Islamic Pilgrimage, Globalising Modernity & Diaspora:British-Pakistani Experiences of

Hajj, ‘Umra & Ziyarat

Dr Seán McLoughlinTheology & Religious StudiesUniversity of Leeds

‘Pilgrimage in Pluralist Europe Today’ University of Antwerp19-20 May 2011

Overview

Transforming Pilgrimage: – Tradition & Migration, Identity & Consumer Culture

The Sacred and the Profane: – Normative & Improvised Authenticities of ‘Being There’

Multiple Locations, Competing Imaginaries: – Class & Race, Puritanism & Devotionalism

Remembering the Sacred: – Souvenirs & Memories, Perfected & Pragmatic Religiosities

1) Introduction

About 25k British-Muslims go to Makkah for Hajj each year

This study:– Research Assistant an experienced pilgrimage tour leader– 18 in-depth semi-structured interviews

Respondents:– ‘British-Pakistanis’ in Lancashire, north of England – From ‘Azad’ Kashmir – dominant ethnic group of UK Muslims– Newly urbanised, first generation often farming background – Highly devotional Sunni Sufi heritage

1) Introduction

Travel & the Islamicate imagination– Negotiating similarity & difference with Muslim others– Both cosmopolitan interactions & consciousness of locality (Eickelman & Piscatori

1990)

Global modernity enables world religions– Ideological coherence of ‘High’ Islam; revival & reform more central in Islamic

discourse (Gellner 1992, Asad 1986)

But glocal complexities of competing traditions– Islam is polycentric; Holy Places not immune from wider trends– Muslims & new public spheres: electronic capitalism, everyday consumerism,

hybridity, self-identity (Turner 1994).

2) Transforming Pilgrimage

2) Transforming Pilgrimage

Pilgrimage to Makkah-Madinah Before Migration:– Expectation for the very few, yet remoteness intensified sacrality of a ‘home’

pivotal to the Sufi religious imagination– Longing yet feeling unworthy; closeness of interior journeys

Pilgrimage to Makkah-Madinah After Migration:– Who should go, when and for what purpose? – ‘Fate’, ‘duty’ & competing ‘responsibilities’ still key tropes. – But more immediate, affordable, democratised, chosen.– Shifting religiosities. Much pragmatism about expected piety but also revivalism

& young people’s journeys of self-identity.– De/remythologising with Islamic consumer cultures. DIY & limits.

3) The Sacred and the Profane

3) The Sacred and the Profane

Ihram, separation & intensified God-consciousness– Foreshadows end of time; journey from sin to purity

Rituals remember trials of Adam, Ibrahim, Muhammad– ‘Being there’, ka’ba, & returning to monotheistic beginnings

Oceanic feelings & personal mediations/ improvisations– Popular culture simulates authenticity vs modernisation

Sacrifice, patience & suffering– Danger, failure, getting it wrong, giving up

4) Multiple Locations, Competing Imaginaries

4) Multiple Locations, Competing Imaginaries

Reflexive cosmopolitanism & difference cheek by jowl – Cross-cultural encounters & emotional bonding – Commitment of poor Pakistani pilgrims vs British privilege– Discourse about danger of certain pilgrim groups stampeding /

stealing – Concern about the ‘separatism’ / ‘racism’ of others.

Theological utopias/dystopias juxtaposed– Value of ziyarah for Kashmiri Sufis – Prophet living intercessor– Sectarian outbursts understood to transgress adab– But also attempts to discipline ‘incorrect’ practice– Affirming freedoms of the UK & subversive devotional acts

5) Remembering the Sacred

5) Remembering the Sacred

Souvenirs: – Transferring blessings & gift-giving: zamzam, dates & mass produced

scarves, beads, mats & secular items from Dubai!– Trigger memories / senses & reconnecting to ‘paradise’

Fractured Efficacy: – Permanent renewal? Source of strength; struggles to reintegrate– Multiplied number of hajjis but few cut off from dunya; fading efficacy,

mixed motives, spirituality in fits & starts; rarely displaces attachments to a UK home! Can ‘top up’ / return.

– Yet one important reference point in a diasporic triad comprising a network of different ‘homes’ / ‘homing desires’.