-collectivismdimensionshavebeenmorefrequentlyassessedthananyothers.However,whereexistingliteraturehasusedculturaldimensionstoaccountfordifferencesinuserneedsandpreferencesinHMI,thishasbeendonealmostexclusivelyinatheoreticalmanner,withdimensionsrarelytestedorusedtointerpretfindings.AsSmithandYetim(2004)note,theexistingevidenceoncultureandtechnologyuseisalmostentirelyqualitative.
Thissectiondiscusseskeyculturaldimensionsandhowthesehavebeenappliedintheliteraturetoexplainhowandwhyaperson’scultureinfluencestheiruseandacceptanceoftechnology.Muchoftheexistingliteraturecomesfromthewiderhuman–computerinteraction(HCI)domainandhasfocusedonwebsiteinterfaces,exploringvariousaspectsofusabilityorvisualpreferences.Thus,thefocushereisontheinfluenceofcultureontechnologyuseandacceptabilityingeneral.Automotivetechnology,andhowcultureinfluencesitsdesignandacceptability,isdiscussedinthefollowingsection.
PowerDistance
Thedimensionofpowerdistancehasbeenlinkedtothestructureandcontentofinformationoninterfaces.Culturesthatscorehighonpowerdistancepreferhighlystructuredinformation,arrangedintallhierarchies.Theyalsopreferinformationthatconveysasenseofauthority,expertiseandsecurity,andthatreflectstraditionalsocialroles.Lowpowerdistancecultures,bycontrast,tendtoprefertransparency,flatter,lessstructuredinformationhierarchiesanddislikesymbolsofauthorityandpowerimbalance(Lodge2007,MarcusandGould2000).
Individualism-Collectivism
Individualismisassociatedwithinformation-seekingbehaviourandagreaterbeliefintechnicalcompetence(Smithetal.2004).Highlyindividualisticcultureshavebeenfoundtofavourwebsitedesignsthatconveypersonalsuccess,aremoreyouthandactionoriented,emphasisechangeandcontainmorecontroversialcontentthancollectivistinterfaces(Lodge2007,MarcusandGould2000).Collectivist-orientedculturespreferinterfacesthatdonotdistinguishtheindividualfromthegroup,containmoretraditionalorofficialinformation,and
emphasiseage,wisdomandexperience.Also,individualisticculturesareexpectedtoadopttechnologieswhichallowforpersonalisation,whilecollectivistindividualsshouldfavourthosetechnologieswhichcreateasenseofconnectivitytoothers,suchasthosewithcommunicationfeaturesoraccesstosocialnetworkingsites(Choietal.2005).
Masculinity-Femininity
Interfacesdesignedformasculineculturesshouldemphasisetraditionalage,genderandfamilyroles,cleardefinitionsoftasks,andfacilitateagreatersenseofindividualcontrolandexploration.Theseinterfacesshouldalsofeaturetheuseofgamesandcompetitionsandtheuseofgraphicsandsoundsforpracticalpurposes.Conversely,interfacesdesignedforfeminine-orientedculturesshouldusevisualandauditoryfeaturesasaestheticattractors,andshouldemphasisecooperation,sharedrolesandsupport(Lodge2007,MarcusandGould2000).
UncertaintyAvoidance
Cultureshighinuncertaintyavoidancedesirepredictability,clearandsimpledirections,transparent,rigidnavigationsystemsandredundantlabels.Lowuncertainty-avoidingcultures,incontrast,arecomfortablewithambiguityanddislikeuseofredundantinformation.Lowuncertainty-avoidingculturesalsoenjoycomplexityandopportunitytoexploreandresentnotfeelingincontrolofthesystem(Lodge2007,MarcusandGould2000).Highuncertainty-avoidingculturespreferfrequentanddetailedinstructions,whilelowuncertainty-avoidingculturesviewthisasannoyingandexcessive(Heimgårtner2005).
AttitudeTowardstheEnvironment
Asappliedtotechnology,thisdimensionreferstothetendencyforindividualstofeeltheyareincontrolofthesystem.Cultureswithaninternallocusofcontrolbelievethesystemshouldadapttothem,andanyerrorsarethefaultofthesystemoritsdesigners.Externallyorientedcultures,bycontrast,believesystemsaredesignedintheoptimumwayanderrorsresultfromtheirimproperuseorbytheirmisunderstandingthesystem.Also,membersofcultureswithanexternalsenseofcontrolarelessinclinedtowanttoalterorpersonalisesystems,astheybelievetheyhavebeenconfiguredintheoptimumwayalready(ItoandNakakoji1996).
AttitudesTowardsTime
Timeorientationaffectshowpeopleperformandprioritisetasksand,therefore,shouldbetakenintoaccountwhendesigninginformationstructure.Howtimeisperceivedisalsoexpectedtoimpactonhowpeoplelearntooperateasystem.Monochroniccultures(i.e.,thosethatliketodojustonethingatatime)thatvalueefficiencyandprocedurewilltakegreatertimeandcaretoreadinstructionsandevaluatedecisionsinordertoavoiderrors;whichinitiallytakesmoretime,butinthelongtermachievesgreaterefficiency.Alternatively,culturesthatvaluefreedomandautonomyprefertolearnthroughtrialanderror(ItoandNakakoji1996).Intheirreview,Rauetal.(2008)foundthatusersofahypertextenvironment(electronictextwithhyperlinkstoothertext/information)withapolychronictimeorientationbrowsedinformationfasterandtookfewerstepsthanthoseuserswithmonochronictimeorientation.Polychroniccultures(i.e.,thosewholiketodomultiplethingsatonetime)arealsomorelikelythanmonochroniconestoengagewithmobiledevicesinunexpectedwaysandarelesslikelytobebotheredbysystemdelays,suchaslongdownloadorstart-uptimes(Choietal.2005).
Internationalisation-localisationoftheInterface
CentraltothesubjectofculturaldifferencesinHMIdesignistheconceptofinternationalisation-localisation.Internationalisation-localisationofproductsisacommonpracticeinmanyglobalmarkets,wherebyaproductorinterfaceisadaptedtosuitthespecificneedsandpreferencesofatargetculture.Theinternationalisation-localisationprocessgenerallyencompassesseveralrequirements.First,itrequiresthattheculturallyspecific(local)aspectsoftheinterfaceareidentifiedandremovedtosuitaglobalaudience(internationalisation).Localisationtheninvolvesmodifyingaspectsoftheproductorinterfaceinawaythatspecificallysuitstheneedsandculturalorientationsofthetargetculture(Bourges-WaldeggandScrivener1998,RussoandBoor1993).Internationalisationaidslocalisationbyprovidinganeutralstructuretowhichlocalinterfacefeaturesarethenadded(ChenandTsai2007).
Traditionally,internationalisation-localisationhasfocusedonmodifyingthemostobviousculturalartefactsrelevanttotheinterface,suchaslanguageandtimeanddateformats.However,successfulinternationalisation-localisationshouldalsoadaptasystemtosuitlessapparentaspectsofculture;thatis,theprocessshouldincludethefunctionalityandinteractionaspectsofaninterface,
notjustitssurfacefeatures(Fernandes1995).
Cross-CulturalDesignIssuesintheAutomotiveContext
Todate,onlyahandfulofstudieshaveexaminedtheinfluenceofcross-culturaldifferencesonIVISorADASdesign.Thismaybeproblematicconsideringtheincreasinglyglobalisednatureoftheautomotiveindustryandthefactthatthevehiclecockpitisbecomingmoretechnicallysophisticated.Itisimportanttoconsidertheacceptabilityofin-vehicletechnology,asitinfluencestheuptakeofthetechnologyand,consequently,itseffectivenessinimprovingroadsafety,mobilityandenvironmentaloutcomes.Afailurebydriverstoacceptatechnologycanleadtothemnotusingitinthemannerintended,ornotusingitatall.IVISandADAStechnologyareintroducinganewlevelofinterfacecomplexitytothevehiclecockpitand,likeanysystem,thistechnologyisexpectedtobeassociatedwithusabilityandacceptabilityissues(Rudin-Brown2010,Youngetal.2012).Asmentioned,theinteractionbetweencultureandinterfacedesignhasbeenmostextensivelyexploredintheHCIdomain.However,thisknowledgemightnottransferacrosstotheautomotivedomaingiventhattheadditionofthedrivingtaskmayresultinusershavingadifferentsetofneedsandexpectationsforin-vehicletechnology.Likewise,culturemayimpactupontheseneedsandexpectationsindifferentwaysthantheydofornon-vehiclebasedtechnology.Cross-culturaldesignissuesforautomotivetechnologyarelikelytobeparticularlypertinentindevelopingregions,suchasChinaandIndia,wherethereexistenormousmarketscharacterisedbynotablydifferentuserneedsandpreferencestothemajorvehiclemanufacturingcountriesintheWest(Yangetal.2007).
Cross-CulturalConsiderationsandIVIS
ThepotentialbenefitsandapplicabilityofculturallyadaptiveIVIShavebeenexploredinaseriesofstudiesbyHeimgärtnerandcolleagues(Heimgärtner2007,Heimgärtner2005,HeimgärtnerandHolzinger2005,Heimgärtneretal.2007).TheculturallyadaptiveinterfaceproposedbyHeimgärtnerisdesignedtodetectandadapttotheculturalpreferencesoftheuser,therebyoptimisingsystemusability,reducingcomplexityandmentalworkloadand,ultimately,leadtogreateruseracceptance(Heimgärtner2005).Aspartofthiswork,Heimgärtnerhashighlightedanumberofculturaldifferencesinuserpreferences,systemnavigationstyles,drivingstylesandtaskmanagementstyles
thatarerelevanttocross-culturalIVISsystemdesign,althoughatpresentthereislimitedunderstandingofwhatfactorsaredrivingthesedifferences(e.g.,theircausesandimpactrelativetootherfactors).Heimgärtner’s(2007)resultssuggesttherearesignificantdifferencesinpreferredinteractionstylesamongusersfromdifferentcultures.Inparticular,inhisstudy,ChineseusersshowedapreferenceforgreaterinformationdensityandfasterspeedofinformationonaninterfacethandidGermanorEnglishusers.TheChineseusersalsoenteredfewercharactersintothesystemthantheothertwogroups.ResearchbyKnapp(2007)supportsHeimgärtner’sfindings,havingfoundthatsystemsspecificallydesignedtosuitthementalmodelsofcertaincultureswillsignificantlyimpactontheabilityofusersfromdifferentculturestosuccessfullyperformtasksonthatsystem.
