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The Effect of Artifacts on Analogy in Innovative Design
Christian Schunn (University of Pittsburgh)Bo T. Christensen (Copenhagen Business School)
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Methodologies
Lab studies (in vitro)
allows for experimentation; low validity; high control
Case studies (in historico)
high validity, but cognitive details missing; no control
Online observation (in vivo)
access to cognitive details; high validity; no control
(terminology from Kevin Dunbar)
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Unpacking the Processes of Innovation
Analogy InnovationExternal
EnvironmentFrequency
Type
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Studied Setting
Followed 5-person product development team in a major international company dealing in medical plastics designwon many design awards; industry leader
Videotaped scheduled weekly brainstorming and product development meetings
Analyzed 7 product development meetings (9 hours of video), collected over 5 months (conceptual design phase)5800 segments of on-task speech coded
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Research Question 1What kind of analogies do highly innovative designers use?
Within-domain analogies? (More relevant)
Between-domain analogies? (More novel)
George de MestralCockleburrs Velcro
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Distribution of analogies (N=102)
Both analogies types common
All meetings have both types
Potato print Zippers
Credit cardsMilk cartons
ShoesCars
Toilet paperChristmas decorations
Water wheelsPicture puzzleVenetian Blinds
Underwear
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Research Question 2How does the external design environment shape what analogies occur (inspiration vs. design fixation)?
no support (unconstrained)
sketches (loosely constrained)
prototypes (tightly constrained)
96% of designers use sketches or prototypes
during solution development
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Frequency of analogies by external
environment
Fewer Analogies w/ Prototypes
(no confound w/ phase of design)
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
Idea Sketch Prototype
% of segments with analogies
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Interaction with distance
Prototype drop in analogies specific to between-domain analogies
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
Within-domain Between-domain
idea
sketch
prototype
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Research Question 3
What Role Do Analogies Play in Design?
Just about explanation?
Dunbar claims long distance analogies only after the fact for explanation
New answers?
Or maybe potential problems?
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Observed Functions of Analogies in
Design
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Distance by Function
Identify are local, explain are long distance
Solve problem analogies are mixed! (different from science?)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Identify problem Solve problem Explain
% Between Domain
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0%
1%
2%
Idea Prototype
Communicative Alignment
Ideas require explain analogies Prototypes don’t
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ConclusionsInventive designers use both within- and between-domain analogies
between-domain not just for explanation
helps highlight problems, not just answers
Prototypes reduce between-domain analogizing (but sketches do not)
Perhaps some rapid prototyping too rapid?