Mostrecently,Youngetal.(2012)examinedwhetherthereareregionaldifferencesintheneedsandpreferencesofAustralianandChinesedriversforIVISandtodeterminetheimpactofanydifferencesforIVISHMIdesign.AnumberofdifferenceswerefoundbetweenthetworegionalgroupsintermsoftheirIVISdesignpreferencesthatcouldhavesignificantimplicationsfortheappeal,acceptabilityandusabilityofIVISinChina.Inparticular,theChinesedrivershadmoredifficultythantheAustraliansincomprehendingabbreviationsusedoninterfacelabellingandshowedagreaterpreferencefortheuseofsymbols,exceptforcomplexIVISfunctions,wheretheypreferredChinesecharacters.Thesedifferentpreferencesforuseoflabellingislikelytoreflectdifferencesinthelanguagesbetweenthetwocultures,wherethewrittenChineselanguageispictorial,hencetheirpreferenceforsymbol-andcharacter-basedlabelling.TheChinesedriversalsotendedtoplacegreatervalueontheaestheticappealofaninterfaceratherthanitsusabilityandsafetyaspects,preferringaninterfacethatlooksmodern,sophisticatedanddenotesasenseofhighstatus.ThesepreferencesmayderivefromtheChineseculture’stypicallyhighscoreonthepowerdistancedimension,whichvaluesstatusinsociety,andtheirlowlevelofuncertaintyavoidance,whichplacesvalueonaestheticappeal.
Cross-CulturalConsiderationsandADAS
Althoughsimilarcross-culturalissueswouldbeexpectedtoinfluencetheuseofbothADASandIVISdevices,theremaybedifferencesintermsofculturalpredictorsofADASversusIVISuse.Therefore,itisimportanttoconductandconsiderresearchthatisdesignedtoinvestigatebothcategoriesofadevice.Lindgrenetal.(2008)examineddrivingcultureandcommontrafficproblems
experiencedinasampleofChineseandSwedishdrivers,andtheconsequencesofanydifferencesacrossthetworegionsforthedesignofADAS.Thestudyfoundthat,whilethetrafficrulesandregulationsareverysimilarinChinaandSweden,majorculturaldifferencesintermsofinfrastructureanddriverbehaviourexistandthesedifferencesarelikelytoinfluencetheacceptanceanduseofADASacrossthetworegions.Inparticular,theyfoundthatthemoreaggressiveandlesslaw-abidingdrivingcultureinChina,whichincludestailgatingandconstantlaneswitching,madesomeADAS,suchasadaptivecruisecontrolandlanedeparturewarningsystems,lessacceptabletodrivers.TheyalsofoundthatChinesedrivers’preferencetofollowsocialnormsratherthantheroadrulesmayalsoreducetheeffectivenessofsomeADASinthisregion(e.g.,theeffectivenessofafollow-distancewarningsystemmaybereducedgiventhattailgatingisfirmlyentrenchedinChinesedrivingculture).Lindgrenetal.concludedthatifthedesignofADASdoesnottakesuchculturaldifferencesintoaccount,thesesystemsmaynotbeacceptabletoChinesedrivers,butratherregardedastoointrusiveand,thus,ignoredormisused.
Inadditiontodifferencesbetweencountries,cross-culturaldifferencesinattitudestowards,andpreferencesregarding,ADAScanexistwithincountries.Forexample,in2008atelephonesurveywasconductedofownersofvehiclesequippedwithelectronicstabilitycontrol(ESC),asystemthatreducesthelikelihoodofcollisionsinvolvinglossofcontrol(Rudin-Brownetal.2009).Over1,000ESCownerswereidentifiedthroughthevehicleregistrationdatabasesoftwoCanadianprovinces:QuébecandBritishColumbia(BC).(Canada’seightotherprovincialtransportagencieschosenottoparticipateintheproject.)ThisallowedforthecomparisonofdriverattitudestowardsESC,andvehiclesafetyfeaturesmoregenerally,betweenthetworegions,whichdiffernotonlyintermsofweatherandprecipitation(QuébechasamuchhigherannualsnowfallandcolderwintertemperaturesthanBC)butalsointermsofculturalbackgroundandlanguage(Québec’spopulationismostlyFrench-speaking,whileBC’sismostlyEnglish).WhileBCownersofESC-equippedvehiclesweremorelikelythanthosefromQuébectoreportthatavehicle’ssafetyfeatures,includingESC,wereanimportantfactortoconsiderwhenbuyingacar,theyweresignificantlylesslikelytoreport:(1)havingexperiencedESCwhiledriving,(2)beingconfidentthatESCwouldworkinanemergency,and(3)believingthatESChadmadeitsafertodrive.ThefactthatBCdriverswerelesslikelytohaveexperiencedESCwasmostprobablyduetodifferencesinweatherpatternsbetweenthetwoprovinces.ThislimitedexperiencemayhaveconsequentlycontributedtotheBCowners’relativelackofconfidencethatESCwouldworkinanemergency.Atthesametime,however,BCownersweremore
likelythanQuébecownerstoreportbelievingthatvehiclesafetyimprovements,includingESC,makeitpossibletodriveatfasterspeeds,whichsuggeststhatthisgroupofdriversmayhavebeendrivingtheirvehiclesinamoreaggressivemannerthanthosefromQuébec.Thesefindingssuggesttheimportanceofconsideringcross-culturaldifferences,eventhosewithinacountry’sborders,whendesigningADASandothercollisionavoidancesystems,suchasESC.
BehaviouralAdaptation,AcceptanceandCross-CulturalIssues
Sometimes,theintroductionofanIVIS,ADASorothercollisioncountermeasurewithinthevehiclecanresultinunintendeddriverbehavioursthatleadtonegativesafetyoutcomes;forexample,adistracteddriverover-relyingonanadaptivecruisecontrolsystemtomaintainasafedistancetoaleadvehicle.Thisphenomenonisknownasbehaviouraladaptation(OECD1990).Thereisarelationshipbetweendrivers’acceptanceofadeviceorin-vehiclesystemandthelikelihoodthatbehaviouraladaptationwilldevelopasaconsequence(Jamson,inpress).Ifadeviceisnotacceptabletoitstargetusergroup,itwillbeusedlessoften(unlessitsuseisrequiredbylaw),whichwouldmakebehaviouraladaptationlesslikely.Ontheotherhand,adevicethatiswidelyacceptedmaybemorepronetobehaviouraladaptation.
Arolefordevicedesignproceduresthatincludecross-culturalconsiderationstolimitthelikelihoodofbehaviouraladaptationhasbeenproposed(Rudin-Brown2010).Individualandcultural,orgroup,characteristicshavebeenshowntocontributetoanindividual’spropensitytobehaviourallyadapttoADAS.Tomakebehaviouraladaptationlesslikely,therefore,whileatthesametimeproducingadevicethatisacceptedamongusers,designersareencouragedtousetheconstructsofinterculturaladaptabilityandadaptivedesigntomakeasystemthatis‘useradaptive’(Jameson2009).Asystemthatisso-designedwoulduseinformationcollectedregardingitsusertoadaptitsownbehaviourinsomecrucialwaytolimitthelikelihoodofbehaviouraladaptation.Theseconceptshavebeensuccessfullyappliedinotherdomainsofcomputer-humaninteractiontocreateinterfacesthataremoreusableandacceptabletoabroaderarrayofusers.TheconsequenceofapplyingtheseconceptsduringIVIS/ADASconceptanddesignphaseswouldbein-vehiclesystemsthatareacceptedacrossabroadvarietyofculturesandamongawiderangeofusergroups,andwhichareassociatedwithfewnegativesafetyoutcomes.
Conclusions
Astheautomotivemarketmovesfurtherintodevelopingregionsaroundtheworld,cultureisclearlybecominganimportantconsiderationforin-vehicletechnologydesign.Currently,limitedinformationisavailabletoinformIVISandADASdesignfordifferentculturestoensurethattheyarenotonlyusablebutalsoacceptable.Indeed,beyondconcludingthatcultureappearstoberelevanttoautomotiveHMIdesign,fewotherreliableconclusionscanbedrawnatthisstage.Withresearchoncross-culturalautomotivedesigninitsinfancy,therearemanyopportunitiestoexploreculturalrequirementsforautomotiveinterfacedesigningreaterdepthacrossabroaderrangeofcultures,in-vehiclesystemsandHMIfeatures,particularlytheinteraction-levelaspectsoftheinterface.
Beyondtheconsiderationofculturalissues,thereisalsoaneedtoconsiderwiderregionalfactorsthatarealsolikelytoimpactthedesignofautomotivesystemsacrosscountries.Theseincludefactorssuchastrafficregulations,trafficflowandcongestionissues,andthedemographiccompositionofthevehicleanddriverfleet,allofwhicharelikelytoimpactondrivers’needfor,andacceptanceof,certainin-vehicletechnology.Indeed,Lindgrenetal.(2008)foundthat,inadditiontodrivingculture,widerregionalfactorssuchastheageofthevehiclefleet,trafficcongestionandinfrastructure,arealllikelytoimpactontheutilityandacceptanceofADASinChina.
ConsideringandaddressingculturalandwiderregionalfactorsmustberecognisedasacriticalpartoftheglobalIVISandADASdesignprocess.Failuretodosocouldhavesignificantimplicationsfortheappeal,acceptability,usabilityand,ultimately,thesafetyofIVISandADASindifferentregions.
Acknowledgements
WethankourcolleaguesfromtheMonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre(MUARC)whowereinvolvedinourworkoncross-regionalHMIdesign:MeganBayly,AmyWilliamsonandMichaelLenné.
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PARTVIConclusions
Chapter22DriverAcceptanceofNewTechnology:Synthesisand
PerspectivesAlanStevens
TransportResearchLaboratory,UK1
TimHorberryUniversityofQueensland,Australia,andUniversityofCambridge,UK
MichaelA.ReganUniversityofNewSouthWales,Australia
Abstract
Thischapterpullstogethertheresearchfindings,experiencesanddiscussiontopicsdocumentedbyourbookcontributorstoprovideasynthesisofwhatisknownandareasinwhichthereisconsensusinourunderstandingofdriveracceptanceofin-vehicletechnology.Weidentifytheperspectivesofresearchers,productdesignersandgovernmentpolicymakersanddiscusshowknowledgeofacceptanceoftechnologyfromrelatedfieldscanberelevanttothein-vehicleenvironment.Finally,wetrytoidentifythemainknowledgegapsinthefieldandmakerecommendationsconcerningtopicsandmethodsforfutureresearch.
ThisBook
Thisbookhasbroughttogetherintoasinglevolume,abodyofcontemporary,accumulatedscientificandpracticalknowledgeconcerningdriveracceptanceoftechnology.Inthefourmainparts,wehavecoveredthetheorybehindacceptance,includingdefinitionsandmodels,howacceptancecanbemeasuredandhowitcanbeimproved,andwehaveincludedanumberofcasestudiesillustratingcurrentpractice.Wehavebeenfortunatetosecurecontributionsfromarangeofinternationalexpertsandhavesoughtsomecontributionsbeyondtheautomotivedomaintoslightlywidenthefocus;forexample,onechapterisontheacceptanceofnewtechnologybymotorcycleridersandoneisabout
acceptanceissueswithmobilemachineryoperatorsinthemineralsindustry.Thesecontributions,alongwithaperspectiveprovidedbypolicymakers,gives,webelieve,arichpictureofacceptancewithintheautomotivedomainandprovideslinkstoabroaderlandscapeofresearchandendeavour.
IdentificationofKeyFindingsfromOtherChapters
Inthissectionweidentifysomeofthemainthemesandconclusionsemergingfromthefoursectionsofthebook.Wehavealsotriedtoidentifywherethereisconsensusbetweenviewsandwheredifferentviewsexist.
TheoriesandModelsofAcceptance
Asseveralchapterauthorshavenoted,atitsmostbasiclevel,acceptanceofnewtechnologycanbealignedsimplywithlong-termuseofthattechnology.However,‘acceptanceequalsuse’issimplisticatbest,anddoesnothelpdesignersdevelopandmarketsuccessfulproducts;andnordoesithelpdecision-makersencourageuseoftechnologyfordesirablesocialoutcomessuchasincreasedroadsafety.Furthermore,itisclearthroughoutthebookthatdifferentauthors(implicitlyorexplicitly)thinkaboutacceptanceindifferentways.
Oneofthepointsmadeveryclearly(e.g.,Adell,VárhelyiandNilsson,Chapter2,VlassenrootandBrookhuis,Chapter4)isthatfewstudieshaveexplicitlydefinedacceptanceandthatconsensusonanoveralldefinitionislacking.Thisisproblematic,asthereisobviouslyaclosedependencebetweenthedefinitionofacceptance,acceptancemodelsandmeasurementofacceptance.Toputitsimply:ifwedon’thaveadefinitionofacceptance,howcanweformulatemodelsofitormeasureitinameaningfulway?
Contributionstoamorefundamentaldeconstructionofacceptancehavebeenmadebyanumberofauthorswithinthisbook.Adell,VárhelyiandNilsson(Chapter2),forexample,identifyfivecategoriesofacceptancedefinitionsthatarebasedon
•usingtheword‘accept’;•satisfyinguserneedsandrequirements;•thesummationofattitudes;•willingnesstouse;and•actualuse.
Theselasttwocategoriesraisetheimportantissueoftheevolutionofacceptanceovertime.Inadvanceofactuallyexperiencinganewtechnologyproduct,individualswillprobablyhaveaviewonit,althoughmostauthorsdonotyetascribetheword‘acceptance’tothisinitialjudgement.Atthispointwemighttalkabout‘acceptability’asa‘prospectivejudgementofmeasurestobeintroducedinthefuture’(SchadeandSchlag2003:47).Whenaproductbecomestangible,forexampleaspartofafieldtrialorasabuilt-infeatureofaparticularvehiclemodel,driversthenhaveanopportunitytoexperienceit‘forreal’.Atthispoint,andastheirexperiencewiththetechnologydevelops,driverswill,individually,formjudgementsincludingthoserelatingto‘acceptance’.
Arguably,aconsensusdefinitionofwhatismeantbytheterm‘acceptance’cannotemergeuntilthereisamuchclearerview(supportedbyevidence)oftherelationshipbetweenacceptanceandrelatedconstructssuchasusefulness,usability,trustinthetechnology,pleasureinuse,satisfaction,desirability,impactonothers,socialstatusconferredbyuse,andsoon.Itmightalsobeimportanttobetterrecognisedifferenttypesofacceptance(Adell,VárhelyiandNilsson,Chapter2):forexample,attitudinalacceptance,behaviouralacceptance,conditional/contextualacceptanceandsocialacceptance.
Thelackofasingleunifyingtheoryanddefinitionofacceptancehasbeenmirroredbyalargenumberofdifferentattemptstodevelopmodelsofacceptance,andanumberarereviewedandusedasstartingpointsinseveralchaptersofthisbook(see,e.g.,VlassenrootandBrookhuis,Chapter4),principalamongstthesebeing
•theTheoryofPlannedBehaviour(TPB)basedontheTheoryofReasonedAction;
•theValue–Belief–Norm(VBN)theory;•theTechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM);•thetwodimensionsdirectattitudesmodelofVanderLaan,HeinoandDeWaard(1997)measuringusefulnessofthesystemandsatisfaction;and
•theUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology(UTAUT).
Ourchaptercontributorshavefoundallthesemodelsofacceptancelackingorinsufficientinsomeregard.Adell,VárhelyiandNilsson(Chapter3)suggestthattheUTAUTisagoodstartingpointbutneedstobedevelopedtoincludeemotionalreactionsofdrivers,weightingoftheconstructsandmodelreliabilityissues.Likewise,VlassenrootandBrookhuis(Chapter4)identified14factorspossiblyinfluencingacceptability(devicespecificfactors,contextfactorsand
generalfactors)andproposedanewtheoreticalmodelofacceptance.Similarly,GhazizadehandLee(Chapter5)modifiedanddevelopedtheTechnologyAcceptanceModelwithanew‘trustindevice’elementandthencombineditwithamodelappropriateforwhenanin-vehicledeviceprovidesfeedbacktothedriver.Theydiscuss,forexample,thatdriversacceptmentoringorcoachingmorereadilythanmonitoringoftheirperformance.
So,althoughwedonothaveasingleagreeddefinition,orasinglemodel,ofacceptance,thereseemstobegeneralconsensusonsomeimportantissues:
•acceptanceisacomplexconstructwhichhasmanyfacetsanddependencies;
•acceptanceisbasedonindividualjudgements,soadriver-centricviewisrequiredtomeasureorpredictacceptanceatanindividuallevel(assessingsocietalacceptancerequiresanadditionalbroaderperspective);
•twokeydeterminantsofacceptanceofnewtechnologyareusefulnessandeaseofuse;
•acceptancedependsontheindividual,soissuessuchasgender,age,cultureandpersonalityarelikelytobeimportant;
•thecontextofuseisalsoimportant,includingthesupporting‘infrastructure’(initswidestsense),whetheruseofthetechnologyisvoluntaryandalsobroadersocial/culturalinfluences;
•driversdonothavetoactuallylikeatechnology/systemtobeacceptingofit(butlikingitmayincreaseuseofthetechnology);
•acceptanceshouldberegardedasacontinuousvariable,notabinaryconcept;and
•acceptanceisnotinvariant;itmaychange(evenforoneindividual)dependingonthespecifictime/contextinwhichthenewtechnologyisusedandasexperiencewiththetechnologydevelops.
Toconcludethissectionontheoriesandmodels,wecansaythatasimpledefinitionofdriveracceptanceiselusiveandthatconsensusforamorecompletedefinitioniscurrentlymissing.Notunconnectedwiththis,thesituationconcerningmodellingofacceptanceissimilar:thereareanumberofproposedmodels,butconsensusislacking.Itisalsoworthnotingthatmanyofthesetheoriesandmodelsweredevelopedoriginallyfornon-drivingcontexts.Nevertheless,seekingabetterunderstandingofthedeterminantsofdriveracceptanceappearsworthwhile,asitislikelytosupportdesignersofproductsincorporatingnewtechnologyaswellasdecisionmakersindevelopingimplementationstrategiestosupportdesirablesocialgoalssuchasincreased
implementationstrategiestosupportdesirablesocialgoalssuchasincreasedsafety.
MeasurementofAcceptance
Onemightask:‘whydowetrytomeasureacceptance?’Oftenitisundertakenatanearlystageofproductconceptordevelopmentwiththeaimofaccuratelypredictingandoptimisinglikelyuseracceptanceasearlyaspossibleinthedesignprocess.Anotherreasonmightbetobetterunderstanddeployment,performanceissuesorsystemfailureswhentechnologyisavailableandinuse.
Asmightbeexpected,giventhediversityofdefinitionsandmodelsofacceptability,arangeoftoolsandtechniquesareusedindifferentenvironmentsyieldingarangeofmetricsthatmeasure(orpurporttomeasure)someaspectsofdriveracceptanceofvariousinformation,warningandassistancesystems.Thechaptersinthisbookillustratethesemetricsanddiscusstheirusesandlimitations.
Adell,NilssonandVárhelyi(Chapter6)notethatthelackofaconsistentwayofmeasuringacceptancecanleadtomisinterpretation,andevenmisuse,ofresults.Theyexplorearangeofself-reportedmeasures(questionnaires,focusgroups,interviews,willingnesstopay),driverperformancemeasuresandphysiologicalmeasures.Clearly,thedifferenttoolsusedtoderivethesemeasureshavestrengthsandweaknesses.Mitsopoulos-RubensandRegan(Chapter7)concentrateonquestionnairesandfocusgroupsandconcludethatthechoiceoftooldependsonthefocusofthe(acceptability)researchissue.Källhammer,SmithandHollnagel(Chapter9)intheirworkwithwarningsystems,derivebenefitbothfromvideosimulations(inadvanceofproductavailability)andvideoanalysis(duringproductuse)toinvestigatetheacceptabilityofmissesandfalsealarms.StevensandBurnett(Chapter17)focusonusabilityaspectsofacceptanceandconcludethatusability,atleast,canbemeasuredandthatsuchmeasurementcanbestandardised.
AsnotedbyEdmunds,DornandSkrypchuk(Chapter8),driveracceptanceofin-vehicletechnologyisamultidimensionalconceptdependentonemotional,cognitiveandexperientialeffects.Itseemslikely,then,thatcomprehensivemeasurementofacceptancemayneedtoinvolvemultipletoolsandtechniquesindifferentenvironmentsandwitharepresentativerangeofusersovertime.Practicalmeasurementtoolswillthereforeneedtoinvolvecompromisesincost,timeandcomprehensivenessbutcanbetailoredtotheresearchissueunderinvestigation.
Onelastpointisveryimportantandisraisedbyanumberofcontributorstothisbook–acceptanceneedstobe‘operationalised’beforemeasurementby
thisbook–acceptanceneedstobe‘operationalised’beforemeasurementbyidentifyingthecomponentsofitthatarethefocusofresearch.Also,sincearangeoftoolsalreadyexist,itwilloftennotbenecessarytofundamentallydevelopnewtools;butequally,itshouldbepossibletobuildonpreviouswork.Thekeypointsaretoidentifyanddefinewhatisbeingmeasuredandtobeasconsistentaspossibleinmeasurementwhenmakingcomparisonsofacceptabilityovertimeorbetweentechnologyproducts.
Earlierinthischapterwerevisitedthedistinctionbetweenacceptabilityandacceptance,andsuggestedthatknowledgeaboutacceptability(potentialacceptanceinadvanceofactualproductuse)maygivedesignersandothersimportantearlyfeedbackthatcanbeusedtooptimiseacceptanceoftechnologywhenitisactuallyused.Indiscussingthemeasurementofacceptance,andincasestudiesreportedinthisbook,manyauthorsmakethepointthatthefactorsdeterminingacceptanceinproductusearecomplex.Therefore,therelationshipbetweenaproductbeingjudgedasbeingpotentiallyacceptableorunacceptablebeforeintroductionanditsacceptanceinactualuseremainsanareaforfurtherresearch.
CasesStudiesandDataonAcceptanceofNewTechnology
Varioustypesofinformationcanbedrawnfromthecasestudiesdescribedinthebook.Weseethekindsoftechnologythathasbeenevaluated;themethodsthathavebeenusedtoevaluateacceptanceofthetechnologyandtheassumptionsassociatedwiththosemethods;andpracticaldataontheabsoluteandrelativeacceptanceofdifferentproducts.Here,weconcentrateonextractingsomeoftheinsightsintoacceptancerevealedthroughthesestudies,bothfromthesectiononcasestudiesandfromelsewhereinthebook.
VlassenrootandBrookhuis(Chapter4),intheirstudyofIntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA),concludethatacceptabilitymoststronglydependsonthesystemdoingwhatitisdesignedtodoandthat‘equity’betweenusersisalsoakeyfactor(i.e.,adriverismorelikelytoaccepttheirspeedbeingcontrolledifalldrivershavetheirspeedcontrolled).Källhammer,SmithandHollnagel(Chapter9)studiedwarningsystemswhereacceptancedependsontherateandnatureofmissesandfalsealarms.Theynote,importantly,that‘falsealarm’isapost-hocclassification;manyalertsthatarefalsealarmsareactuallyusefulandtheyarelikelytobeacceptediftheyprovideuseful,trustworthyinformation.
Labeye,BrusqueandRegan(Chapter11)usedquestionnaires,focusgroupsanddriverlogsintheirstudiesofacceptanceofelectricvehicles.Intheirwork,acceptancewasjudgedintermsofperformance,easeofuseandfacilitating
conditions(organisationalandtechnicalinfrastructure).VilimekandKeinath(Chapter12)notethata‘disruptivetechnology’,liketheelectricvehicle,willonlysucceedifitmeetsboththerequirementsofearlyadoptersandlateradopters.Theyalsoadvocatethenecessityofauser-centreddevelopmentandevaluationapproachtosuchinnovation.
StevensandReed(Chapter14)usedadrivingsimulatorasatooltoinvestigatedrivers’reactiontonovelroadinfrastructuretechnologywheretheyinferredacceptancefrombehaviour.Theynotethatsafeinteractionbetweendriversrequiresacceptanceof‘socialnormsofbehaviour’andimplythatthiscanbeaffectedbyacceptanceofnewtechnology.Importantsocialfactorsaffectingbehaviour/acceptancewerefoundtobefairnessandtheimplementationapproachwhentechnologyisdeployed.Othervariableswerethedriver’spsychologicalcharacteristics(especiallyrelevantinthecaseofenforcementtechnology)andthedegreeofmonitoringandfeedbacktothedriverfromroadsidesystems.
Inherworkwithmotorcycleriders,Huth(Chapter13)identifiesthatproblemawarenessandperceivedusefulnessarecriticallyimportantforacceptanceofnewsafetytechnologyandthatinterveningdevicesaregenerallylessacceptablethanthoseprovidingwarnings.Shealsoidentifiesthatthepsychologicalcharacteristicsofridersaffectacceptance:with‘fun’asamotivationforridingbeingassociatedwithloweracceptanceoftechnologythatremovespartofthisfun.Sheconcludesthatbothsubjectiveandobjectiveevaluationofacceptanceisnecessary.
HorberryandCooke(Chapter15)lookedatthemineralsindustrywhereintroductionofnewtechnologyforusebyoperatorsisusuallymandatoryandwherenon-acceptancecanberevealedbyequipmentbeingneglectedorsabotaged.Theyfoundthatimprovedinterfacedesign,basedonbestergonomicspractice,canimproveoperatoracceptance.
Belin,Vedung,MeleckidzedeckandTingvall(Chapter16)examinedpolicyinstrumentswhichaimtomaximiseroadsafetythroughuseofnewtechnologyandwhereacceptanceisobviouslyanimportantdeterminantofoutcomes.Theyconcludethattheissuesarehighlycomplexandthatthechoiceandpackagingofpolicies(and,byimplication,acceptanceofthem)willdependonmanycontextualfactors.
Atfirstglance,thesecasestudiesmayseemratherdisparateastheyaddressdifferentusersofdifferenttechnologywithindifferentcontexts.Whatunitesthemisthatacceptanceisconsideredimportantforongoingdeploymentandthestudyfindingsaddtothemountingbodyofknowledgeinthearea.Together,
thesecasestudiesreinforcetheideasthatacceptanceismultifacetedandthatthetechnology,userandcontextualvariablesareallimportantindevelopingafullerunderstandingofacceptance.
OptimisationofAcceptance
Akeyquestionfordesigners,andthoseresponsibleforintroducingnewtechnology,shouldbehowtooptimiseitsacceptance;theaimusuallybeingtoensurethatthetechnology/productisused‘correctly’andthatitsbenefitsaremaximised.Adviceonhowtodosoisofferedinthisbook.
Arecurringthemeisthevitalimportanceofuser-centreddesignwhentryingtoachievehighacceptance.Althoughseeminglyobvious,atleasttoHumanFactorsprofessionals,thisfundamentalapproachisstilllacking,atleastinsomeindustrialcontexts.ThiswastheexperienceofHorberryandCooke(Chapter15),whofoundthatinvestigationofactualrequirements,consultationwithusersanduser-centreddesignisparticularlyimportantwhentechnologyisnotchosenbythedriverbutintroducedaspartoftheirworkingrequirement.
Ingeneral,technologyisusedwithinawiderorganisationalcontext(includingphysicalsurroundings,people,proceduresandothertechnology)thatalsoevolvesovertime.StevensandBurnett(Chapter17)concludethat,forhighusability,thedesignerneedstounderstandthecharacteristicsofusersandthephysical,socialandpotentialorganisationalenvironmentinwhichtasksarecarriedout.Similarly,fromhisreviewoforganisationalfactorsintheintroductionoftechnologyinotherdomains,Maguire(Chapter19)concludesthatarangeoffactorsmayneedtobeconsidered:organisationalgoals;roles,responsibilitiesandskills;workflows;procedures;communicationanddistraction;workculture;technicalandfunctionalknowledge;safetythinking;securityandusabilitytrade-off;andtrainingandsupport.
HorberryandCooke(Chapter15)identifyalsotheneedtoensurethatdrivers/operatorshavesufficienttechnicalandnon-technicalskillstounderstandthecontextandbenefitsofthetechnology(tobemorelikelytoacceptit).Maguire(Chapter19)notesthatacceptabilityislikelytobehigherwhennewtechnologypromotesthelearningofnewskills,supportsthedrivingtask,contributestoobjectivesthatdriversaspiretoandfitsinwiththeircultureandvalues.YoungandRudin-Brown(Chapter21)remindusthatculturalissuesarelikelytohaveimplicationsforusability(andhenceacceptance)andthatmanyfactorsthatvarybetweencountries/regions(e.g.,regulations,congestion,vehiclefleetage,infrastructure)arealsolikelytoimpactondesignandimplementation
oftechnology.Intermsofactualtechnologyandproductdesign,StevensandBurnett
(Chapter17)reviewsomeofthemanyguidelinesandstandardsavailabletosupportinterfacedesign,whichhavepotentialtomakeinterfacesmoreacceptabletodrivers.However,goodergonomicdesignisonlyoneaspectofanacceptableproduct.GreenandJordan(Chapter18)highlightthat,aswellasfactorssuchasusability,reliability,longevity,valueandsoon,amajorcomponentoftheuserexperienceisaestheticandemotionalsatisfaction.Theypointtotheemotionalproductexperienceasanimportantconsiderationinoptimisingacceptance.Thisextendsbeyondthe‘look-and-feel’ofatechnologyinterfacetoincludesuchthingsasbrandimageandperceptionofstatus.
Finally,intermsofoptimisingacceptance,twochapterslookattheroleofgovernmentpolicyindrivingchangethroughnewtechnologytoachievesocialoutcomessuchasimprovedroadsafety.Belinetal.(Chapter16)identifythreeclassesofpolicyinstrument(information,economicinstrumentsandregulations)anddescribehowinstrumentscanbepackagedvertically(targetedtospecificstakeholders),horizontally(morethanoneinstrumentused)orchronologically(variousinstrumentsinatimesequence)inanattempttoachievespecificoutcomes.vanderPas,Walker,MarchauandVlassenroot(Chapter20)advocateAdaptivePolicymakingtohelpwithimplementationoftechnologyinthefaceofuncertainty.Theapproachesdescribedinthesetwochaptersarelikelytohaveconsiderableimpactonacceptanceofnewtechnology,particularlywherethereisinitialresistanceoruncertaintyaboutadoptionbyeitherdriversorwidersociety.Theexactnatureofpolicyimplementation,however,seemstobehighlydependentonthesituation;sadly,nospecificadvicecanbegivenastowhichinstrumentswillworkbesttopromoteacceptanceinparticularcircumstances.
LimitationsinOurCurrentKnowledgeofAcceptance
Inanidealworld,therewouldbeaconsensusdefinitionofdriveracceptance,aunifyingmodeloftheconstruct,anditsunderlyingdimensions,andarangeofvalidtoolsforreliablymeasuringacceptanceofnewtechnology,andpredictingacceptanceintothefuture.Asacorollarytothis,designersandthoseresponsiblefordeployingnewtechnologywouldknowhowtooptimiseacceptance(orbeinapositiontodevelopalternatestrategies).
Inthissection,weexaminetheextenttowhichthisvisionhasbeenachievedandweidentifygapsanddeficiencies,bothpertainingtothisbookandtothefieldofacceptancemoregenerally.
Asnotedearlier,onefundamentalpointisthatwearelackingabroadscientificconsensusonadefinitionofacceptance.Similarly,despitearangeofmodelsofacceptancebeingavailable,theyareoftenfoundlackinginsomeregard.Thisappearstobenotbecauseofalackofeffortonsynthesisbutstemsfromalackofdetailedknowledgeconcerningthefactorsthatinfluenceacceptanceandtheinteractionbetweenthem.Onecanalwaysmakeapleaformoreresearch,butindoingsothereneedstobearecognitionthattheresearchcommunityhastogetbetteratadoptingbestpracticeandbecomingclearerinreportingitsdefinitions,methodologyanddetailedfindings.Thereviewsinseveralchaptersinthisbooksuggestthatsuchdetailisoftenlackinginpublications.Inmostindustriesandcontexts,thereisstillacontinuingneedforahuman-centreddesign,operationalneedsanalysisandauser-centreddeploymentprocess.
Atthelevelofanindividualuserofnewtechnology,thereappeartobegapsinourknowledgeconcerninghowindividualcharacteristics,suchaspersonalneedsandmotivations,contributetoacceptance.Morebroadly,thesocialcontext,thespecificcontextofuseandtheeffectofsocialinteractionbetweendriversisthoughttobeimportantbutnotwellresearched.Policymakerswouldcertainlyappreciatemoreadvice;addressingsuchknowledgegapswouldhelpidentifywhen,whereandwithinwhichculturalcontextaspecificpolicyinstrumentorpackagewouldbemosteffectiveandappropriate.
Theissueofacceptancehasbeenstudiedinrelationtomanydifferentproductsandservices.Inthisbook,andforoneclassofuser(drivers),wehavereportedexamplesoftechnologyprovidingarangeofservicescoveringinformation,warning,assistanceandautomation.Wealsohaveacceptancestudiesinrelationtootherusersofnewtechnologysuchasmotorcycleridersandoperatorsofmobileminingmachinery.Thisrangeprovidesatapestryoffindingsconcerningacceptanceforspecificusersinspecificcontextsofuse.Nevertheless,neitherthisbook,noreventhewideracademicliterature,providesacompletepicture.Weareleft,therefore,withanumberofquestionsandgaps.Themostimportantonesraisedbycontributorstothisbookinrelationtothetechnologyitselfare
•differencesinhowacceptanceisjudgedinprestigevehiclesandmoremundanevehicles;
•understandingthefactorsthatinfluencedriveracceptanceofalertsthatarefalsealarms;
•changesinacceptancewithtechnology/productexperience;•acceptanceofcombinationsofsystems;
•acceptanceofcombinationsofsystems;•whethermeasurementtoolscandiscriminatethedegreeofacceptancebetweensimilartechnologyexemplars;
•theextenttowhichcustomisablesystemsmightimproveacceptance;and•implicationsforacceptanceofreliance/long-termdependencyontechnologysupport;forexample,doesdependencyremovethechoiceofacceptanceandisunquestioningacceptanceproblematic?
Anoteofcautionshouldbegivenheretotheacademiccommunitythatusesexistingtechnologyforitsresearch:oftentechnologyisafewyearsold,duetothetraditionallysteadypaceofscientificresearch.Giventherapidnatureoftechnologydevelopment,weneedtoappreciatethatreallynewtechnologymayhavesignificantlydifferentcharacteristicsandthatdriveracceptancedevelopsbasedonpreviousexperienceoftechnology.
Theextenttowhichwecanaddressthesegapsbyfurtherharvestingknowledgefromotherdomainsislargelyunknown.Inthisbookwehaveconcentratedonthedriverofroadvehiclesbutwehavecontributionsalsocoveringmobilemachineryoperatorsandmotorcyclists.FromHorberryandCooke(Chapter15),itseemsthattheminingindustrycanlearnfromthedrivingcontext,andperhapsthedrivingcontextcanlearnfromotherdomainsassuggestedthroughthecontributionofMaguire(Chapter19).Onesuchdomaincouldbetheaerospaceindustry(acceptinghowever,thatpilotsaremorehighlyskilled,trainedandregulated).Wehavenotincludedbroaderdomainsinthisbookbutacceptanceissuesinsecurity,medicalandaerospacemaybefruitfulareastoexploreinfuture.
ResearchRecommendations
Inthissectionwehighlightanumberofareasofacceptance-relatedresearchthatappeartobemostvaluableintermsofboththeoreticalandpracticaldevelopment.Wherepossibleweincludeasuggestedresearchapproach.
TheTheoreticalandPracticalLinksBetweenAcceptanceandRelatedConcepts
Exploringthetheoreticalandpracticaldeterminantsofacceptancewillberichareasforfutureresearch,especiallyasnewtechnologyisincreasinglydeployedinroadtransport.Importantresearchquestionsare,forexample,howreliabledoesatechnologyneedtobeforittobewidelyaccepted?AsGhazizadehand
Lee(Chapter5)explore,howdorelianceandtrustfitinhere?Similarly,whatistheeffectofindividualdriver/rider/operatorcharacteristics(e.g.,personalneedsandmotivations,olderandyoungerusers)onacceptance?Howdoesthespecificcontextofuseaffectacceptance?AsdiscussedbyBurnettandDiels(Chapter10),whatistheeffectofsocialinteractionbetweendrivers?Morebroadly,howdosocietalattitudesandprejudicesaffectacceptanceandhowdotheseaffectpolicymakers,commercialorganisationsandindividualsmakingjudgementsandplansconcerningintroductionofnewtechnology?
Thus,thereisaneedtoinvestinfundamentalresearchonthefactorsdeterminingacceptability,ontheirdefinitionandonmodellingtheirinteractions.Aspartofthiseffort,thereisaneedfortheresearchcommunitytoadoptbestpracticeandbemorespecificinreportingoffindingsaboutacceptancesuchthatmaximumusecanbemadeofresultsinsubsequentmodellinganddefinitionalwork.
Asrepeatedlynoted,aconsensusdefinitionofacceptanceismissing.Aconsensusdefinitionneedstoemergebasedonabodyofworkandfromanopendiscussionprocessthatislikelytoholdswayintheresearchcommunity.Webelievethatthisbookprovidesaveryusefulsummaryoftherelevantworkandwehopethatitwillprovidethebasisfromwhichsuchongoingdiscussionscanbeheld.Theforumforthosediscussionsisnotyetdefinedbutcouldpossiblyinvolvenationalandinternationalstandardisationorganisations,anexpertgroup,asuitableprofessionalbody,oranInternetplatform,perhapsassociatedwithaninternationalconference.
FurtherDevelopmentandValidationofInstrumentstoMeasureAcceptance
AsthechaptersbyEdmundsetal.(Chapter8)andGreenandJordan(Chapter18)noted,whendesigningnewtechnology,apositiveresponsefromtheeventualend-userisessential.Sotodevelopanddeploysuccessfulnewtechnology,OriginalEquipmentManufacturersandaftermarkettechnologysuppliersmustunderstandtheimpactoftheirinnovationsonpeoples’affectiveandcognitiveresponsetotechnology.Sadly,toofewvalidatedtools(instruments)existintheopenliteratureforthispurpose.
Asacceptanceisamultifacetedconcept,itislikelythatatoolboxratherthanasingletoolneedstobethegoalofthisresearch.AsnotedbyHuth(Chapter13),bothsubjectiveandobjectivemeasurementsneedtobeavailable.Developmentsinacceptancemeasurementneedtobuildonthedefinitionsandmodelssuchthatthereisclarityaboutexactlywhatatoolismeasuring(the
metric)aswellastheenvironmentinwhichthemeasurementismadeandtheexactmeasurementtechniqueused.AsnotedbyAdelletal.,allstudiesofacceptancecancontributetofurtheringknowledgeofacceptancebyclearlydefiningwhattheymeanbyacceptanceandbyconsequentlyusingthatdefinitionwhenmeasuringtheconcept.Sotoolsneedtobedeveloped,fullydocumented,validatedandmadewidelyavailable.Researchquestionstobeaddressedaretheperformance,reliabilityandsensitivityofdifferenttools(e.g.,cantheydiscriminatebetweensimilarproducts?)andthecostofapplication(time,resourcesetc.).Furtherquestionsconcernthephysicalenvironmentsinwhichdifferenttoolscanoperateandwhenduringtheproductlife-cycletheiruseisappropriateandvalid.Onecriticalissuefordesignersistheextenttowhichanacceptancemeasuringtoolispredictive;thatis,whetheratoolappliedatonepointintimecanassessacceptanceduringalaterphaseofaproductlife-cycle.AspointedoutbyMitsopoulos-RubensandRegan(Chapter7),thereisadegreeofprofessionaljudgementrequiredinknowingwhatcombinationoftoolstouseinmeasuringacceptance.
EnsuringAcceptanceResearchKeepsPacewithNewTechnologyDevelopment
Anexplosioninnewtechnologydesignanddeploymentistakingplacewithinmotorvehicles:bothforfactory-fittedandaftermarketproducts.Similarly,anincreaseintechnologydeploymentcanbeseeninhighwayinfrastructure,industrialmobileequipmentandmotorcycles,asdocumentedinthechaptersbyStevensandReed(Chapter14),HorberryandCooke(Chapter15)andHuth(Chapter13).
Manyresearchersnote,quiterightly,thattheirmethodsandconclusionsapplyonlytothespecifictechnologyfunctionthattheyhaveinvestigated.So,thereisclearlybotharesearchandcommercialneedtoapplyexistinganddevelopingtheoriesandmeasurementsofacceptancetonewsituations.
Astechnologydevelops,thewayinwhichdriversinteractwithitwillalsodevelop.Thismaychangetheirperceptionofacceptanceandtheframesofreferencetheyusetojudgeacceptance.Theadventof‘driverless’carsisacaseinpoint.Here,perceptionsofdriversatisfactionandusefulnessofvehicletechnologymaybebounduplessintheabilityofthecartotransportthemreliably,comfortablyandsafelytoadestination,butinitfreeingupeffortandtimethatcanbeusedtodootherthingsthatmightbemoreusefulandsatisfying:likereading,telephoningorsleeping.
Somespecifictechnology-relatedresearchissuesdeserveattention:
Somespecifictechnology-relatedresearchissuesdeserveattention:
•Somesystemsaremultifunctional,andtheremightalsobemultiplesinglefunctiondevicesinavehicle,especiallywhereaftermarketdevicesarepurchasedbydrivers.Howthesemultiplesystemsimpactonacceptance–bothnowandinthefuture–isanareaforfutureresearch.
•Exploringdifferencesinacceptanceissuesindifferentdrivingcontexts(e.g.,dependingonthesophisticationofthevehicle).
•Understandingthefactorsthatinfluencedriveracceptanceofwarningsystemsandparticularlyofalertsthatarefalsealarms.
•Furtherinvestigationofmotorcycleriderinformationandwarningacceptance,particularlyfromfieldtrialsofnewtechnologyproducts.
•Howacceptancechangeswithtechnology/productexperience.•Theextenttowhichcustomisablesystemsmightimproveacceptance.•Whethertherecanbe‘over-acceptance’ofhighlyreliabilitytechnologyleadingtocomplacencyandwhethertechnologyperformanceandacceptanceneedtobeoptimisedtoavoiddependency.
Cross-CulturalDesignandLearningfromOtherDomains
AsYoungandRudin-Brown(Chapter21)note,researchoncross-culturalautomotivedesignisinitsinfancy.Numerousopportunitiesexisttoexplorerequirementsforautomotiveinterfacedesignandinteractiondesignacrossdifferentcultures.In-vehicletechnologyhasnowdevelopedanditsuptakehasspreadbeyondapointwhereoneinterfacedesignfitswithallpurposes.Giventheglobalmarketfortechnology,especiallywhenfactory-fittedtoacar,truckormotorcycle,betterunderstandingofimportantculturaldifferencesisessentialforeffectivedesign.
Asimilarlybroadissueistheextenttowhichthestudyofacceptanceinthedrivingcontextcanlearnfromotherdomains.TheperspectivesprovidedbyHorberryandCooke(Chapter15)aboutthemineralsindustryandbyHuth(Chapter13)concerningmotorcycleriderssuggestthatatleastsomeoftheissuesaroundacceptanceareuniversalandthattheremaybefurtherinsightsthatcanbeharvestedfrominformationtechnology,aerospace,medicalandsecurityfields.ThechapterbyMaguire(Chapter19)providesastartingpointandsomethoughtfulremarksonthesimilarityofchallengesinthesedifferentdomains.
PracticalImplicationsofThisBodyofKnowledge
Ashasbeenseenthroughoutthisbook,acceptanceofnewtechnologyandsystemsbydrivers,equipmentoperatorsandwidersocietyisbecominganincreasinglyimportanttopicworldwide,especiallyfortechnologywhichhasthepotentialtosignificantlyenhancesafety,efficiencyorcomfort.
ThisbookprovidesaresourceforHumanFactorsresearchers,forindustryandforpolicymakerstobetterappreciatethecomplexitiesandmultifacetednatureofacceptance.Theearlytheoreticalchaptersexplorethefactorslikelytobeofmostimportanceindeterminingacceptanceandprovidesomebasisfordesigningproductsandservicesthataremorelikelytobeacceptedbytheintendedusers.Theyalsoprovideaninsightintothewaycontemporarythinkingaboutacceptanceisdeveloping.Thecasestudies,measurementandoptimisationchaptersprovidebothpracticalexperienceofacceptanceandadviceconcerningdesignanddeployment.Thecasestudiesprovide,inadditiontoinsightsabouttheconceptofacceptance,valuableinformationaboutactualmeasuredlevelsofacceptancefordifferentproductsthatwillbeofbenefittothosewhomaybecontemplatingdeploymentofsuchtechnology.
Perhapswehaveabiasedview,butitseemscertainthatacceptanceoftechnologybydriverswillbecomeincreasinglyimportantasthelevelofautomationincreases.Wealsoseeaneedfortheupdatingofregulationsanddesignguidelinesinthisareaasaresultoftechnologydevelopments.
IsThereAnything‘Beyond’Acceptance?
Theimportanceofdriveracceptanceofnewtechnologyhasbeenemphasisedthroughoutthisbookandwithageneralagreementthatacceptanceisavariableratherthanabinaryconcept.Philosophically,onemightaskwhetheracceptancecanincreaseindefinitelyorwhetherthereisa‘sufficiencyplateau’beyondwhichfurtherimprovementisoflittleornovalueinincreasingacceptance.
TherehasbeenahintfromBurnettandDiels(Chapter10)thatsomescepticismabouttheperformanceoftechnologymightbehealthyattimes,raisingthequestionofwhetheracceptancecouldbetoohighincertaincircumstancesandleadtocomplacency.Implicitly,thissuggeststhatthereisanoptimumlevelofacceptancewhichshouldbesought.
Otherauthorshaveconsideredacceptanceasnecessarybutnotsufficientinproductdevelopment,implicitlysupportingtheideathatthereisaplateauofacceptance.GreenandJordan(Chapter18)state(alsosupportedbyEdmundsetal.,Chapter8)thatemotionalandaestheticdimensionsarekeyelementsinthetechnologypurchasingdecisioninthefirstplaceandinthelong-term
satisfactionofthedriver/operatorexperience.Forthem,issuessuchaspleasureorjoyinproductuse,andfeelingsofpride/status/comfortfromowningandusingthetechnology,areimportantissuesthatarenotadequatelyencompassedintheterm‘acceptance’.
So,aswithmuchoftheterminologyaroundacceptance,thisissuehasnotbeenresolvedbutservestoillustratehowconceptsfromdifferentoriginscancontributetoenrichourunderstandingoftheroleofindividualandgroupperceptionsinthedesign,deploymentanduseoftechnology.Thefieldhasnotyetreachedalevelofmaturitywhereasimpleroadmaportoolkitcaneasilybedevelopedtohelpoptimisedriveracceptanceforalltechnology,inallsituationsandforalldrivers/operators.However,theresearchreportedhere,andtheissuesdiscussedinthisbookconcerningdesigndeploymentanduseoftechnology,are,webelieve,ausefulcontributiontothefield.
References
Schade,J.andSchlag,B.2003.Acceptabilityofurbantransportpricingstrategies.TransportationResearchPartF:TrafficPsychologyandBehaviour,6(1):45–61.
VanderLaan,J.D.,Heino,A.andDeWaard,D.1997.Asimpleprocedurefortheassessmentofacceptanceofadvancedtransporttelematics.TransportationResearchPartC:EmergingTechnologies,5(1):1–10.
1©TransportResearchLaboratory,2013
Index
Allindexentriesshownherecorrespondtothepagenumberswithintheprintededitiononly.Withinthisdigitalformatthesepagenumbersallowforcrossreferencingonly.
Note:Pagenumbersinitalicsrepresentfiguresandtables.
AAP.SeeactiveacceleratorpedalABP.SeeAssumption-BasedPlanningACASFOT.SeeAutomotiveCollisionAvoidanceSystemfieldoperationaltestACC.Seeadaptivecruisecontrolacceptability.Seealsoacceptance;measuringofacceptance/acceptability
vs.acceptance,15,17–18,339defining,5–6,12,35,36,74,90,336factorsinfluencing,38,39hypotheticalmodelofindicators,41theoreticalmodelof,39andusability,257–8
acceptance.Seealsoacceptability;electricvehicleacceptance;measuringofacceptance/acceptabilityvs.acceptability,15,17–18,339
ofAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems,261,318,325ofadvancedriderassistancesystems,194–6attitudinal,14behavioural,14casestudiesanddataon,339–41ofcoaching,63,63–4componentsof,24conceptof,12conceptualmodelof,40–43conditional,14contextual,14andcross-culturalissues,317–18,327–8
defining,5–6,12–13,16–19,36,75,336–8,342demographicvariablesin,6,27–8,30,32,37–8,39,43–6,60–61,144,156,
158–9,199,208device-specificindicatorsof,40,42ofdriversupportsystems,51,62–4,63drivinginformationfactors,41factorsinfluencing,28–30andfalsealarms,122–3,127–8fivecategoriesof,13generalindicatorsof,39–42HumanFactorsissues,137–8ofIntelligentTransportSystem,35,36,37,299–300ofin-vehicletechnology,148–9limitationsonknowledgeof,342–4linkedtousage,36linkswithrelatedconcepts,344ofnewITtechnology,283–6ofnewminingtechnology,234–7,236ofnewtechnology,5,11–12,62–4,285,335andnewtechnologydevelopment,345–6operationalisationof,339optimisationof,341–2personalinformationfactors,41practicalimplicationsofresearchon,347andproductdevelopment,347–8psychologicalfactorsaffecting,6,108–10researchrecommendationsfor,344–6reviewofliteratureon,107–10ofroadinfrastructure-basedtechnologies,208–10scaleforratinglevelsof,129socialnormsinfluencing,41–2socialvs.user,6ofspeedenforcement,221,222vs.support,14,35–6theoriesandmodelsof,336–8threeelementsof,12
ofthreetypesofARAS,197typesof,14user-situationalvariables,6ofvehiclenavigationsystems,139–40well-founded,firm,14
acceptanceconcept,12activeacceleratorpedal(AAP),81activelyilluminatedroadstuds,213,213–15.SeealsoActiveTraffic
Managementactivesafetysystems,75,121–2,288ActiveTrafficManagement(ATM),211–13,215,216–18.Seealsoactively
illuminatedroadstudsActiveE(BMW),172ECOPROmode,181–4,183pilotstudy,182–3quantitativevalidationstudy,183
adaptation,behavioural,328adaptivecruisecontrol(ACC),75,138,142–5,292AdaptivePolicymaking(APM)/AdaptivePolicy,299–300
applyingtoISA,306–12applyingtoPITA,303–6,312assemblingthebasicpolicy,302designingusingdeskresearch,304–5increasingtherobustnessofthebasicpolicy,302–3,305preparingthetriggerresponses,303,305processandelementsof,301,301settingthestage,302settingupthemonitoringsystem,303,305,306
ADAS.SeeAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystemsAdvancedDriverAssistanceSystems(ADAS)
acceptanceof,5,74,261,318,325cross-culturalconsiderationsand,326–8usabilityof,74
advancedriderassistancesystems(ARAS),187–8acceptabilityof,192–3acceptanceof,194–6conclusionsregarding,199–201factorsinfluencingacceptabilityof,194
factorsinfluencingacceptanceof,198–9implicationsfor,191–2purposeof,189–90
ADVISORS,74,78–9,261aesthetics,indesign,114,271,272affordability,24,39–40,95–6,100–102age
asfactorinacceptance,6,27–8,30,32,37–8,39,41,43–6,60–61,95,144,156,158–9,199,208,214,338
andnavigationsystemuse,141AlcoholInterlock,95–6alerts.Seewarnings/alertsAllianceGuidelines,260AmericanFamilyInsurance,54AmsterdamAirportSchiphol,299APM.SeeAdaptivePolicymakingARAS.SeeadvancedriderassistancesystemsAssumption-BasedPlanning(ABP),300ATM.SeeActiveTrafficManagementATMcashmachines,291attitudinalacceptance,14Australia,economicincentivesforvehiclesafetyin,246AutomotiveCollisionAvoidanceSystemfieldoperationaltest(ACASFOT),
144automotiveindustry,federalregulationsrelatedto,244–5
BEEP,81behaviouralacceptance,14behaviouraladaptation,328behaviouralintention,28,29,30BMWActiveE,172
ECOPROmode,181–4,183pilotstudy,182–3quantitativevalidationstudy,183
BMWi3,169,184brandimage,272
capitalizingactions,303carphones,289CATARC.SeeChineseAutomotiveTechnologyandResearchCenterCCTVsurveillance,218–19chargingfrequency(MINIE),180ChemnitzUniversityofTechnology,174,182China,automotivemarketin,318,325–7ChineseAutomotiveTechnologyandResearchCenter(CATARC),174chronologicalpackaging,248C-ITS.Seecooperativeintelligenttransportsystems;IntelligentTransport
Systemcoaching,57,59,62.Seealsomentoringacceptanceof,63,63–4
componentsofdriversupportsystems,51–2collisiondetectionsystems,xiii,138,230.SeealsoAutomotiveCollision
AvoidanceSystemfieldoperationaltest;ForwardCollisionWarning(FCW)systemsforminingvehicles,232–7
communicationdesignguidelines,259–60,281,286,287,289anddisruptiveinnovation,184anddistraction,290,294,341errorsin,144andpublicsupport,35asrequiredskillforusers,232technology,23,27vehicle-to-infrastructure(V2I),4vehicle-to-nomadicdevice(V2N),4vehicle-to-vehicle(V2V),4wireless,4
conditionalacceptance,14conetaper,216,217contextualacceptance,14controllability,257,261cooperativeintelligenttransportsystems(C-ITS),4.SeealsoIntelligent
TransportSystemcorrectiveactions,303cruisecontrol.Seeadaptivecruisecontrol(ACC)culturaldimensions
attitudetowardstheenvironment,322,324attitudetowardstime,322,324individualism-collectivism,321,323internationalisation-localisationoftheInterface,324–5masculinity-femininity,321,323powerdistance,321,323uncertaintyavoidance,321,323
CulturalProbestechnique,280culturaltheories,319–22,321–2
icebergmodel,320OnionModel,319–20PyramidModel,320
culture,influenceofondesignandacceptability,322–5.Seealsoculturaldimensions;culturaltheoriesCurveWarning(CW)system,189,194,196,197,197,200,201
CW.SeeCurveWarningsystem
datagatheringof,53,280loggingof,54
deepuncertainty,299–300defensiveactions,303‘delight’,109,117design
aestheticsand,114,271,272changesin,3–4,105–6,137–8cross-cultural,318,325,346driver-centred,4emotional,256guidelinesfor,258–61human-centred,139incorporatingsafetyfeatures,242influenceofcultureon,322–5pleasure-based,256relatedtodrivingenvironment,288forusability,253–4
user-centred,169–79,341Desmet,Pieter,279developmentprocess,customer-centred(BMW),172disruptiveinnovations,169–70,184distractionmitigationsystems,52–3,60DriveCamvideofeedback,54driveracceptance.Seeacceptancedriverassistancesystems,73–4driversupportsystems,51,62–4,63drivertraining,4,53driverlessvehicles,4,138,288drivers
behavioursof,61characteristicsofinfluencingacceptance,6,27–8,30,32,37–8,39,43–6,
60–61,144,156,158contextandcultureof,61–2purposeof,60psychologicalcharacteristicsof,340ratingofalertsby,129skillsof,341typesof,307,308understandinganduseofsystemby,16–17
driving.Seealsodrivingsimulatorscontextof,75distances,MINIEandcombustionengine,177performancereports,51–2purpose,asfactorinacceptance,60,199timeanddecision-makingaspectsof,25
drivingsimulatorscasestudiesusing,211–15‘RedX’trial,211,211–13useof,210–11,215,340
dynamicroadmarkings,209dynamictidalflowscheme,209
earlyadopters,6,169–70,171,184
easeofuse,24,37,113,117,284asconditionforacceptance,253,257–8
ECOPROmode(electricvehicles),178,181–4aspercentageofdailydriving,183
economicpolicy,toencouragevehiclesafety,243,245–6education
asfactorinacceptance,6,38,144,158onvehiclesafety,244,246–8
effectiveness,24,102,254–5ofISA,42,45efficiency,ofISA,42,44effortexpectancy,28,29,30,37,155electricvehicle(EV)acceptance,153–5,340.SeealsoMINIE(BMW)data
collection,157–8easeofuseexpectancy,160–61,161,164mainbarriersto,165–6methodologyofstudy,157–8modelsof,155–6participantsinstudy,158performanceexpectancy,159,160,163–4researchobjectives,155–6resultsofstudy,159–65studycontext,156subjectivenormsofstudy,161–2,162useandpurchaseintentions,162,162–3,165anduser-centreddesign,169–79vehicleusedinstudy,156–7
ElectronicLicence,95electronicperformancemonitoring(EPM),53–5,56,59electronicstabilitycontrol(ESC)systems,247,247electronictollcollection,37EmergencyNotification,95emotionaldesign,256emotionalresponses,toproducts,278–9environment,culturalattitudetowards,322,324EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),245
environmentalism,38EPA.SeeEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyEPM.Seeelectronicperformancemonitoringequity,asfactorinacceptance,42,45,339–40ESC.SeeelectronicstabilitycontrolESoP.SeeEuropeanStatementofPrinciplesEUP.SeeExperiencedUserPotentialeuroFOT,74,75Europe
designguidelinesin,259vehiclesafetyregulationsin,259
EuropeanCommission,259EuropeanStatementofPrinciples(ESoP),259–60EV.Seeelectricvehicleacceptanceexperience
ofdrivers,qualityof,277–8asfactorinacceptance,27,37–8,156
ExperiencedUserPotential(EUP),256exploitingactions,302
facilitatingconditions,37,156falsealarms,340.Seealsowarnings/alertsinactivesafetysystems,121–3
designingforacceptanceof,127feedbackfrom,130notnecessarilybad,126–7andnuisancealerts,123–5rethinking,127asunavoidable,125–6usefulnessof,125–6
farinfrared(FIR)sensors,128FatigueMonitoring,95FCWsystems.SeeForwardCollisionWarningsystemsfeedback.Seealsofeedbackdevices
fromelectronicperformancemonitoringsystems,52–4,56,59,63fromfalsealarmevents,130fromin-vehicledevices,51–2
preferredmethodsof,62typesof,52
feedbackdevices.Seealsofeedbackcharacteristicsof,58–9driverperceptionof,58–62monitoringfunctionof,53–5,56,59
FESTA,74,75fieldoperationaltests(FOTs),74,75,246FIRsensors.Seefarinfraredsensorsfocusgroups,340
casestudies,94–5compositionof,93,96defined,91extractofdiscussionguide,96–7roleofmoderatorin,93–4technologiesfordiscussion,96useoftomeasureacceptability,91–7
FordModelT,169ForwardCollisionWarning(FCW)systems,75,95,124,144FOT-NET,246FourPleasuresmodel(Jordan),274FrenchInstituteofScienceandTechnologyforTransport,Developmentand
Networks(IFSTTAR),174functionality,inhierarchyofneeds,270,271
Gaver,B.,280gender,asfactorinacceptance,27–8,30,32,37,39,60,144,156,158–9,208,
338globalpositioningsystems(GPS),233globalisation,317–18goals,oforganization,286–7government
roleinencouragingsafevehicletechnology,242–6,248–9toolsforpromotingvehiclesafetyby,244
Govers,Pascalle,280GPS.Seeglobalpositioningsystems
guessability,256
haloeffect,273HASTE,75HCI.Seehuman-computerinteractionHeadwayMonitoringandWarning(HMW)systems,144hedgingactions,302helmets,242hierarchiesofneeds,271HighwaySafetyAct,244HMI.Seehuman–machineinterfaceHMW.SeeHeadwayMonitoringandWarningsystemshorizontalpackaging,248human–computerinteraction(HCI),317,322HumanFactorsissues,137–8human–machineinterface(HMI),139–41,147,172,317,322,324,328
i3(BMW),169–70,172,181,184ICTsolutions,246ideo-pleasure,274,277iDrive(BMW),114–16IFSTTAR.SeeFrenchInstituteofScienceandTechnologyforTransport,
DevelopmentandNetworksIIDInc,174India,automotivemarketin,318,325individualism-collectivism,asculturaldimension,321,323InformationTechnology(IT),acceptancemodelswithin,25–6informingsystems,52–3infotainmentsystems,invehicles,4innovations,disruptive,169–70,184InstituteofCognitiveandEngineeringPsychology,174InstituteofTransportationStudies(UniversityofCaliforniaatDavis),174insuranceindustry,53–4
insurancepremiumadjustments,53,54,60IntelligentSpeedAdaptation(ISA)systems,16–17,24,95,138,192–3,197,
197,300.SeealsoIntelligentSpeedApparatus;IntelligentSpeedassistanceacceptabilityof,41–3
applyingAPMto,306assemblingthebasicpolicy,307–8effectivenessof,42efficiencyof,42,44highinterveningtypesof,44measuringacceptance/acceptabilityof,43–6intheNetherlands,306–7settingthestagefor,307–8inSweden,246typesof,40willingnesstoadopt,47
IntelligentSpeedApparatus.SeealsoIntelligentSpeedAdaptation;IntelligentSpeedAssistancecontingencyplanning,310
increasingrobustnessofbasicpolicy,308–10,309preparingthetriggerresponses,310,310–11settingupthemonitoringsystem,310,310–11
IntelligentSpeedAssistance(ISA),35,189.SeealsoIntelligentSpeedAdaptation;IntelligentSpeedApparatusIntelligentTransportSystem(ITS)
acceptanceof,35,36,37,299–30factorsinacceptabilityof,38,39
intention,behavioural,28,29,30interference,withdrivingtask,257InternationalHarmonizedResearchActivities–IntelligentTransportSystems
(IHRA-ITS),261InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),171,257–8,259,261internationalregulationsandstandards,258–9.SeealsoInternational
OrganizationforStandardizationIntersectionSupport(IS),196,197,197,200
interveningsystems,53In-VehicleInformationSystems(IVIS),75,318,325
cross-culturalconsiderationsand,325–6,327–8IS.SeeIntersectionSupportISA.SeeIntelligentSpeedAdaptation;IntelligentSpeedAssistanceISO.SeeInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationITindustry
newtechnologyin,283–6useracceptancein,5
ITS.SeeIntelligentTransportSystemIVIS.SeeIn-VehicleInformationSystems
JaguarDrive,111–14JAMA.SeeJapaneseAutoManufacturersAssociationJapaneseAutoManufacturersAssociation(JAMA),260Johnson,LyndonB.,244Jordan,Patrick,108,271,274,280,341,345,347Jordan’shierarchyofuserneeds,271Kansei(Emotional)Engineering,108,278–9
KeystrokeLevelModel(KLM),264KONVOI,146–7
lanechangetask,264LaneDepartureWarning(LDW)systems,75,95,138,144LaneKeepingAssistance(LKA)systems,144lateadopters,169–70,171,184LDW.SeeLaneDepartureWarningsystemslearnability,256literaturereview,onuseracceptance,107–10LKA.SeeLaneKeepingAssistancesystemslocusofcontrol,322,324
MAIDS(MotorcycleAccidentsIn-DepthStudy),187market,influencingforsafevehicles,242masculinity-femininity,asculturaldimension,321,323Maslow,Abraham,270Maslow’shierarchyofneeds,270,271measuringofacceptance/acceptability,89–90
dataanalyses,43–4directeffects,44–5estimatedmodel,44methodsof,338–9,345survey,43–4
totaleffects,45–6usingfocusgroups,91–7usingquestionnaires,24,75,90–92,97–103usingstudies,12,36,73–5usingsurveys,43–4
memorability,256,257mentoring.Seealsocoaching
byacoach,57,59,62byelectronicperformancemonitors,54–6,56
Meyer-Briggspersonalitytypeindicator,280mineralsindustry.SeeminingandmineralsindustryMINIEelectriccar(BMW),156–7,172
chargingexperiencesofusers,179–80,180drivingdistancesof,177ECOPROmode,178,183fieldtrials,173–9
miningandmineralsindustry,227–8,340,344.Seealsominingvehicletechnologieselementsin,228
newtechnologyin,228–30miningvehicletechnologies.Seealsominingandmineralsindustry
collisiondetectionsystems,232–7deploymentstrategies,231–2operatorskillrequirements,231–2proximitywarningsystems,232–7,236safedesignof,231
mitigatingactions,302MonashUniversityAccidentResearchCentre,xiii,246,329monitoring,byelectronicperformancemonitors,53–5,56,59MotorcycleAccidentsIn-DepthStudy(MAIDS),187motorcycleriders.Seealsoadvancedriderassistancesystems
acceptanceofadvancedriderassistancesystemsby,187–8,340,346crashrisk/vulnerabilityof,187–8humanerrorinaccidents,188–9natureofriding,190–91needsof,190
Mugge,Ruth,280
Nader,Ralph,244Nagamichi,Mitsuo,278NationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),247NHTSAguidelines,263NationalTrafficandMotorVehicleSafetyAct,244navigationsystems.Seevehiclenavigationsystemsneeds,hierarchiesof,271NHTSA.SeeUSNationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAdministrationNightVisionsystem,128Norman,D.,272nuisancealarms/alerts.Seewarnings/alerts
Obama,Barack,259occlusion,264OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA),245OEM.SeeOriginalEquipmentManufacturerOnionModel,319–20opportunisticacceptance,14organisationalcontextfactors,294–5organisationaldeploymentfactors
communicationanddistraction,290,294lawsandregulations,288,294organisationalgoals,286,294roles,responsibilities,andskills,287–8,294safetythinking,292,295securityandusability,292–3,295technicalandfunctionalknowledge,291–2,294trainingandsupport,293,295workculture,290–91,294workflowsandprocedures,288–9,294
organisationaltrust51OriginalEquipmentManufacturer(OEM),106,139OSHA.SeeOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministrationOxfordBrookesUniversity,174
PAD.SeePleasure,ArousalandDominanceparadigmofaffect
passwords,292pathmodelling,44PED.SeeProfileofEmotiveDesignsperceivedeaseofuse(PEU),284perceivedusefulness(PU),284performanceexpectancy,28,29,30,37,155peripheraldetection,264PersonalIntelligentTravelAssistant/Assistance,300
applicationofAPMto,303–6,312vulnerabilitiesof,306
personalnavigationdevices(PNDs),139phones
handsfree,289smartphones,139textingwith,259
physicianorderentrysystem,288physio-pleasures,274,275PITA.SeePersonalIntelligentTravelAssistant/Assistanceplatoondriving,145–8.Seealsodriverlessvehiclespossiblenegative
consequencesof,146practicalconsiderations,146–7
platooning.Seeplatoondrivingpleasure
inhierarchyofneeds,271,271,272modelsof,273pleasure-baseddesign,256typesof,274–7
Pleasure,ArousalandDominance(PAD)paradigmofaffect,110,112PNDs.Seepersonalnavigationdevicespoint-basedcameras,221–2policyinstruments,248powerdistance,asculturaldimension,321,323PrEmo,279privacy,invasionof,59ProductPersonality(Govers),280products.Seealsotechnology,new
emotionalresponseto,278–9aspersonalities,280
ProfileofEmotiveDesigns(PED),105comparisonofthreedesigninnovationsusing,110–14developmentof,107effectivenessof,118modesofdesignpresentation,114–18
ProgressiveCorporation,54PROMETHEUSproject,143propulsionsystems,new,4proximitywarningsystems(miningvehicle),232–7,236psycho-pleasures,274,275–6publicprocurement,246publicallyfundedlarge-scaledemonstrationprojects,245–6PyramidModel,319–20
questionnairesadministrationmode,99casestudies,100–103defined,90–91ondrivingstyle,143existingquestionnaires,97extract/examples,102–3measuringacceptancewith,74,340participantsample,97–8piloting,100preparingfordatacollection,100questiontypes,98questionwordingandpresentation,99TACSafeCarexample,101useoftomeasureacceptability,24,75,90–92,97–103
radiofrequencyidentification(RFID),233RANDCorporation,299Reagan,Ronald,245reassessment,303
recommendationsforsafeuse(RSU),259–60regulations
European,259UnitedStates,259forvehiclesafety,243–5
relationships,abstract,274RESPONSE,261,262responsibilityawareness,44Re-usability,256RFID.Seeradiofrequencyidentificationroadinfrastructure-basedtechnologies
designof,208dynamicroadmarkings,209dynamictidalflowscheme,209purposeof,207–8realworldstudies,215–22simulatorstudies,210–15typesof,207
roadsafetyresearch,focusof,242roadstuds,activelyilluminated,213,213–15roadtrials,263–4road-training.Seeplatoondrivingroadworkdelineation,216,218RoyalAutomobileClubofVictoria,94RSU(recommendationsforsafeuse),259–60
SafeRoadTrainsfortheEnvironment(SARTRE),147‘SafeSpeedandSafeDistance’function,28SAFERIDERproject,192,193,194safetyissues,292,295SARTRE.SeeSafeRoadTrainsfortheEnvironmentSASPENCEsystem,28,30satisfaction,97,118,255–6
as‘delight’,108asfactorinacceptance,43,45
scientificresults,disseminationof,247
seatbelts,242security,292seizingactions,302SEM.SeestructuralequationmodellingSenseLights,111–14SenseWindows,111–14SEQUAM(SensorialQualityAssessmentMethod),279sequentialflashingconelamps(SFCLs),216,218shapingactions,303SIDs.SeespeedindicatingdevicesSignalDetectionTheory,122simulatortrials,264smartphones,usedfornavigation,139SnapShot,54socialacceptance/acceptability,6,15,24,35,102socialinfluence,28,29,30,37socialresponsibility,142socio-pleasure,274,276–7speedenforcement/monitoring,218–22
cameras,221–2,242andsurveillance,218–20
speedindicatingdevices(SIDs),218,219speeding
gender/ageasfactors,41asaproblem,17,42
stateroleinencouragingsafevehicletechnology,242–6,248–9toolsforpromotingvehiclesafetyby,244
StatensTrafiksäkerhetsverk,245status,perceptionsof,272Strengths,Opportunities,WeaknessesandThreats(SWOT)analysis,308StructuralEquationModel/modelling(SEM),24,44suitability,257support.Seealsodriversupportsystems;IntersectionSupport
andacceptance,14–15,17,35–7,58–62,63,64fordrivers,4,23,42,43,45,51–2,57,59,139,142,230,237,287–8
formotorcycleriders,191,193,195,199public,14,35–6social,56forspeedcameras,220trainingand,293,294–5,341
SupportSystemAcceptance,14,35–7,63.Seealsosupport,andacceptancesurveillance,CCTV,218–19
Swedeneconomicincentivesforvehiclesafetyin,246vehiclesafetyregulationin,245VisionZeroprogram,242,248
SwedishRoadAdministration,246Systempotential256SystemsAnalysis,300
TAM.SeeTechnologyAcceptanceModeltechnology,new,105–6.Seealsoroadinfrastructure-basedtechnologies
acceptanceof,5,11–12,62–4,285,335attitudestoward,281,283forindustrialmobileequipment,227inITindustry,283–6in-vehicle,105–6,148–9,288,294–5inminingandmineralsindustry,228–30andmodernroadways,4innewvehicles,4organisationalcontext,285organisationaldeployment,286–95organisationalfactors,284–6,295–6asviewedbydifferentdemographics,281
TechnologyAcceptanceModel(TAM)designanduseof,37,107–8,253,257–8,337incorporatedintoUTAUT,26,337trust-augmentedversionof,51,57–8,58,62–4
TeenSafeDriverProgram,54texting,whiledriving,259TheoryofPlannedBehaviour(TPB),26,37,194,337
3Dmapping,233time,culturalattitudetowards,322,3242BESAFEstudies,192–3TPB.SeeTheoryofPlannedBehaviourtrafficfatalities,241trafficmeasures,acceptabilityof,38TransportResearchLaboratory(TRL),211–12,214TriggerResponses,303,305TRL.SeeTransportResearchLaboratorytrust
organisational,51anduseracceptance,16,57,62,138,141,284
ultrasonics,233uncertaintyavoidance,asculturaldimension,321,323UNECE(UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope),258,260UnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology(UTAUT)
incontextofdriverassistancesystems,28determinantsofacceptancein,37,155–6originalpurposeof,26–7,30originalvs.modified,29refiningof,23–4,31–2,331regressioncoefficientsfor,31useinareasotherthanIT,27
UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE),258UNECE-WP29,260
UnitedStates,vehiclesafetyregulationin,244,259,260USNationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),260usability,102,254–5
andacceptability,257–8componentsof,255inhierarchyofneeds,271,271,272higherordercomponentsfor,256measurementof,263asorganisationaldeploymentfactor,292–3questionnaireabout,74
usage,linkedtoacceptance,36usefulness,24,97,102,113,117,118
asfactorinacceptance,43,45,253,257–8usefulness/satisfactionscale,74
usersanalyzingrequirementsof,173–9‘delight’of,108educatingaboutvehiclesafety,244perceptionoftechnologyby,108
UTAUT.SeeUnifiedTheoryofAcceptanceandUseofTechnology
V2V.Seevehicle-to-vehiclecommunicationValue-Belief-Norm(VBN)theory,37,337VariableSpeedLimits(VSLs),211–12VBN.SeeValue-Belief-Normtheoryvehicledesign.Seedesignvehicledriving.Seedrivingvehiclenavigationsystems,138,139–40
distractioneffectsof,140reliabilityof,140–41relianceof,141–2
vehicleratingprograms,247vehiclesafety
influencingmarketfor,242roleofstateinencouraging,242–6,248–9statetoolsforpromoting,244
vehicletechnology.Seetechnology,newvehicles,driverless,4,138,288vehicle-to-infrastructure(V2I)communication,4vehicle-to-nomadicdevice(V2N)communication,4vehicle-to-vehicle(V2V)communication,4verticalpackaging,248videodata,53ViennaConventiononRoadTraffic,258VisionZero,242,248Vitruvius,269,270
voluntarinessofuse,27,37VSLs.SeeVariableSpeedLimits
warnings/alerts,51–2,53,128.Seealsofalsealarmsauditory,52,59guidelinesfor,260nuisance,123–5studying,129–30tactile,52visual,52
WasedaUniversity(Tokyo),174well-founded,firmacceptance,14Wensveen,Stephan,280WHO.SeeWorldHealthOrganizationwildcardscenarios,312willingnesstopay
asfactorinacceptance,16,40,43,45,47,81,196,200,338questionnaireabout,74,79
WorkingParty29(WorldForum),258WorldForumforHarmonizationofVehicleRegulations,258WorldHealthOrganization(WHO),241